Technologies for assessing explorability include both the ‘hardware’ related to the survey methods and tools, and the ‘software’ or knowledge residing with industry experts. A basic framework for assessing explorability is presented in Fig. 31. This assessment includes an evaluation of physical access and logistics associated with working within the permit area, determining if service providers are available to support activities in the field, evaluating geoscientific baseline data and historical reports by exploration companies to understand past successes and failures, estimating the depth to targets, and holding discussions with resident experts.
FIG. 31. A basic framework for assessing explorability.
The availability of low cost baseline geoscientific data from geological survey organizations in the form of maps, samples, drill cores, reports, and historical records of exploration company
78
activities, is an important factor in assessing explorability. Exploration companies will compile the information, develop conceptual exploration targets, develop a program and budget, and determine if it is worthwhile to invest in exploration.
There are a wide variety of exploration survey methods available to explorers. These methods are deployed in various combinations depending upon the type of uranium deposit being explored for, the scale of exploration (regional or detailed), and available funding.
Exploration programs are designed to identify anomalous physical signatures that are analogous to those associated with known economic uranium deposits. The technical literature on descriptive and genetic uranium deposit models and other reports describe some of these signatures [9]. Targets for testing by diamond or rotary drilling techniques are developed through an iterative and increasingly detailed series of surveys from reconnaissance to detailed scales (Fig. 11).
A selection of exploration methods used in uranium exploration is listed in Fig. 32, along with an estimate of their cost. The survey methods can be divided in geological, geochemical, geophysical, and drilling categories. Geophysical methods can be further sub-divided into magnetic, gravimetric, electromagnetic, radiometric, and seismic methods. Remote sensing data from satellites are also used in uranium exploration. Exploration managers must carefully assess the value of deploying exploration methods given their cost and utility. More detailed information about exploration methods can be found in several IAEA publications such as a recent publication on innovations in geophysical methods [36].
FIG. 32. Approximate unit cost of exploration by type of survey.
79
Many of the survey methods are offered by consulting companies that specialize in ground-based and airborne geophysical surveying, and rock, soil and botanical sample analysis at geochemical laboratories. Exploration companies also contract geological consultants to support their exploration programs in addition to developing their own exploration teams. Some companies also develop research and development with universities and other organizations to develop innovative exploration technologies with a goal of increasing economic discovery success rates.
The physical geography of an exploration project area can also dictate the choice of exploration survey methods. For example, characteristics of geomorphology, hydrology, pedology, and glaciology can impact their selection. Different combinations of methods are used for programs conducted in tropical vs. temperate vs. desert environments.
Innovations in exploration technology have occurred in response to the discovery of economic deposits at increasing depths below surface (Fig. 23). Geophysical technologies have evolved to map targets at increasing depths. The developments of biogeochemical and isotopic methods for exploration are more recent examples of the industry response to the search for blind deposits [11].
9. THE ROLE OF AGENCIES, GOVERNMENTS, CONSULTANTS AND
ACADEMIA
In the broadest sense, uranium exploration technology consists of the system of experts, techniques and program managers involved in supporting the business of uranium exploration (Fig. 33). Experts take on different support roles depending upon their individual mandates.
Exploration program managers assess investment worth and organizations make investment decisions. Exploration programs and budgets are developed and implemented using a variety of exploration methods, with the support of contractors. The IAEA, geological survey organizations, independent consultants, internal consultants employed by exploration companies, and researchers in university and government organizations, will continue to play a critical role in the discovery of the next generation of economic uranium deposits.
80
FIG. 33. The uranium exploration technology system.
The IAEA provides baseline data and education and training opportunities, including programs in the field of uranium exploration and mining, with a goal of promoting the peaceful and sustainable use of nuclear energy. The IAEA also engages experts in the field of exploration to add additional value to the IAEA programs. Geological survey organizations play a critical role in the uranium exploration process as sources of administrative and technical expertise and suppliers of pre-competitive technical datasets to their customers, the exploration companies.
As described earlier, effective geological survey organizations act to attract exploration investment by providing easy and low-cost access to information that exploration companies can use to support investment decisions. Some exemplar state- and country-based geological survey organizations that have a history of uranium exploration can be found in South Australia, Saskatchewan, and Finland, among others. Independent external consultants can offer unique managerial and technical experience in the uranium field and can act as advisors or experts.
They support the IAEA and member states through participation in education and training programs and as contributors to technical publications. Independent consultants can also provide advice and specialized services to exploration companies. Some consultants work with researchers to develop innovative methods in uranium exploration. Geological survey organizations in developing countries could benefit from the expert knowledge that consultants have to offer. Some university researchers focus on pure and applied research projects in the field of uranium metallogeny and innovation in uranium exploration technology. Their work is funded through government grants, university–company–government collaboration programs, and through contracts with exploration companies. Many researchers also act as independent consultants in tandem with their positions at universities. Some governments also fund research and innovation in the field of exploration through dedicated governmental organizations.
Researchers can also organize and provide education and training to new graduates and industry. Geological survey organizations in developing countries could benefit from the
81
authoritative knowledge that some researchers have to offer. Specialist contractors are responsible for the innovation, development and sale of an array of exploration services to exploration companies. These services include the acquisition, interpretation and reporting on survey data collected for clients. Remote sensing, geological, geochemical, geophysical and drilling methods are included in this category. Exploration company program managers develop, implement and assess their exploration programs and budgets. Exploration teams can range in size and experience and sophistication. Large multi-commodity and major uranium mining companies often employ large experienced exploration teams. Junior exploration companies employ smaller teams led by exploration managers of varying experience levels.
Multinational and junior companies may not have the same depth of experience with uranium exploration and sometimes engage independent uranium consultants to support their exploration programs.
Significant competitive advantage could likely be achieved by optimizing the degree of collaboration between the disparate participants in the uranium exploration technology system for the discovery of the next generation of economic uranium deposits.
10. OPTIMIZING HUMAN, ORGANIZATION AND TECHNOLOGY FACTORS