CHAPTER 2. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND
2.8. BROMINE-76
VAALBURG, W., et al., Fast recovery by dry distillation of 75Br induced in reusable metal selenide targets via the 76Se(p, 2n)75Br reaction, Int. J. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 36 (1985) 961–964.
WEINREICH, R., QAIM, S.M., STÖCKLIN, G., ALFASSI, Z.B., Comparative studies on the production of the positron emitters bromine-75 and phosphorus-30, J. Labelled Compd. Radiopharm. 18 (1981) 201.
ZEISLER, S.K., GASPER, H., “Routine production of [75Br]bromide in a gas target”, Proc. 8th Workshop on Targetry and Target Chemistry, St. Louis, MO, 1999 (abstract).
2.8. BROMINE-76 Half-life: 16.2 h.
Decay mode
Bromine-76 decays with both positron emission (54%) and electron capture. The half-life allows radiotracers to be used that have accumulation times of one or two days. The high end point energies of the positrons emitted may affect the positron emission image to some extent.
Electron emission products of 76Br
Parent nucleus Parent energy level Parent half-life (s)
Decay mode Daughter nucleus
Br-76 102.59 (3) 1.31 ITa Br-76
a IT: isomeric transition.
Fraction Energy (keV) Fraction Energy (keV)
1.54 1.41 0.0508 43.698
0.444 10.2 0.00822 45.223
0.455 32.006 0.115 55.328
0.74 43.636 0.019 56.854
Photon emission products of 76Br
Photon emission products of 76Br
Positron emission products of 76Br
This table is also continued on the next page.
Fraction Energy (keV) Fraction Energy (keV)
0.0305 1.48 0.0058 13.469
0.22 11.878 0.484 45.48
0.425 11.924 0.091 57.11
0.0299 13.284 0.0005 102.600
Parent nucleus Parent energy level Parent half-life (s)
Decay mode Daughter nucleus
Br-76 102.0 1.31 b+ Se-76
Fraction Energy (keV) Fraction Energy (keV)
0.005 511.0 0.0055 772
0.0055 559
Parent nucleus Parent energy level Parent half-life (h)
Decay mode Daughter nucleus
Br-76 0.0 16.2 EC: 100% Se-76
Fraction Maximum energy (MeV) Average energy (MeV)
0.0003 0.337 0.146
0.0004 0.385 0.166
0.0013 0.482 0.207
0.0092 0.589 0.253
2.8. BROMINE-76
Electron emission products of 76Br
Photon emission products of 76Br
This table is also continued on the next page.
0.0144 0.781 0.336
0.063 0.871 0.375
0.052 0.990 0.427
0.0124 1.271 0.551
0.002 1.285 0.558
0.003 1.310 0.569
0.0035 1.426 0.621
0.005 1.512 0.659
0.0005 1.814 0.797
0.01 2.153 0.953
0.004 2.252 1.022
0.028 2.725 1.221
0.021 2.819 1.265
0.258 3.382 1.532
0.06 3.941 1.800
Energy (keV) Intensity (%) Dose (MeV/(Bq·s))
Auger L: 1.32 51.9 6.85E–4
Auger K: 9.67 15.9 0.00154
Energy (keV) Fraction
511 1.09
559.09 0.74
563.2 0.036
657.02 0.159
1129.85 0.046
Fraction Maximum energy (MeV) Average energy (MeV)
Nuclear reactions
The nuclear reactions that produce 76Br are shown in the following table.
Excitation function
The excitation function for 76Se(p, n)76Br is shown in Fig. 2.8.1.
REFERENCES TO SECTION 2.8
[2.8.1] TOLMACHEV, V., LOVQVIST, A., EINARSSON, L., SCHULTZ, J., LUNDQVIST, H., Production of 76Br by a low-energy cyclotron, Appl. Radiat.
Isot. 49 (1998) 1537–1540.
[2.8.2] NOZAKI, T., IWAMOTO, M., ITOH, Y., Production of 77Br by various nuclear reactions, Int. J. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 30 (1979) 79–83.
1216.1 0.088
1853.67 0.147
2391.25 0.047
2792.69 0.056
2950.53 0.074
Nuclear reaction Useful energy range (MeV)
Natural abundance (%)
References
76Se(p, n)76Br 16–10 9.1 [2.8.1]
77Se(p, 2n)76Br 25–16 7.7 [2.8.2]
75As(4He, 3n)76Br 18–10 100 [2.8.2]
natBr(p, xn)76Kr: 76Br 65–50 100 [2.8.3, 2.8.4]
natBr(d, xn)76Kr: 76Br 80–55 100 [2.8.3]
76Se(3He, 3n)76Kr: 76Br 36–30 9.1 [2.8.5, 2.8.6]
76Se(d, 2n)76Br 10–25 9.1 [2.8.7]
78Kr(d, a)76Br [2.8.8]
Energy (keV) Fraction
2.8. BROMINE-76
[2.8.3] QAIM, S.M., STÖCKLIN, G., WEINREICH, R., Excitation functions for the formation of neutron deficient isotopes of bromine and krypton via high energy deuteron induced reactions on bromine: Production of 77Br, 76Br and 79Kr, Int. J.
Appl. Radiat. Isot. 28 (1977) 947–953.
[2.8.4] DE VILLIERS, D., NORTIER, M., RICHTER, W., Experimental and theoretical functions for Br-nat(p, x) reactions, Appl. Radiat. Isot. 57 (2002) 907.
[2.8.5] BLUE, J.W., BENJAMIN, P.P., Production of 77Br by the reaction 76Se(a, 3n)77Kr, J. Nucl. Med. 12 (1971) 416–417.
[2.8.6] DE JONG, D., KOOIMAN, H., VEENBOER, J.T., 76Br and 77Br from decay of cyclotron produced 76Kr and 77Kr, Int. J. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 30 (1979) 786–788.
[2.8.7] PAANS, A.M.J., WELLEWEERD, J., VAALBURG, W., REIFFERS, S., WOLDRING, M.G., Excitation functions for the production of bromine-75: A potential nuclide for the labelling of radiopharmaceuticals, Int. J. Appl. Radiat.
Isot. 31 (1980) 267–272.
[2.8.8] SCHOLTEN, B., TAKÁCS, S., TÁRKÁNYI, F., COENEN, H.H., QAIM, S.M., Excitation functions of deuteron induced nuclear reactions on enriched 78Kr with particular relevance to the production of 76Br, Radiochim. Acta 92 (2004) 203–207.
Cross-section (mb)
Incident energy (MeV)
FIG. 2.8.1. Excitation function for the 76Se(p, n)76Br reaction.
BIBLIOGRAPHY TO SECTION 2.8
HASSAN, H.E., et al., Experimental studies and nuclear model calculations on proton-induced reactions on natSe, 76Se and 77Se with particular reference to the production of the medically interesting radionuclides 76Br and 77Br, Appl. Radiat. Isot. 60 (2004) 899.
McCARTHY, T.J., et al., “Investigation of I-124, Br-76, and Br-77 production using a small biomedical cyclotron”, Proc. 8th Workshop on Targetry and Target Chemistry, St. Louis, MO, 1999 (abstract).
QAIM, S.M., Recent developments in the production of 18F, 75,76,77Br and 123I, Appl.
Radiat. Isot. 37 (1986) 803–810.
SCHLYER, D.J., TISCHER, S., FIROUZBAKHT, M.L., Production and processing of bromine-75 from the 75As(3He, 3n)75Br reaction, J. Labelled Compd. Radiopharm. 35 (1994) 260–262.
VAALBURG, W., et al., Fast recovery by dry distillation of 75Br induced in resuable metal selenide targets via the 76Se(p, 2n)75Br reaction, Int. J. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 36 (1985) 961–964.
WEINREICH, R., KNIEPER, J., Production of 77Kr and 79Kr for medical applications via proton irradiation of bromine: Excitation functions, yields and separation procedures, Int. J. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 34 (1983) 1335–1338.
WEINREICH, R., QAIM, S.M., STÖCKLIN, G., ALFASSI, Z.B., Comparative studies on the production of the positron emitters bromine-75 and phosphorus-30, J. Labelled Compd. Radiopharm. 18 (1981) 201.
YOUFENG, H., QAIM, S.M., STÖCKLIN, G., Excitation functions for the 3He particle induced nuclear reactions on 76Se, 77Se and natSe: Possibilities of production of 77Kr, Int.
J. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 33 (1982) 13–19.
2.9. BROMINE-77 Half-life
Bromine-77 has a half-life of 56 h and decays nearly exclusively (99.3%) by electron capture, with prominent gamma rays at 239.0 and 520.7 keV. There are several other gamma rays, varying in energy from 238 to 820 keV.
2.9. BROMINE-77
Positron emission products of 77Br
Electron emission products of 77Br
Photon emission products of 77Br
Fraction Maximum energy (MeV) Average energy (MeV)
0.007300 0.342700 0.151700
Fraction Energy (MeV)
0.001344 0.160280
0.001610 0.075218
0.002195 0.226340
0.007889 0.149280
0.356840 0.009670
1.151800 0.001320
Fraction Energy (MeV)
0.020790 0.817790
0.022869 0.281680
0.029568 0.578910
0.029799 0.249790
0.041580 0.297230
0.071826 0.012500
0.154330 0.011181
0.224070 0.520650
0.231000 0.239000
0.300260 0.011222
Nuclear reactions
The nuclear reactions that produce 77Br are shown in the following table.
Excitation function
The excitation function for 77Se(p, n)77Br is shown in Fig. 2.9.1.
Nuclear reaction Useful energy range (MeV)
Natural abundance (%)
References
77Se(p, n)77Br 10–20 7.7 [2.9.1]
78Se(p, 2n)77Br 20–30 23.6 [2.9.1]
75As(4He, 2n)77Br 20–30 100 [2.92]
80Se(p, 4n)77Br 49.9
82Se(p, 6n)77Br 8.9
79Br(p, 3n)77Kr: 77Br 35–50 50.7 [2.9.3, 2.9.4]
79Br(d, 4n)77Kr: 77Br 25–40 50.7 [2.9.4]
78Kr(d, 2pn)77Br [2.9.5]
Cross-section (mb)
Incident energy (MeV)
FIG. 2.9.1. Excitation function for the 77Se(p, n)77Br reaction.
2.9. BROMINE-77
REFERENCES TO SECTION 2.9
[2.9.1] DE JONG, D., KOOIMAN, H., VEENBOER, J.T., 76Br and 77Br from decay of cyclotron produced 76Kr and 77Kr, Int. J. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 30 (1979) 786–788.
[2.9.2] NOZAKI, T., IWAMOTO, M., ITOH, Y., Production of 77Br by various nuclear reactions, Int. J. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 30 (1979) 79–83.
[2.9.3] DE JONG, D., BRINKMAN, G.A., LINDER, L., Excitation functions for the production of 76Kr and 77Kr, Int. J. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 30 (1979) 188–190.
[2.9.4] QAIM, S.M., Recent developments in the production of 18F, 75,76,77Br and 123I, Appl. Radiat. Isot. 37 (1986) 803–810.
[2.9.5] TÁRKÁNYI, F., KOVÁCS, Z., QAIM, S.M., Excitation functions of proton induced nuclear reactions on highly enriched 78Kr: Relevance to the production of 75Br and 77Br at a small cyclotron, Appl. Radiat. Isot. 44 (1993) 1105.
BIBLIOGRAPHY TO SECTION 2.9
BLUE, J.W., BENJAMIN, P.P., Production of 77Br by the reaction 76Se(a, 3n)77Kr, J.
Nucl. Med. 12 (1971) 416–417.
HASSAN, H.E., et al., Experimental studies and nuclear model calculations on proton-induced reactions on natSe, 76Se and 77Se with particular reference to the production of the medically interesting radionuclides 76Br and 77Br, Appl. Radiat. Isot. 60 (2004) 899.
JOHNSON, C.H., GALONSKY, A., INSKEEP, C.N., Cross Sections for (p, n) Reactions in Intermediate-weight Nuclei, Rep. ORNL-2910, Oak Ridge Natl Lab., TN (1960) 25.
JOHNSON, C.H., GALONSKY, A., ULRICH, J.P., Proton strength functions from (p, n) cross sections, Phys. Rev. 109 (1958) 1243.
McCARTHY, T.J., et al., “Investigation of I-124, Br-76, and Br-77 production using a small biomedical cyclotron”, Proc. 8th Workshop on Targetry and Target Chemistry, St. Louis, MO, 1999 (abstract).
QAIM, S.M., STÖCKLIN, G., WEINREICH, R., Excitation functions for the formation of neutron deficient isotopes of bromine and krypton via high energy deuteron induced reaction on bromine: Production of 77Br, 76Br and 79Kr, Int. J. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 28 (1977) 947–953.
TOLMACHEV, V., LOVQVIST, A., EINARSSON, L., SCHULTZ, J., LUNDQVIST, H., Production of 76Br by a low-energy cyclotron, Appl. Radiat. Isot.
49 (1998) 1537–1540.
YOUFENG, H., QAIM, S.M., STÖCKLIN, G., Excitation functions for the 3He-particle induced nuclear reactions on 76Se, 77Se and natSe: Possibilities of production of 77Kr, Int.
J. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 33 (1982) 13–19.
2.10. CADMIUM-109