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Annotated bibliography on the rain screen principle
Division of ~ivision
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.--.
BuildingResearch
recherches en
bwmentAnnotated Bibliography
on
the
Rain Screen
Principle
by
Dale D. Kerr
Bibliography
No.
45
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF CANADA DIVISION OF BUILDING RESEARCH
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON THE RAIN SCREEN PRINCIPLE
by
Dale D. Kerr
Ottawa
FOREWORD
Dale Kerr, P. Eng., was employed by the Division of Building Resarch from January to July 1985 under a casual employment contract. Under the direction of R.L. Quirouette, of the Building Performance Section, she accomplished the research and preparation of this bibliography. Inquiries related to this document may be directed to R.L. Quirouette.
J.K. Latta, Head
ABSTRACT
Research is currently under way at the Division of Building Research (DBR) to examine how pressure equalization occurs in an "open rain screen" wall. The concept behind the open rain screen is that an air space provided in the joint or behind the cladding of an exterior wall is sufficiently open to the outside so that the air pressure in the space will be the same as the pressure on the outside of the wall. Thus, the difference in air pressure across the exterior layer of the wall is reduced to zero, eliminating one of the main forces that move rainwater to the inside of the building. The inner layer of the wall then becomes the plane across which the wind
pressure drop occurs. Theoretically, since the inner wall resists the wind pressure load, the outer wall need only be designed to support its own weight. There are, however, many factors which prevent this from being strictly true.
The focus of current research at DBR is to determine what factors contribute to the operation of the rain screen and their importance in relation to each other. As a preliminary step to this research, a literature survey was done to determine the extent of research already completed on the open rain screen, especially on the phenomenon of pressure equalization. This bibliography is the result of that survey.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
As long ago as the 1940's, the need for some type of rain screen was recognized. The following is from a paper written in 1946:
"...it is clearly unwise to allow walls, whether of brick or porous cement, to be exposed to heavy rain. They absorb water like a blotting paper, and it would therefore be a great step forward if an outer, water-repelling screen could be fitted to brick walls, with satisfactory characteristics from the point of view of appearance, mechanical strength and cost. This screen could be applied so that water vapour coming from within is
automatically removed by ventilation of the space between wall and screen."
This is probably one of the first references to a rain screen. It was not until much later, however, that researchers began to understand how to apply the fundamental laws of physics to the development of a practical rain
screen.
The Norwegians, at the beginning of the 1960's, began research into the mechanism of water leakage through wood casement windows. Their research expanded to include walls, and in 1962, Qivind Birkeland of the Norwegian Building Research Institute, wrote "Curtain Walls", in which the ~ r i n c i ~ l e s of what he termed the "rain barrier" were expounded. Birkeland wrote,
~ohansson, C. H. The influence of moisture on the heat conductance for bricks. (Fuktighetens inverkan pa varmeledningen i tegal.)
"The only practical solution [to the problem of water leakage] is to design the exterior rain-proof finishing so open that no
super-pressure can be created over the joints or seams in the finishing. This effect is achieved by providing an air space behind the exterior finishing, but with connection to the outside air. The surges of air pressure created by the gusts of wind will then be equalized on both sides of the exterior finishing."
The following year (1963) G.K. Garden of DBR wrote Canadian Building Digest 40, "Rain Penetration and its Control". This was the first Canadian publication on the subject of the rain screen principle and is still
considered a prime reference source. In fact, it was through this
publication that the terms "open rain screen" and "rain screen principle" became popularized. However, in a later paper (1971, "Rain and Air Leakage at Joints") Garden himself stated that,
"The term 'open rain screen' is unfortunate because designers are misled into thinking that they are only dealing with rain
penetration. The term 'two-stage weathertightening' w e d in Europe, is more appropriate, for it suggests that the entry of water is controlled at an outer layer or first stage but that air leakage must be controlled at a second stage or inner layer. It also indicates that air leakage control is necessary to gain the rain penetration control."
In 1971, the Architectural Aluminum Manufacturers' Association (AAMA)
published the second volume of its "Aluminum Curtain Walls" series, "The Rain Screen Principle and Pressure-Equalized Wall Design". Republished in 1979 in a larger volume entitled "Aluminum Curtain Wall Design Guide
Manual", which contains several of the U ' s earlier volumes, this
publication represents the present knowledge of the rain screen principle.
The AAMA and the curtain wall industry recognized the importance of the rain
screen principle and pressure-equalized design to the design of curtain walls and as a result, most curtain walls employ a pressure-equalized design. Many references on curtain walls contain a section explaining the rain screen principle and pressure-equalized design.
A 1973 publication, "Walls, Windows and Roofs for the Canadian
Climate", by J. K. Latta of DBR, looked, among other things, at the effect of the airtightness of the inner wall of the chamber on pressure
equalization. A more recent paper (1984, "The Prevention of Rain Penetration Through External Walls and Joints by Means of Pressure Equalization") by I.R. Killip and D.W. Cheetham, also considered the
airtightness of the inner wall but these authors came to slightly different conclusions than Latta.
Much of the research in the field of open rain screens has focussed on the design of drained or open joints which use the concept of pressure equalization to prevent rain leakage. ~ o i n t s have typically been problem areas, which has led to the emphasis of research on joints. Most of these published papers deal with the configuration of the joint and its
performance, rather than the principle of pressure equalization or how pressure equalization occurs.
Little, if any, research appears to have been done on the actual process of pressure equalization in rain screen walls. Some researchers (Holmes, Liu, Saathoff) have looked at fluctuating interior building pressures induced by wind and the theories developed in their work m y be applicable to pressure equalization in open rain' screen walls.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
This bibliography is the result of an extensive, although not
exhaustive, literature search using the resources of the National Research Council Canada. Very little published information was found which dealt exclusively with the open rain screen principle and pressure equalization. For this reason, the bibliography was extended and the items listed cover a wide range of related topics which, although of interest in the study of open rain screens and pressure equalization, may only bear marginally on these topics. Because of the broad scope of these topics, the selection is not complete for any individual topic; it does, however, provide a broad background for current research at the Mvision of Building Research.
For easy reference, the bibliography is divided into categories, as shown below. The abstracts for the annotated entries have been taken
directly from the reference, based upon an abstract in the reference, taken from Canadian Building Abstracts, or written specifically for this
bibliography.
1. Building Aerodynamics 2. Joints
3. Rain and Water Penetration
4. Rainfall and Climatological Data
5. Rain Screen Principle and Pressure Equalization 6. Walls
BUILDING AERODYNAMICS
Air Infiltration Centre. 1984. Proceedings of the wind pressure workshop. Held in Brussels, Belgium, March 21-22, 1984. Bracknell, Berkshire, 164 pp.
Allen, C. 1984. Wind pressure data requirements for air infiltration calculations. Bracknell, Berkshire: Air Infiltration Centre, 124 pp. Allen, DmE.9 and Dalgliesh, W.A. 1973. Dynamic wind loads and cladding
design. Research Paper No. 611 (NRCC 14056). Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, Division of Building Research, 7 pp. (Reprinted from the Preliminary Publication of the International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering Symposium on
Resistance and Ultimate Deformability of Structures Acted on by Well Defined Repeated Loads, held in Lisbon, 1973, pp. 279-285.)
A study is made of the behaviour of ductile (metal) and brittle (glass) panels under dynamic wind loading. The effect of such factors as
dynamic amplification, rate of loading and ductility can generally be neglected. Failure risks implicit in North American codes are
compared; some changes in design rules are suggested, including an increase in safety factor for glass windows in tall buildings. Ambrose, J.E. 1980. Simplified building design for wind and earthquake
Aynsley, R.M., Melbourne, W., and Vickery, B.J. 1977. Architectural aerodynamics. London: Applied Science Publishers Ltd., 254 pp.
Bowen, A.J. 1976. A wind tunnel investigation using simple building models to obtain mean surface wind pressure coefficients for air infiltration estimates. Low Speed Aerodynamics Laboratory, National Aeronautical Establishment, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, 95 pp.
Building Research Establishment. 1972. Wind environment around tall buildings. BRE Digest 141. Garston, England, 8 pp.
1978. Principles of natural ventilation. BRE Mgest 210. Garston, England, 7 pp.
1984. The assessment of wind loads. BRE Mgest 119. Garston, England, 11 pp.
Cermak, J.E. 1974. Application of fluid mechanics to wind engineering.
Paper presented at the Winter Annual Meeting of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, held in New York, Nov. 17-21, 1974, 30 pp.
Cermak, J.E.,ed. 1980. Wind Engineering
-
Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference, held at Fort Collins, Colorado, July 8-14,. 1979. New York, Toronto: Pergamon Press, 2 vols., 1444 pp.
The conference was sponsored by the International Association for Wind Engineering. The subject matter was organized into ten consecutive technical sessions: 1) social and economic impact of wind storms, 2) wind
-
characteristics and description, 3) local wind environment,4) wind loading
-
mean and fluctuating internal and mean external, 5) wind loading-
fluctuating external, 6) dynamic response-
tall buildings and towers, 7) dynamic response-
bridges, transmission towers and roof membranes, 8) physical and mathematical modeling, 9) wind-
engineering applications, and 10) wind engineering practice. Dalgliesh, W.A. 1967. Wind gust pressures on buildings. MEng Thesis.Ottawa: Carleton University, 71 pp.
1970. Wind pressure measurements on full-scale buildings. Technical Paper No. 345 (NRCC 12055). Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, Mvision of Building Research, 18 pp. (Reprinted from the Proceedings of the Chicago Design Symposium on Wind Effects from High- Rise
Buildings, held at Evanston, Illinois, Mar. 23, 1970.)
1971a. Experience with wind pressure measurements on a full-scale building, Research Paper No. 480 (NRCC 11912). Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, Division of Building Research, 10 pp.
(Reprinted from Building Science Series 30, Proceedings of Technical Meeting Concerning Wind Loads on Buildings and Structures, held at
Gaithersburg, Maryland, Jan. 27-28, 1969, pp. 61-71. )
-
1971b. Statistical treatment of peak gusts on cladding. Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Journal of the Structural Division, vol. 97: no. ST9, pp. 2173-2187.From a practical point of view, the best measure of wind depends on meteorological records, often mean wind speed averaged over a few minutes or an hour. For cladding design, however, the mean wind speed is not adequate. Instead, gust effects must be determined.
Calculation of a gust effect factor for cladding design hinges on the estimation of two important quantities: intensity of pressure
turbulence and peak factor. A major difficulty is the determination of wind turbulence effects. Information on measured gust pressures on cladding is relatively hard to find.
The purpqse of this paper is, therefore, twofold: 1) to present a summary of statistical information derived from actual pressure
measurements on a tall building, and 2) to analyze the implications of this information with regard to a gust effect factor suitable for cladding design.
1975. Comparison of model full-scale wind pressures on a high-rise building. Research Paper No. 661 (NRCC 15130). Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, Division of Building Research, 11 pp. (Reprinted from Journal of Industrial Aerodynamics, vol. 1, pp. 55-66.)
Recent experience with wind-induced glass breakage in high-rise office towers has demonstrated the difficulty of pin-pointing potential
problem areas on a building and hence the need for a better
understanding of the magnitude and nature of cladding loads. Results of surface wind pressure measurements made simultaneously at 32 points on a 57-storey office tower in Toronto are reported. In addition to readings taken at 1/2-second intervals during high winds, mean and root-square pressures were recorded for a 5-minute interval once each hour, and pressure coefficients referred to the free stream dynamic pressure at 286 m were computed for comparison with wind tunnel test information which was used in the design of the cladding.
1981. Wind loads on low buildings. Building Practice Note 18. Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, Division of Building Research, 6 pp.
This note provides background procedures to help designers become familiar with Commentary B
-
the 1980 Commentary on Wind Loads, a supplement to the National Building Code of Canada 1980. The note should be read in conjunction with Commentary B.Dalgliesh, W.A. and Boyd, D.W. 1962. Wind on buildings. Canadian Building Digest 28. Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, Division of Building Research, 4 pp.
Dalgliesh, W.A. and Garden, G.K. 1968. Influence of wind pressures on joint performance. Technical Paper No. 264 (NRCC 9873). Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, Division of Building Research, 3 pp.
(Reprinted from Weathertight Joints for Walls, Proceedings of the International Symposium, held in Oslo, Norway, September 25-28, 1967. CIB Report No. 11, NBRI Report 51C, January 1968, pp. 329-331.)
Rain penetration in joints can be prevented by providing sufficiently large openings in the outer screen so that the air pressure on both sides becomes equally high. However, the wind pressure on all sides of the building is not the same; a certain flow-off around sharp edges will occur. Therefore, pressure equalization is not always achieved in a cavity which is open at two or more locations. The cavity must be closed at strategic locations to prevent air flow behind the outer screen. Knowledge of both the overall end local pressure variations is necessary for full exploitation of the principle of pressure
equalization as a means of controlling rain penetration. This paper examines some of the pressure variations caused by corners and
projections
.
Dalgliesh, W.A. and Schriever, W.R. 1962. Wind pressures on buildings. Canadian Building Mgest 34. Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, Mvision of Building Research, corrected May 1968, 4 pp.
1965. Wind pressures and suctions on roofs. Canadian Building Digest 68. Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, Division of Building Research, 4pp.
Dalgliesh, W.A., Templin, J.T., and Cooper, K.R. 1979. Comparison of wind tunnel and full-scale building qurface pressures with emphasis on
peaks. Paper No. 961 (NRCC 19198). Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, Division of Building Research, 13 pp. (Reprinted from Wind Engineering, Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Wind Engineering, held in Fort Collins, Colorado, July 8-14, 1979, New York, Toronto: Pergamon Press, vol. 1, pp. 553-565.)
Full-scale pressure coefficients obtained from a 57-storey building in Toronto and wind tunnel results from tests in the 9 by 9 m wind tunnel at the National Research Council Canada are compared and demonstrate good agreement where sufficient full-scale data exist. A method of treating peak pressures is proposed based on the fit of an exponential distribution to a population of "significant independent events", called pressure spikes. This distribution provides a good fit to both full-scale and wind tunnel results, which generally agree.
Dalgliesh, W.A., Wright, W., and Schriever, W.R. 1968. Wind pressure
measurement on a full-scale high-rise office building. Research Paper No. 379 (NRCC 10414). Ottawa: National Research Council Canada,
Division of Building Research, 33 pp. (Reprinted from the Proceedings, International Research Seminar on Wind Effects on Buildings and
Structures, held in Ottawa, September 1967, pp. 167-200.)
Eaton, K.J. 1975. Cladding and the wind. Current Paper ~ ~ 4 7 1 7 5 . Garston, England: Building Research Establishment, 15 pp. (Reprinted in
Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Journal of the Structural Division, vol. 102: no. ST5, pp. 1043-1058.)
An appreciation of the forces exerted by the wind on the wall and roo'f claddings of buildings is necessary to avoid both overdesign, which is uneconomical, and underdesign, which could lead to serious safety problems. The area of greatest uncertainty in the design of cladding
is the estimation of these wind forces. The problem of determining wind loads for cladding design has formed part of the research program of the Building Research Establishment (BRE); this paper summarizes the various approaches that have been and continue to be taken to
understand the problems and formulate design recommendations.
The first section looks at the nature of wind flow, illustrates typical cladding failures that occur in the United Kingdom and identifies the areas where design loads and methods are possibly inadequate. In addition to damage occurring to completed buildings, a considerable number of cladding failures occur during construction and this aspect is also considered. There follows a section on pressure measurements on the external surfaces of buildings; this work covers both tall structures and low-rise houses. This research has been carried out mainly on full-scale buildings. This paper examines the selection of gust factors (determined from the full-scale measurements) that should be used for cladding design. Finally, the implications of this
research for the design of cladding and possible modifications to the code of practice are considered.
Eaton, K.J., ed. 1977. Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Wind Effects on Buildings and Structur,es, held at Heathrow, 1975. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 845 pp.
Eaton, K.J. and Mayne, J.R. 1969. Instrumentation and analysis of full- scale wind pressure measurements. Garston, England: Building Research Establishment, 11 pp.
1974. The measurement of wind pressure on two-storey houses at Aylesbury. Current Paper CP70/74. Garston, England: Building Research Establishment, 39 pp. (Presented at the Symposium on Full- Scale Measurements on Tall Buildings and Other Structures, held in Ontario, June 23-29, 1974.)
European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, 1978. Recommendations for the calculation of wind effects on buildings and structures. Brussels: Technical Committee T12: Wind Effects, 167 pp.
Gould, P.L. 1980. Dynamic response of structures to wind and earthquake loading. New York: John Wiley, 175 pp.
Hogan, M a 1971. The influence of wind on tall building design. Thesis, University of Western Ontario, London.
Holmes, J.D. 1980. Mean and fluctuating internal pressures induced by wind. Wind Engineering
-
Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Wind Engineering, held in Fort Collins, Colorado, July 8-14, 1979. New York, Toronto: Pergamon Press, vole 1, pp. 435-450.Mean and fluctuating pressures inside buildings, induced by wind, have been investigated using boundary layer wind tunnel and computer
simulation techniques. Mean and ramas. fluctuating internal pressure coefficients were both found to be monotonic functions of the ratio of windward to leeward opening areas.
The case of a single windward opening was treated as a damped Helmholtz resonator. Inertia effects were found'to produce resonance amplifica- tion in the response of the internal pressure to turbulent. extenal pressures and to a step change in external pressure. However, these effects are unlikely to be of much practical significance except for the case of a sudden large opening occurring in a relatively rigid building.
For correct scaling of fluctuating internal pressures, wind tunnel testing should be done at full scale wind velocities. However, similarity can be maintained at lower wind tunnel velocities, by distorting the internal volume by a factor equal to the square of the velocity ratio.
Holmes, J.D., Jackson, P.S., and Melbourne, W.H., eds. 1983. Wind
Engineering
-
Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Wind Engineering, held at Australia's Gold Coast, March 21-25, 1983 and at Auckland, New Zealand, April 6-7, 1983. Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publishing, 3 vols.Houghton, E.L. 1976. Wind forces on buildings and structures: an introduction. New York: John Wiley, 243 pp.
International Research Seminar Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures. 1968. Proceedings of the International Research Seminar Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures, held in Ottawa, September 11-15, 1967. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2 vols.
Japan Association for Wind Engineering. Society of Steel Construction of Japan. 1982. Wind Resistant Design Regulations: A world List
-
Supplement, 1982. Tokyo: Gakujutsu bunken f ukyu-kai,
1982, 501 pp. Jensen, M. and Franck, N. 1963. Model-scale test in turbulent wind.Copenhagen: Danish Technical Press.
Johns, D.J., Scruton, C., and Ballantyne, A.M., eds. 1968. Proceedings of a Symposium on Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures, held at
Loughborough University of Technology, April 24, 1968, Loughborough, England, 2 vols.
Lawson, T.V. 1980. Wind effects on buildings, tondon: Applied Science Publishers, 2 vols.
Leadon, B.M. 1979. Pressures on curtain walls with external mullions. Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Journal of Engineering Mechanics Division, vol. 105: no. EM4, pp. 515-523.
M u , H. and Saathoff, P.J. 1981. Building internal pressure: sudden change. Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Journal of the Engineering Mechanics Division, vol. 107: no. EM2, pp. 309-321.
When an aperture of a building, such as a window or door, is opened suddenly in wind, a rapid change in pressure happens inside the building, causing the internal pressure to reach an equilibrium or
steady-state value within a short period. This paper provides an analysis of the transient response of the internal pressure before it reaches equilibrium. A correct prediction of the transient response of the internal pressure is essential to many facets of wind engineering, such as the analysis of the dynamic windload on buildings, especially claddings. Three solutions are put forward: an isothermal quasi- steady solution, an isentropic quasi-steady solution and an isentropic unsteady solution. The results of each of these three solutions are compared. The oscillation of internal pressure is also considered and results based on the Bernoulli equation are compared to results based on the Helmholtz resonator model.
Marshall, R.D. 1974. A study of wind pressure on a single-family dwelling in model and full-scale, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of
Commerce, National Bureau of Standards and the Institute for Applied
- Technology, 35 pp.
Mayne, J.R. 1976, The response of glazing to wind pressure. Current Paper CP44/76. Garston, England: Building Research Establishment, 19 pp. Mehta, K.C. 1981. Procedure for predicting wind damage to buildings.
Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Journal of the Structural Division, vol. 107: no. ST11, pp. 2089-2096.
Melaragno, M.G. 1982. Wind in architectural and enviroamental design. New York, and Toronto: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 684 pp.
/
Melbourne, W.H. 1972. Air flow patterns around multi-storey buildings.
\
Wind Driven Rain and the Multi-Storey Building, Paper No. 3.\
Melbourne, Australia: Division of Building Research, CSIRO, 5 pp.This paper describes the nature of the wind and the pressure +nd flow fields induced by large isolated buildings; some comments are made on the influence of aerodynamic forces on rain paths. The effects of pressure differences and the way in which they increase on tall buildings are discussed along with the effects of turbulence.
Newberry, C.W. 1969. Significant features of wind loading in relation to the design of structures. Current Paper ~P49/69. Garston, England: Building Research Establishment, 6 pp.
Newberry, C., Cyril, W., and Eaton, K.J. 1974. Wind loading handbook. London: H.M.S.O., 74 pp.
Newberry, C., Eaton, K.J., and Mayne, J.R, 1973. Wind pressure and strain measurement at the post office tower. Garston, England: Building Research Establishment, 35 pp.
Ng, W.K. 1983. The external and internal pressure induced under the turbulent wind action on arch-roof structures. M.E.Sc Thesis. University of Western Ontario, London, 200 pp.
Nomad, M.S. 1965. Annotated bibliography on wind pressure on buildiqs. Central Building Research Institute (India), 18 pp.
Olsson, H.A. 1974. Vindtryck inuti byggnader (Internal wind pressures). Statens Institut for Byggnadsforskning (Sweden), Rapport 2/74, 82 pp. Summary in English.
Penwarden, A.D., and Wise, A.F,E 1975. Wind environment around buildings. London: H.M.S.O., 52 pp.
Pirner, M. 1981. Dynamic effect of fluctuating wind pressure in civil engineering. Praha: Academia nakladatelstvi ceskoslovensk6 akademi. 103 pp. (In English).
Reed, D.A., and Simiu, E. 1983. Wind loading and strength of cladding
glass. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, 41 pp.
Saathoff, P.J. and Liu, H..1983. Internal pressure of multi-room buildings. . Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Journal of
Engineering Mechanics, vol. 109: no. 3, pp. 908-919,
The Bernoulli equation approach for predicting the variation of internal pressure induced by wind in a single-room building with a single opening is extended to multi-room buildings with any number of openings. Examples are given to illustrate this new general approach. Following the breakage of a windward window during a windstorm, the internal pressure of a multi-room building oscillates in a manner similar to that in a set of interconnected Helmholz oscillators. Sachs, P. 1978. Wind forces in engineering, 2d ed. Oxford, Toronto:
Pergamon Press, 400 pp.
Schriever, W.R. 1976. Ground level winds around tall buildings. Canadian Building Digest 174. Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, Division of Building Research, 4 pp.
This digest reviews the effect of wind on people and discusses wind speed changes induced by buildings. Mechanical effects that make it difficult to walk and the thermal effects of wind are considered. Sexton, D.E. 1968. Building aerodynamics. Garston, England: Building
Research Establishment, 6 pp. (Reprinted from Weathertight Joints For Walls, Proceedings of the International Symposium, held in Oslo,
September 25-28, 1967. CIB Report No. 11, NBRI Report SIC, January 1968, pp. 35-40.)
Wind is the most important factor affecting the weathertightness of buildings; wind can penetrate through gaps, carrying rain with it. Studies of the aerodynamics of building have already provided some data which make it feasible to predict how a building will resist the
onslaught of wind and weather. The pressure drop across the wall, and hence the forces tending to drive rain through orifices in the wall of a building, can be estimated. This paper summarizes some of the
information obtained from experimental studies of wind pressure and air flow around buildings, which can help in the understanding of weather penetration of walls.
Sfmiu, E. 1981. Modern developments in wind engineering. Part 2, Engineering Structures. vol. 3: no. 4, pp. 242-248.
Simiu,
E.,
and Scanlan, R.H. 1978. Wind effects on structures: an introduction to wind engineering. New York: John Wiley, 458 pp. Society of Steel Construction of Japan. 1975. Wind Resistant DesignRegulations: A World List, 1975. Committee of Wind Loading, Tokyo: Gakujutsu bunken fukyu-kai, 1975, 817 pp.
Soliman, B.F. 1976. Effect of building group geometry on wind pressure and properties of flow. Sheffield: University of Sheffield, 29 pp.
Standen, N.M. 1974. Wind pressures and wind environment on Canadian government building no. 3, Hull, Qugbec. Low Speed Aerodynamics Laboratory (Canada), National Aeronautical Establishment, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, 1972, 27 pp.
Standen, N.M., Dalgliesh, WmA., and Templin, R.J. 1972. A wind tunnel and full-scale study of turbulent wind pressure on a tall building.
Research Paper No. 585 (NRCC 13740). Ottawa: National Research
Council Canada, Division of Building Research, 10 pp. (Reprinted from Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures, Part 2, held in Tokyo, Japan, September 6-11, 1971, ppe 199-209.)
Stathopoulos, T., Surry, Dm, and Davenport, A.G. 1980. Internal pressure characteristics of low-rise buildings due to wind action. Wind
Engineering
-
Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Wind Engineering, New York, Toronto: Pergamon Press, vol. 1, pp. 451-463. Wind-induced internal pressures have been experimentally determined using models of low-rise buildings of different geometry and internal volume. Three different uniform porosities (0.0, 0.5, and 3.0% of the total surface area) have been examined in combination with openings in a wall ranging from 0 to 100% of that wall's area. Tests have been carried out in a simulated atmospheric boundary layer over two terrain roughnesses corresponding to open country and suburban regions.Results show that internal pressures are dynamic but their magnitudes are generally lower than those of local external pressures. For windward openings, internal pressure coefficients are generally positive, with the exception of cases with high background porosity combined with small openings, when they become zero or slightly
negative. The lower the background porosity, the smaller the size of the wall opening necessary to make the internal pressures insensitive to further increases of the wall opening. For all cases, high
correlation has been found between those components of external and internal pressures which participate in loading the primary structure. Vance, M. 1981. Wind pressure: a bibliography. Monticello, Illinois:
Vance Bibliographies, 48 pp.
Von Kannan Institute for Fluid Dynamics. 1972. Wind effects on buildings and structures. Rhode-Saint-GenBse, Belgium.
1982. Wind effects on buildings and structures. Olivari, D.,
Lecture Series Director, Rhode-~aint-Gen~se
,
Belgium.JOINTS
Alexander, S.J. and Lawson, R.M. 1981. Design for movement in buildings. Technical Note 107. London: Construction and Industry Research and Information Association, 54 pp.
Bielek, M. 1977. Air-permeability, air-currents, rain penetration and joints of outer building walls. Stavebnicky Cas, vol. 25: no. 6, pp. 462-494.
Birkeland,
Q).
,
and Wigen, R. 1955. Window studies I, Window examination in joints between frame and wall: experiments in airtightness withcaulked joints and joints without caulk. Oslo: Norges byggforskningsinstitutt, 18 pp. Summary in English.
Building Research Association of New Zealand. 1984. Sealed joints in external cladding. 1. Joint design. Porirua, New Zealand, 8 pp. Building ~esearch Establishment. 1967. Joints between concrete wall panels:
open drained joints. BRE Mgest 85. London: H.M.S.O., 6 pp.
This digest deals briefly with some of the main factors, principally the threat of rain penetration, which determine the performance
standards required of joints between precast concrete wall panels, and discusses in detail the design of one type of joint
-
the open drained joint-
which, when properly designed and executed, has proved as successful as any in accommodating these factors.1983a. External masonry walls: vertical joints for thermal and moisture movements. Defect Action Sheet No. 18. Garston, England: Xousing Defects Prevention Unit, 1 pa
1983b. Wood windows: resisting rain penetration at perimeter joints. Defect Action Sheet No. 15. Garston, England: Housing Defects Prevention Unit, 1 p.
Commonwealth Experimental Building Station. 1967. Weatherproofing of movement joints in walls. NSB 94. Chatswood, Australia: Department of Works,
4
pp.Dalgliesh, W.A. and Garden, G.K. 1968. Influence of wind pressures on joint performance. Technical Paper No. 264 (NRCC 9873). Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, Division of Building Research, 3 pp.
(Reprinted from Weathertight Joints for Walls, Proceedings of the International Symposium, held in Oslo, September 25-28, 1967. CIB Report No. 11, NBRI Report 51C, January 1968, pp. 329-331.)
Garden, G.K. 1964. Glazing design. Canadian Building Digest 55. Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, Division of Building Research, 4 pp.
Glass is successful in meeting its requirements as an element in an exterior wall. The joint between the glazing unit and the window sash or frame, however, is vulnerable because of the many requirements it must fulfill. The most common expressions of failure are glass breakage and rain and air leakage. This digest looks at the requirements of the glazing detail and examines how rain and air leakage can be eliminated. Also considered are the differential movements of the glass and its surround and the durability of glazing materials.
1968a. Some experience with joints. Weathertight Joints for Walls, Proceedings of the International Symposium. Held in Oslo, Norway, September 25-28, 1967. CIB Report No. 11, NBRI Report 51C,
pp. 249-250.
Joints in traditional building systems were developed over the years by the slow process of trial by use. With the rapidly changing
construction practices of today, new joint designs are necessary, but the old process of development is too slow and too expensive,
especially when the joint used is unsuccessful. To meet our changing needs, sound scientific principles for the design of joints must be developed. Much valuable information can be derived from examination of joints in service if the many physical processes and phenomena associated with joint performance are understood. Many factors enter into the design of weathertight joints and the wall elements being joined have a great influence on joint performance.
1968b. Jhok at joint performance. Canadian Building Digest 97. National Research Council Canada, Mvision of Building-@search, 4 pp. Joints designs have traditionally been developed through trial and error, and observation on actual buildings, a process that tends to be slow and expensive when performance is not adequate. In-service
performance is always the final proof of any design; thus, examinations designed to determine why some joints succeed and others fail can be very useful in advancing design capability. This digest discusses joints in service on actual buildings in order to draw attention to the main factors influencing their performance and to indicate the value of field investigations. Six case studies are considered.
1971. Rain and air leakage at joints. Industrialization Forum, vol. 2: no. 4, 6 pp.
K n o m principles for the prevention of rain penetration and air leakage are not being applied in practice. Ra$n penetration requires the
simultaneous presence of water, openings and a force; the two-stage weathertightening or "open rain screen" joint separates the control of these factors. This is accomplished through the use of a space in the joint or wall behind the wetted surface, which is always at equal pressure to the outside. This equalization of pressure requires that there be an effective "structural" air barrier between the pressure equalization space and the building interior. This air barrier is best located at the constant temperature side of the thermal insulation.
Harrison, H.W. 1970. Weatherproofing of joints: a systematic approach to design. Current Paper, ~ ~ 2 9 / 7 0 . Garston, England: Building Research Establishment, 11 pp. (Reprinted from Proceedings of the Conference on Joints in Structures, held at the University of Sheffield, July 8-10, 1970, Session D, Paper 3.)
Herbert, M.R.M. 1974a. Open-jointed rain screen claddings. Current Paper CP89174. Garston, England: Building Research Establishment, 9 pp. The function of a rain screen is to protect the inner part of a walling system..from the weather, The open-joint rain screen cladding system allows water to pass through the joints into a ventilated cavity, from which it is then drained. The successful design of an open-joint rain screen depends on preventing water that passes through the joints and drains down the back of the rain screen from reaching the inner leaf of the wall in sufficient quantities to cause damage.
Natural exposure tests were made on a test rig over a period of many months. The object of these tests was to determine the amount of water entering the cavity and its behaviour in the cavity when the following factors were varied: panel edge thickness, cavity depth, joint width, ventilation of the cavity, and the edge profile of the joints.
Ventilation of the cavity was provided by openings through the inner
. leaf of the wall. The test rig is described, as well as the results of the investigation. The two mechanisms of water penetration were water crossing the cavity and water running down the back of the rain
screen.
1974b. Window to wall joints. Current Paper ~ ~ 8 6 1 7 4 . Garston, England: Building Research Establishment, 9 pp.
Herbert, M.R.'M., and Cronshaw, J. 1973. Width variations of cladding joints. Current Paper CP10173. Garston, England: Building Research
Establishment, 6 pp. (Reprinted from Building, vol. 223: no. 6757, November 24, 1972, pp. 103-104, 107-108, 110, 115.)
Herbert, M.R.M., and Harrison, H.W. 1974a. New ways with weatherproof joints. Current Paper 90174. Garston, England: Building Research Establishment, 12 pp.
Methods of jointing which allow the passage of air but prevent water penetration have been under investigation at the Building Research
Station. This paper describes that part of the work which has been carried out in a natural exposure rig at Plymouth, in order to establish and demonstrate the value and principles of a number of designs of vertical and horizontal joints employing labyrinths to separate the air and water entering the joint. Results obtained under a limited range of conditions show that it is possible, with suitable designs, to prevent penetration of water without necessarily making a joint airtight. Because the laboratory studies have been limited to obtaining qualitative data under a limited set of conditions, the design data which can be derived are presented only in broad terms, serving as guidelines should designs need to be prepared. A number of potential applications are put forward, including a prototype window.
1974b. Refining the weatherproof joint. Building, vol. 227: no. 6858, pp. 135, 137.
International Council for Building Research Studies and Documentation and Norwegian Building Research Institute. 1968. Weathertight joints for walls. Proceedings of the International Symposium, held in Oslo, September 25-28, 1967. CIB Report No, 11, NBRX Report 51C. Oslo, Norway, 357 pp.
The International Council for Building Research Studies and
Documentation (CIB) held an International Symposium on Weathertight Joints for Walls. This book contains all the invited and submitted papers, the rapporteurs' reviews, the general report, a summary of discussions and a list of participants.
The main topic involved directly or indirectly in all deliberations was the choice between the one-stage and two-stage approaches in weather- tight joints. The principles of rain penetration control were reviewed in many of the papers presented. Many areas were identified in which improved information and understanding are desirable, including the need for improvement in the methods of assessing the adequacy of rain control provided by particular joint configurations, and improved understanding of the nature of wind and rain patterns over building surfaces and of the dynamic nature of wind.
International Symposium for the Construction Industry. 1970. Joint movement, design and materials. Held in Brighton, May 27-29, 1970.
(Sponsored by the Sealant Manufacturers Conference.)
Xsaken, T. 1972. Driving rain and joints
-
testing.of model joints between elements. Oslo: Norwegian ,Building Research Institute, 29 pp.Ishikawa, H e 1974. Experiment on mechanism of rain penetration through horizontal joints in walls. Paper No. 2.3.1. (CIB)/RILEM Symposium on Moisture Problems in Buildings, held in Rotterdam, September 10-12, 1974. The Hague, Netherlands: The Organization for Applied Science Research, 17 pp.
Lundby, S.E., and Wigen, R. 1956, Window studies 11, Window casings in framed houses: tests on resistance to wind and rain. Oslo: Norges byggforskningsinstitutt, 38 pp. Summary in English.
Monks, W.L. 1966. Tests to assess the resistance to rain penetration of joints between large precast concrete wall panels. Technical Report TRA 397. London: Cement and Concrete Association, 24 pp.
1967. Tolerance in external joints between precast concrete panels on buildings. Technical Report
TRA
405. London: Cement and Concrete Association, 27 pp.National Building Research Institute. 1976. Rain penetration through windows in high-rise buildings. Building Note BN 3(C). Pretoria,
Sasaki, J.R. 1964. An apparatus for determining the rain tightness of windows and walls. Project Notes No. 65. Ottawa: National Research
Council Canada, Division of Building Research, 5 pp.
1971a. Condensation performance of metal-framed double windows with and without thermal breaks. Research Paper No. 481 (NRCC 11913).
Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, Mvision of Building Research, 6 pp. (Reprinted from Specifications Associate, vol. 13: no. 1, pp. 25-31.)
1971b. Evaluating the rain-tightness of joints between exterior wall components. Technical Paper No. 364 (NRCC 12579). Ottawa:
National Research Council Canada, Division of Building Research, 3 pp. (Reprinted from Research into Practice: The Challenge of Application, 5th CIB Congress, Versailles, June 1971, pp. 485-487.)
Sasaki, J.R., and Platts, R.E. 1967. Tests on vertical joints for a wood- panel wall system. Research Paper No. 337 (NRCC 9870). Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, Division of Building Research, 3 pp. (Reprinted from Weathertight Joints for Walls, Proceedings of the International Symposium, held in Oslo, September 25-28, 1967. CIB Report No. 11, NBRI Report 51C, January 1968, pp. 292-294.)
Seo, F., and Yoda, S. 1972. The study on performance of open joints.
Report No. 60. Tokyo: Building Research Institute, 108 pp. (Summary in English, pp. 109-119.)
Snider, G. W. 1979. Precast concrete cladding. Specification Associate, vol. 21: no. 3, pp. 66-69.
The weatherproofing of precast concrete cladding, to avoid leakage and high costs of maintenance and repair, requires careful design and construction of the joints separating panels. The rain-screen principle of design is discussed, and various arrangements of joint sealants and air barriers are described. The properties of sealants and the growing importance of fire-resistive joints, are discussed. Svendsen, S.D., and Wigen, R. 1959. Norwegian test methods for wind and rain penetration through windows. Reprint No. 39. Oslo, Norwegian Building Research Institute, 10 pp.
Whiting, R.W. 1970. A test rig for establishing the dimensional needs of weatherproof joints. Current Paper CP26/70. Garston, England: Building Research Establishment, 13 pp.
Wigen, R. 1958. Window studies 111, Wooden windows: tests on resistance to wind and rain. Oslo: Norges byggf orskningsinstitutt
,
48 pp. Summary in English.RAIN AND WATER PENETRATION
Amrein, E. 1959. The rain penetration of brickwork. Technical Translation TT968. Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, Division of Building Research, 1961, 17 pp (from M e ziegelindustrie, 12(24): 726-730). Barrett, P. 1983. Rain penetration through masonry walls. Insulation
Journal, vol. 27: no. 11, pp. 35-36, 38-39.
Water penetration used to be a much more common problem when walls were built of solid masonry than it is today. With solid walls a builder had to take account of the local weather conditions. Where he
considered it necessary, he would render the wall or tile part of it.
In two separate surveys, the Building Research Establishment (BRE) found that more than half the wall tiles surveyed were ineffective in their rain resistant function. The exposure system operating in BS5618 has been shown to provide a realistic guide to suitable building
construction when used in conjunction with urea formaldehyde foam cavity wall insulation. This paper has shown that the system is equally applicable, with appropriate limits, for all forms of wall construction, with or without cavity wall insulation.
Beadle, D. 1983. Cavity walls and Part F: Keeping heat in and rain out. Building Trades Journal, vol. 186: no. 5522, pp. xii and xiv of Supplement.
Takes a fresh look at the original purpose of cavity walls, preventing rain penetration. Rain penetration problems in fully filled cavities have prompted the renewed interest.
Birkeland,
@.
1962. Rain penetration testing of curtain walls. Oslo, Norwegian Building Research Institute, 12 pp.When the development of curtain walls began in Norway, it soon became obvious that rain and wind penetration would be one of the serious problems. Based on the experience gained from testing timber frame walls and windows, NBRI started investigations of this problem.
This paper describes the test apparatus and conditions (super-pressure and amount of water) used in carrying out rain penetration
investigations. The following conclusions were reached regarding the construction of curtain walls. The only practical way to make a curtain wall tight against rain penetration is to furnish the wall on the outside with a ventilated rain barrier constructed in such a way that no super-pressure can be built up across it. Behind the rain barrier should be an air space, and on the inside of this, a windtight barrier which protects the insulation. Water penetrating into the air space must be able to run out again without harming the wall.
1963. Rain penetration investigations: a summary of the findings of the CIB Working Commission on Rain Penetration. Oslo, Norges
1968a. Review of the work of CIB Working Codssion on Rain Penetration. Weathertight Joints for Malls, Proceedings of the International Symposium, held in Oslo, September 25-28, 1967. CIB Report No. 11, NBRI Report SIC, pp. 27-30.
The research work of the CIB Working Commission on rain penetration can be divided into the following stages:
1. To indicate, collect and present in.a suitable manner the relevant climatological data;
2. To find the onslaught of rain and wind on buildings, its
distribution over the building surface and run-off and fall-off; 3. To study the mechanisms of rain penetration and the movement of
water in the wall;
4. To collect data on rain penetration from buildings and test huts. This paper outlines the progress the working committee has made in these directions and lists some of the further aims of the committee.
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1968b. The mechanism of rain penetration. Weathertight Joints for Walls, Proceedings of the International Symposium, held in Oslo,September 25-28, 1967. CIB Report No. 11, NBRI Report 51C, pp. 33-34. This paper is based mainly on discussions of the CIB Working Commission on Rain Penetration. The resistance of a wall to wind is first
discussed. The distribution of rain over the building surface and the run-off and fall-off are then briefly discussed. The mechanisms of rain penetration, capillary action, gravity, kinetic energy and wind pressure, are described; the latter is the most significant cause of rain penetration.
On the basis of the knowledge of rain and wind penetration presented in this paper, a principle for designing weathertight joints ie given. The rain and wind must be stopped separately. There must be an
exterior rain screen, behind which is an air space that is ventilated so there is no wind pressure drop across the rainscreen. Behind the ventilated air space should be an airtight wind stop to prevent air from penetrating through the wall.
Brackley, G. 1984. The variability of the measurement of watertightness in joints. Current Paper CP6183. Watford, Hertfordshire: Building Research Establishment, 27 pp.
Brioscu,
A.
1978. External Wall Cladding. Dublin: Foras Forbartha, 16 pp. Brown, N.G. and Ballantyne, E.R. 1972. Watertight or weatherproof? Winddriven rain and the multi-storey building. Paper No. 6. Melbourne, Division of Building Research, CSIRO, 11 pp.
The forces which contribute to rain penetration through the wall of a multi-storey building are identified, and the drained Joint principle and its application to various joints in this type of building are discussed. Considerable advantage is obtained by deliberately not making the external skin of a building watertight. Rather, the inner skin should be made airtight, and in combination with a properly
designed system of drainage and equalization of air pressure, this will achieve a more satisfactory and maintenance-free weatherproof wall than one which aims to be watertight at the outer face. Better wall and window design is achieved through an understanding of the drained joint principle, even when it cannot be used in its entirety. The
requirements of sealants and their limitations are also discussed. Building Research Establishment. 1980. Cavity.insulation. Digest No. 236,
Garston, England, 4 pp.
Mscusseq the use of cavity wall insulation and the associated
increased risk of rain penetration through the wall in some conditions of exposure. The information is based on experience of insulation use and on simulated rain penetration tests.
-
1982. Cavity trays in external cavity walls preventing water
penetration. Garston, England: Housing Defects Prevention Unit, 1 p. 1983a. External masonry walls insulated with mineral fibre cavity- width batts: resisting rain penetration. Defect Action Sheet No. 17, Garston, England: Housing Defects Prevention Unit, 1 p.
1983b. External walls: rendering: resisting rain penetration. Defect Action Sheet No. 37. Garston, England, 1 p.
1983c. Flat roofs: builtvp bitumen felt: remedying rain penetration. Defect Action Sheet No. 33. Watford, Hertfordshire, 1 Pa
1983d. Flat roofs: built-up bitumen felt: remedying rain penetration at abutments and upstands. Defect Action Sheet No. 34. Watford, Hertfordshire, 1 p.
Centre for Research and Development in Masonry. 1980. Rain penetration of masonry: a bibliography, selectively annotated. Report No. TP-21. Calgary, 50 PP.
Clark, E. J., Campbell, P.G., and Frohnsolorf f
,
G. 1975. Waterproofing materials for masonry. Prepared for the Office of Policy Development and Research, Department of Housing and Urban Development. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 78 pp.Commonwealth Experimental Building Station. 1965. The weatherproofing of buildings. NSB 84. Chatswood, Australia, Department of Works, 4 pp. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization. 1972. Wind
driven rain and the multi-storey building. Melbourne: Mvision of Building Research.
1977. Rain penetration of solid masonry walls. Sheet No. 10-23. Melbourne: Division of Building Research.
Cutler, J.F. 1980. Recommended details and general information to overcome water penetration and vapor movement in exterior masonry wall systems. .
Toronto: Masonry Water Penetration Study Conunittee, 30 pp. Danish National Institute of Building Research. 1963. Units in rain
penetration studies: recommended by the CIB Working Commission on Rain Penetration. Copenhagen, 18 pp.
Davison, J.I. 1979a. Rain penetration and masonry wall systems. Building Practice Note 12. Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, Division of Building Research, 5 pp.
The problem of rain penetration has been a major concern of the masonry industry for many years. This paper reviews the causes and mechanisms of rain penetration and examines two basic wall systems, the solid wall and the cavity wall, in light of their resistance to rain penetration.
1979b. Rain penetration and design detail for masonry walls.
Building Practice Note 13. Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, Division of Building Research, 8 pp.
Even with the careful selection of a masonry wall system, compatible and durable materials and excellent workmanship during construction, winddriven rain will inevitably penetrate a masonry wall. The problem
can be minimized and controlled by a good design detail. This Note indicates briefly some of the factors and problem areas that should be of concern.
1980. Workmanship and rain penetration of masonry walls. Building Practice Note 16. Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, Division of Building Research, 6 pp.
Good workmanship in masonry construction is difficult to define because of the many variables involved. A knowledge of the philosophy behind the design and of the properties of the materials selected for the project will help the mason achieve a standard of workmanship that will result in a masonry wall capable of resisting rain penetration.
Deacon, R. C. 1978. Watertight concrete construction, 2d ed. London: Cement and Concrete Association, 31 pp.
Dickens, H.B. 1964. Workmanship key factor in rain-tight masonry. Housing Note 15. Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, Division of
Building Research, 3 pp. (Reprinted from Canadian Builder, vol. 14: no. 1, pp. 46-48. )
hell, J., and Lawson, F. 1977. Damp proof course detailing. 2d ed. London: Architectural Press, 50 pp.
1983. Damp proof course detailing, 2d ed., London: Architectural Press, 47 pp.
Edenholm, H. 1945. Moisture movement and moisture distribution in the walls of buildings. Technical Translation 361, Ottawa: National Research
Council Canada, Mvision of Building Research, 1952, 33 pp, (From Meddelanden f r h statens forskningkommitte fSr Lantmannabyggnader No. 5: 53-76, 1945.)
Eppell, F.J. 1981. Rain penetration of masonry. Report No. 44. Halifax: Technical University of Nova Scotia, School of Architecture, 16 pp. Experimental Building Station 1978. Moisture mrigration across wire ties in
cavity walls. RF 56. Chatswood, Australia: Department of Housing and Construction, 4 pp.
Federal Construction Council. 1969. fir and water infiltration and related problems of non-load bearing exterior walls. Technical Report 56. Washington, D.C.: Building Research Advisory Board, Task Group T-61,
21 PP.
Garden, G.K. 1963. Rain penetration and its control. Canadian Building Digest 40. Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, Mvision of Building Research, 4 pp.
Rain penetration results from a combination of water on a wall,
openings to permit its passage and forces to drive or draw it inwards. Rain penetration can be eliminated by eliminating any one of these three conditions. A building designer cannot prevent the exterior surface of a wall from getting wet, nor can he guarantee that no openings will develop to permit the passage of water. However, through-wall penetration can be prevented by incorporating an air chamber in the joint or wall where the air pressure is always equal to that on the outside. This can be accomplished by providing sufficient free area of opening to the exterior to allow the wind pressure to remain equalized. The outer layer is an "open rain screen" that prevents wetting of the actual wall or air barrier, which is located inward of this air space.
Gberard, R., and Van Laechke, W. 1980. Thermal insulation in cavity brick walls. CSTC Revue, vol, 15: no. 2, pp. 33-57. Summary in English. Reviews Belgian standards and recommended techniques for the placing of cavity wall insulation and reports on tests carried out on six types of insulation to determine their behaviour in water, particularly when subjected to driving rain and frost.
Greater London Council. 1977. Use of masonry blocks for exterior work: a warning. GLC Development and Materials Bulletin No. 103 (Second
Series), Department of Architecture and Civic Design. London, pp. 511-513,
Considers some of the problems which may occur in respect of rain penetration and appearance when such blocks are used for the outer leaves of cavity walls and sets out measures which may be taken to avoid or reduce potential defects.
Herbert, M.R.M. 1974. Some observations on.the behaviour of weather protective features on external walls. Current Paper CP 81/74. Garston, England: Building Research Establishment, 17 pp.
Jordan, P.G. 1984. External walls: avoiding rain penetration. House Builder, vol. 43: no.
3,
p.40.
Kanarowski, S.M. 1975. Waterproofing materials for prevention of windblown rain penetration through masonry walls. Technical Report M75.
Champaign, Illinois: Construction Engineering Laboratory, 47 pp. Killip,
I.
1976. The rain penetration of external walls. Thesis.Liverpool: University of Liverpool, 71 pp.
Kohonen, R., and mttii, J. 1984. Transient analysis of the thermal and moisture physical behaviour of building construction. Espoo. Finland: Valtion Teknillinen tutkimuskeskus, 11 pp. (Reprinted in Building and Environment, vol. 19: no. 1, pp. 1-11.)
Krtiger, J.E., and Loubser, P.J. 1966. Water penetration of buildings. RIBOU No. 200. Pretoria: South African Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research, 6 pp. (Reprinted from South African Builder, vol. 44: no. 8.)
Dampness as a result of water penetration may cause unsightly stains and discomfort to occupants and in addition may have a severe influence on the durability of building materials. The causes of water
penetration through floors, walls and roofs are discussed. Special reference is made to the mechanism of rain penetration through building elements and the use of the "rain screen" principle in design as a practical and efficient method of dealing with rain penetration. Other measures for dealing with water penetration are also discussed.
Law, N. 1976. Passage of rain-water across metal wall ties. Technical Report No. TR-52-75-434. Chatswood, Australia: Experimental Building Station, 12 pp.
Lyman, V.F., and Ball, W.H. 1971. The control of rain wetting and penetration of brick-clad masonry walls. Halifax: Technical University of Nova Scotia, School of Architecture, 8 pp.
Marsh, P. 1977. Air and rain penetration of buildings. Lancaster, New York: Construction Press, 174 pp.
Maxwell-Cook, J.C. 1967. Stmctural Waterproofing. London: Butterworths, 182 ppm
McIntyre, I.S. 1982. Moisture relations in timber-framed walls.
Information Paper IP 21/82. Garston, England: Building Research Establishment, 4 pp.
Moilliet, J.L. 1963. Waterproofing and water-repellency. Amsterdam, New York: Elsevier, 502 pp.
