Fire protection in civil engineering

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Fire protection in civil engineering

Ser

TH1

National Research

Conseil national

N21d

Council Canada

de recherches Canada

1.862

1 p . 2

k. -

r.:

FIRE PROTECTION IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

ANALYZF:D

by

W.W. Stanzak

Reprinted from

Proceedings of the ASCE Specialty Conference Civil Engineering Education

held in Madison, Wisconsin, 19

-

21 April 1979 p. 372 378

DBR Paper No. 862

Division of Building Research

7

SOMMA I

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La p r o t e c t i o n des charpentes c o n t r e 1

'

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ncendie d e v r a i t f a i r e

p a r t i e des programmes u n i v e r s i t a i r e s de genie c i v i l a f i n que

1 'aspect technique de c e t t e p r o t e c t i o n s o i t b i e n imp1 ante en

Amerique du Nord.

L ' a u t e u r e x p l i q u e pourquoi l a p r o t e c t i o n

c o n t r e l e s incendies d o i t e t r e incorpori5e dans l e s cours de

genie c i v i l , en f o n c t i o n des nombreuses spheres de responsa-

b i l i t@

e t de competence mises en jeu.

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c e t aspect mu1 ti d i s c i p l in a i r e de l a conception des construc-

t i o n s .

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e t l e u r adaptation p o s s i b l e p a r l e s ingenieurs c i v i l s . I 1

presente des appl i c a t i o n s pour l a p r o t e c t i o n des construc-

t i o n s d ' a c i e r , de beton arm6 e t de beton p r e c o n t r a i n t .

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i n s i s t e s u r l a r g d u c t i o n des problemes complexes

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methodes simples mais suffisammement p r e c i s e s pouvant a i s e -

ment e t r e u t i l i s e e s dans l a conception. L ' a u t e u r d e c r i t

l ' e x p e r i e n c e du premier cours pour diplbm&s au Canada:

" P r o t e c t i o n des charpentes d ' e d i f i c e c o n t r e 1

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incendie",

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l l U n i v e r s i t @ de Toronto.

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pendant 3 semestres e n t r e 1974 e t 1976.

Reprinted from the Proceedings of the Specialty Conference on CIVIL ENGINEERING EDUCA TION ASC~IMadison, WIIdpril19-21, 19 79.

FIRE PROTECTION IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

by W . W . Stanzak*

S t r u c t u r a l f i r e p r o t e c t i o n s h o u l d be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n u n d e r g r a d u a t e and g r a d u a t e c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g c u r r i c u l a i f t h e e n g i n e e r i n g approach t o f i r e p r o t e c t i o n o f b u i l d i n g s t r u c t u r e s i s t o f i n d broad a p p l i c a t i o n i n North America. The need f o r i n c l u s i o n o f f i r e p r o t e c t i o n i n c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g e d u c a t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d w i t h a view t o t h e many a r e a s o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and j u r i s d i c t i o n t h a t p e r t a i n . A c a s e i s made t h a t t h e c i v i l e n g i n e e r s h o u l d p l a y a g r e a t e r r o l e i n t h i s m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y d e s i g n a s p e c t o f s t r u c t u r e s . A b r i e f review of t h e a v a i l a b l e t e c h n o l o g y and i t s a d a p t a t i o n f o r u s e b y c i v i l e n g i n e e r s i s p r e s e n t e d . A p p l i c a t i o n o f d e s i g n f o r f i r e p r o t e c t i o n o f s t e e l , r e i n - f o r c e d , and p r e s t r e s s e d c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s i s i n d i c a t e d . Emphasis i s on t h e r e d u c t i o n of complex problems t o s i m p l e b u t s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e methods t h a t may be r e a d i l y u s e d i n d e s i g n . F i n a l l y , e x p e r i e n c e w i t h t h e f i r s t Canadian g r a d u a t e c o u r s e , " F i r e P r o t e c t i o n o f B u i l d i n g S t r u c t u r e s , " _- -p r e s e n t e d a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Toronto i s d i s c u s s e d . The c o u r s e was a 30-hour l e c t u r e s e r i e s o f f e r e d f o r t h r e e s e m e s t e r s i n t h e p e r i o d 1974-1976. INTRODUCTION

That f i r e p r o t e c t i o n o f b u i l d i n g s and o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s h a s been g i v e n more a t t e n t i o n d u r i n g t h e 1970s i s r e f l e c t e d by g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d f u n d i n g f o r f i r e r e s e a r c h by b o t h government and i n d u s t r y . The number o f s p e c i a l i s t s engaged i n f i r e p r o t e c t i o n e n g i n e e r i n g i s growing a t a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d r a t e , and s e v e r a l u n i v e r s i t i e s i n t h e United S t a t e s have developed r e s e a r c h programs i n t h e f i r e p r o t e c t i o n f i e l d .

Where t h e c i v i l e n g i n e e r and t h e p r o f e s s i o n s t a n d i n r e l a t i o n t o f i r e p r o t e c t i o n i s n o t y e t c l e a r . I t i s w i d e l y a c c e p t e d t h a t f i r e

* F i r e Research S e c t i o n , D i v i s i o n o f B u i l d i n g Research, National Research Council o f Canada, Ottawa, Canada.

FIRE PROTECTION 373

p r o t e c t i o n o f b u i l d i n g s and, a s a r e s u l t , b u i l d i n g r e g u l a t i o n s and laws a r e mainly t h e c o n c e r n o f t h e a r c h i t e c t o r p r o j e c t manager. The American S o c i e t y o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r s , on t h e o t h e r hand, h a s t a k e n an

i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r e s t i n t h e a r e a o f s t r u c t u r a l f i r e p r o t e c t i o n , having h e l d s e v e r a l f i r e o r i e n t e d s e s s i o n s a t i t s a n n u a l e n g i n e e r i n g

c o n f e r e n c e s . As w e l l , one o f i t s working groups i s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f p r e p a r i n g a "Guide t o S t r u c t u r a l F i r e P r o t e c t i o n . " A s i m i l a r p r o j e c t i s under way i n Canada by a subcommittee o f t h e S t r u c t u r a l D i v i s i o n o f t h e Canadian S o c i e t y f o r C i v i l E n i n g e e r i n g . These a c t i v i t i e s i n d i c a t e a h i g h d e g r e e o f i n t e r e s t i n t h e s u b j e c t o f s t r u c t u r a l f i r e p r o t e c t i o n by

t h e p r a c t i c i n g c i v i l e n g i n e e r .

Many s t r u c t u r e s a r e p u r e l y o r p r i m a r i l y e n g i n e e r i n g works and a r e n o t e x p l i c i t l y covered by b u i l d i n g r e g u l a t i o n s . T y p i c a l examples a r e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t u n n e l s , g r a i n e l e v a t o r s , powerhouses and b r i d g e s . Although most such works do n o t a p p e a r t o have a n a p p r e c i a b l e f i r e r i s k , t h e d e s i g n i n g c i v i l e n g i n e e r should b e aware o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y ( 1 ) . R e g a r d l e s s o f who h a s o v e r - a l l d e s i g n j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r a s t r u c t u r e and what l e g a l r e g u l a t i o n s a r e a p p l i c a b l e , t h e s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r c a r r i e s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a d e s i g n t h a t w i l l e n s u r e r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t t h e e f f e c t s o f a p p l i e d l o a d s , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e caused by wind, e a r t h q u a k e and c l i m a t i c t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e s . I t i s e n t i r e l y l o g i c a l t h e n , t h a t he s h o u l d a c c e p t a s i m i l a r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e e f f e c t s o f f i r e on a s t r u c t u r e wherever t h e r i s k e x i s t s . C i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g s c h o o l s , t h e r e - f o r e , h a v e a n o b l i g a t i o n t o g r a d u a t e e n g i n e e r s who a r e aware o f t h e f i r e prob 1 em. S t r u c t u r a l f i r e p r o t e c t i o n s h o u l d b e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e u n d e r - g r a d u a t e and g r a d u a t e c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g c u r r i c u l a ( 2 ) . Unless t h i s i s done t h e e n g i n e e r i n g approach t o f i r e p r o t e c t i o n of b u i l d i n g s t r u c t u r e s does n o t h o l d much promise o f b r o a d a p p l i c a t i o n i n North America. The absence o f a s y s t e m a t i c d e s i g n approach f o r f i r e p r o t e c t i o n must, e x c e p t f o r t u i t o u s l y , compromise e i t h e r t h e economics o r s a f e t y o f b u i l d i n g s t r u c t u r e s and o t h e r e n g i n e e r i n g works.

The q u e s t i o n i s how t o i n c o r p o r a t e f i r e p r o t e c t i o n i n t o t h e

c u r r i c u l a e f f e c t i v e l y and w i t h t h e l e a s t d i s r u p t i o n . T h a t s e v e r a l North American u n i v e r s i t i e s have t a k e n a r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t o v e r t h e p a s t decade has a l r e a d y b e e n n o t e d , b u t i s t h i s s u f f i c i e n t ? I n t h a t such i n t e r e s t s do n o t i n v o l v e t h e a v e r a g e s t u d e n t , i t i s p r o b a b l y l a c k i n g . An e f f o r t t o r e a c h a l a r g e number of c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g s t u d e n t s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e w i t h a n i n t e r e s t i n s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r i n g , i s r e q u i r e d . A b r i e f review o f some e n g i n e e r i n g a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e d e s i g n of s t r u c t u r a l f i r e p r o t e c t i o n may be u s e f u l i n i n t r o d u c i n g p o s s i b l e c o u r s e s o f a c t i o n .

FIRE TECHNOLOGY A N D DESIGN

U n t i l t h e l a t e 1 9 6 0 ' s a l m o s t a l l f i r e p r o t e c t i o n d e s i g n was b a s e d on s t a n d a r d f i r e t e s t s on s t r u c t u r e s t h a t resembled o r were i n t e n d e d t o resemble t h o s e under d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n . T h i s system worked w e l l f o r " t y p i c a l " s t r u c t u r e s , b u t i t was d e f i c i e n t f o r new o r unique s y s t e m s . I n a d d i t i o n , s t a n d a r d f i r e t e s t s have been s e v e r e l y c r i t i c i z e d on b o t h t e c h n i c a l grounds and t h e i r b a s i c r e l e v a n c y t o t h e d e s i g n problem ( 3 , 4 ) .

FIRE PROTECTION 375 " s i z e and shape" f a c t o r W / D ( 7 ) . O t h e r methods e x i s t f o r p r o t e c t e d s t e e l columns and beams, c o n c r e t e columns, beams and f l o o r s , e t c . , exposed t o a s t a n d a r d f i r e . Many numerical p r o c e d u r e s c a n d e a l w i t h most t y p e s of f i r e environment, i n c l u d i n g a c o o l i n g p e r i o d a s t h e f i r e burns o u t o r i s e x t i n g u i s h e d . There can be no d o u b t , t h e n , t h a t t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l t o o l s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e e n g i n e e r i n g design of s t r u c t u r a l f i r e p r o t e c t i o n a r e a t hand ( 8 )

.

Why i s such i n f o r m a t i o n n o t w i d e l y u s e d ? One r e a s o n may be t h a t t h e c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g p r o f e s s i o n a t l a r g e i s n o t y e t aware t h a t i t e x i s t s . I n o r d e r t o a l e r t t h e p r o f e s s i o n two major e f f o r t s a r e r e q u i r e d :

- The c i v i l e n g i n e e r must l e a r n t o a p p r e c i a t e t h a t f i r e s a r e a d i s t i n c t p o s s i b i l i t y i n many s t r u c t u r e s and t o t a k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r g u a r d i n g a g a i n s t t h e i r d e s t r u c t i v e e f f e c t s i n h i s d e s i g n s ,

- The c i v i l e n g i n e e r ' s knowledge must i n c l u d e t h e t e c h n o l o g y t h a t w i l l e n a b l e him t o d e s i g n a g a i n s t t h e d e s t r u c t i v e e f f e c t s o f f i r e .

Both e f f o r t s a r e g r a d u a l l y b e i n g a d d r e s s e d by t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p r o f e s s i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s and s o c i e t i e s . The second, however, i n v o l v e s e n g i n e e r i n g e d u c a t i o n and c a n b e much more q u i c k l y and e f f e c t i v e l y promulgated by t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s . Once t h e knowledge has r e a c h e d t h e e n g i n e e r through h i s u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a t i o n , he w i l l t e n d t o a p p l y i t when he becomes a member o f t h e d e s i g n p r o f e s s i o n .

EDUCATION

,, What o b s t a c l e s s t a n d i n t h e way o f i n t r o d u c i n g s t r u c t u r a l f i r e

p r o t e c t i o n i n t o t h e c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g c u r r i c u l a ? U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e r e a r e many. The two major ones a r e t h e many o t h e r academic p r i o r i t i e s t h a t must be c o n s i d e r e d and t h e p r e s e n t s h o r t a g e o f q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n e l t o s u p e r v i s e and p r e s e n t t h e s t u d i e s , a l t h o u g h t h e second o b s t a c l e i s r a p i d l y d i s a p p e a r i n g .

The d i f f i c u l t y o f academic p r i o r i t i e s d e s e r v e s some f u r t h e r r e f l e c t i o n . S o c i e t y to-day i s s a f e t y o r i e n t e d ; and s a f e t y a g a i n s t f i r e i s c o n s i d e r e d one o f t h e major a r e a s where improvements must b e made ( 9 ) . The c r e a t i o n o f t h e U.S. N a t i o n a l F i r e P r e v e n t i o n and C o n t r o l Commission, w i t h i t s g o a l o f r e d u c i n g l i f e l o s s by 50 p e r c e n t o v e r a decade, i s a n example o f t h i s i n t e r e s t . Nothing damages an e n g i n e e r ' s c a r e e r more t h a n a c a t a s t r o p h i c f a i l u r e o f one o f h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n s (by c a u s e s o t h e r t h a n f i r e ) . I t i s n o t a t a l l u n l i k e l y t h a t c o l l a p s e d u r i n g f i r e

s i t u a t i o n s w i l l i n c r e a s i n g l y b e r e g a r d e d a s t h e f a u l t o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n e r .

The c i v i l e n g i n e e r s h o u l d n o t b e blamed a t p r e s e n t b e c a u s e he does n o t u s u a l l y have r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r , and o f t e n i s n o t even p a r t o f , t h e f i r e p r o t e c t i o n d e s i g n p r o c e s s . The p o i n t i s , h e s h o u l d b e p a r t o f t h a t p r o c e s s and i f t h a t i s t o come a b o u t he must b e p r o v i d e d w i t h t h e fundamental knowledge d u r i n g h i s b a s i c e n g i n e e r i n g e d u c a t i o n . I t i s t o b e hoped t h a t t h o s e having a u t h o r i t y o v e r e d u c a t i o n w i l l c o n s i d e r t h e s e f a c t o r s i n a r r i v i n g a t a d e c i s i o n a s t o w h e t h e r o r n o t time can b e found f o r f i r e p r o t e c t i o n i n t h e c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g e d u c a t i o n p r o c e s s .

376 CIVIL ENGINEERING EDUCATION F i r e p r o t e c t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n can b e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o c u r r i c u l a by s e v e r a l means i n b o t h u n d e r g r a d u a t e and g r a d u a t e c o u r s e s . To d i s c u s s t h e s e means i n d e t a i l i s beyond t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e a u t h o r , b u t t h e f o l l o w i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s a r e o f f e r e d f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n : - ad-hoc c o u r s e s on s t r u c t u r a l f i r e p r o t e c t i o n i n g r a d u a t e s c h o o l , - a g r a d u a t e d e g r e e c o u r s e w i t h s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i n f i r e p r o t e c t i o n , - an u n d e r g r a d u a t e c o u r s e on s t r u c t u r a l f i r e p r o t e c t i o n , - i n c l u s i o n o f f i r e p r o t e c t i o n t o p i c s i n e x i s t i n g u n d e r g r a d u a t e and g r a d u a t e c o u r s e s .

The a u t h o r u r g e s c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g e d u c a t o r s t o e x p l o r e how such approaches might b e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e i r i n s t i t u t i o n s .

FIRE PROTECTION OF BUILDING STRUCTURES

The f i r s t Canadian g r a d u a t e c o u r s e , " F i r e P r o t e c t i o n o f B u i l d i n g S t r u c t u r e s , " was o r g a n i z e d and p r e s e n t e d by t h i s a u t h o r a t t h e

U n i v e r s i t y o f Toronto i n t h e s p r i n g o f 1974. I t was a 30-hour l e c t u r e s e r i e s and was c o n t i n u e d f o r t h r e e t e r m s . An a v e r a g e o f about 20 s t u d e n t s , c o m p r i s i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y one h a l f f u l l - t i m e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s and one h a l f p r a c t i c i n g e n g i n e e r s , p a r t i c i p a t e d i n each p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e c o u r s e . C o n t e n t was t h e r e f o r e g e a r e d t o b e o f immediate p r a c t i c a l use i n b u i l d i n g d e s i g n a s w e l l a s o f academic i n t e r e s t . The b r i e f o u t - l i n e p u b l i s h e d i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Toronto C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g

Department's C a l e n d a r , Graduate S t u d i e s and Research 1976-77, i s r e p r o d u c e d below:

"Concepts o f s t r u c t u r a l f i r e p r o t e c t i o n , t e s t methods and t h e performance r e g u l a t i o n s o f t h e N a t i o n a l B u i l d i n g Code. A p p l i c a t i o n o f r h e o l o g i c a l d a t a and h e a t t r a n s f e r methods t o examine t h e b e h a v i o u r o f s t e e l a n d c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s a t e l e v a t e d , t e m p e r a t u r e s -

concept o f c r i t i c a l t e m p e r a t u r e . Compartment f i r e s and c a l c u l a t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e - t i m e f u n c t i o n s . C a l c u l a t i o n o f f i r e r e s i s t a n c e and d e s i g n of p r o t e c t i o n f o r b u i l d i n g s t r u c t u r e s . "

C u r r e n t developments i n t h e f i e l d o f f i r e t e c h n o l o g y i n d i c a t e t h a t f u t u r e c o u r s e s s h o u l d p l a c e g r e a t e r emphasis on d e s i g n t o cope w i t h f u l l y developed compartment f i r e s and l e s s on p r e d i c t i o n o f s t a n d a r d f i r e r e s i s t a n c e a s e s t a b l i s h e d by t e s t . The phenomenon o f f i r e growth a l s o d e s e r v e s i n - d e p t h t r e a t m e n t . Because o f r a p i d l y d e v e l o p i n g technology, c o n s t a n t u p d a t i n g o f c o u r s e m a t e r i a l t o r e f l e c t c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h i s even more e s s e n t i a l t h a n w i t h t h e l o n g e r e s t a b l i s h e d e n g i n e e r i n g s u b j e c t s .

The a p p r o x i m a t e l y 30 p r a c t i c i n g e n g i n e e r s who a t t e n d e d t h e c o u r s e were employed by c o n s u l t i n g e n g i n e e r i n g f i r m s , b u i l d i n g d e p a r t m e n t s and t h e i n s u r a n c e i n d u s t r y . C o n t i n u i n g p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t w i t h s e v e r a l o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s h a s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d was o f

c o n s i d e r a b l e p r a c t i c a l v a l u e i n t h e i r work. Most e x p r e s s e d i n t e r e s t i n a l e n g t h e n e d c o u r s e t h a t would p e r m i t development o f t h e s u b j e c t m a t e r i a l i n g r e a t e r d e p t h .

FIRE PROTECTION From t h i s e x p e r i e n c e i t h a s become e v i d e n t t h a t : - b o t h s t u d e n t and p r a c t i c i n g e n g i n e e r s have a n i n t e r e s t i n becoming k n o w l e d g e a b l e i n s t r u c t u r a l f i r e p r o t e c t i o n , - t h e u n i v e r s i t y a d d r e s s e s a n i m p o r t a n t p r o f e s s i o n a l n e e d by p r e s e n t i n g c o u r s e s on s t r u c t u r a l f i r e p r o t e c t i o n , - e n g i n e e r i n g d e s i g n o f s t r u c t u r a l f i r e p r o t e c t i o n w i l l b e i n c r e a s i n g l y a p p l i e d i n t h e b u i l d i n g d e s i g n p r o c e s s a s knowledge becomes more w i d e s p r e a d .

I t would b e i n t e r e s t i n g and v a l u a b l e t o have t h e o p i n i o n o f o t h e r e n g i n e e r i n g e d u c a t o r s on t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s . I t i s a l s o s u g g e s t e d t h a t a l l u n i v e r s i t i e s w i t h e n g i n e e r i n g f a c u l t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e a l r e a d y s p e c i a l i z i n g i n s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n , c o n s i d e r making a v a i l a b l e a t l e a s t one c o u r s e on s t r u c t u r a l f i r e p r o t e c t i o n . I f t h i s i s n o t done t h e advance o f e n g i n e e r i n g d e s i g n i n t h e f i e l d o f f i r e p r o t e c t i o n w i l l b e v e r y s l o w . ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The a u t h o r w i s h e s t o t h a n k t h e Chairman a n d s t a f f o f t h e Department o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g , U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o , f o r t h e i r e n c o u r a g e m e n t and a s s i s t a n c e c o n c e r n i n g t h e c o u r s e " F i r e P r o t e c t i o n o f B u i l d i n g S t r u c t u r e s " . T h i s p a p e r i s a c o n t r i b u t i o n f r o m t h e D i v i s i o n o f B u i l d i n g R e s e a r c h , N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l o f Canada a n d i s p u b l i s h e d w i t h t h e a p p r o v a l o f t h e D i r e c t o r o f t h e D i v i s i o n . REFERENCES 1 . L e g g e t , R . F . , a n d G.W. S h o r t e r , " F i r e and t h e C i v i l E n g i n e e r , " P r o c e e d i n g s , I n s t i t u t i o n o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r s , V o l . 5 0 , Dec. 1971, -- p p . 467-486. 2 . S t a n z a k , W. W., "An E n g i n e e r i n g Approach t o S t r u c t u r a l F i r e P r o t e c t i o n , " C o n s u l t i n g E n g i n e e r , J u l y 1973, p p . 8 1 - 8 3 . 3 . Harmathy, T . Z . , and T.T. L i e , " F i r e T e s t S t a n d a r d i n t h e L i g h t o f F i r e R e s e a r c h , " ASTM STP 464, 1970, p p . 8 5 - 9 7 . 4 . Harmathy, T. Z . , "Performance o f B u i l d i n g E l e m e n t s i n S p r e a d i n g F i r e s , " F i r e R e s e a r c h , Vol

.

1 , p p . 119- 1 3 2 . 5 . S e i g e l , L.G., " W a t e r - f i l l e d T u b u l a r S t e e l Columns - F i r e P r o t e c t i o n W i t h o u t C o a t i n g , " C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g , ASCE, September 1967, p p . 6 5 - 6 7 . 6 . L i e , T . T . , F i r e a n d B u i l d i n g s , A p p l i e d S c i e n c e P u b l i s h e r s L t d . , London, 1972, 276p. 7. S t a n z a k , W.W., a n d T.T. L i e , " F i r e R e s i s t a n c e o f U n p r o t e c t e d S t e e l Columns," J o u r n a l o f t h e S t r u c t u r a l D i v i s i o n , ASCE, V o l . 9 9 , No. ST5, May 1973, p p . 837-852.

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8 . Harmathy, T . Z . , "Design t o Cope w i t h F u l l y Developed F i r e s , "

P r e s e n t e d , ASTM E-5 Symposium on Design o f B u i l d i n g s f o r F i r e S a f e t y , Boston, J u n e 1978.

9 . America Burning, The Report o f t h e N a t i o n a l Commission on F i r e

P r e v e n t i o n and C o n t r o l (R.E. Bland, Chairman), Washington, May 1973, 177p.

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