Studies and reports in hydrology 41
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Hydrological maps. Co-edition Unesco- WMO.
World catalogue o f very large floods/Répertoire mondial des très fortes crues.
Floodflow computation. Methods compiled from world experience.
Water quality surveys.
Effects o f urbanization and industrialization on t h e hydrological regime and on water quality. Proceedings o f the Amsterdam Symposium. October 1977/Effets de l’urbanisation et de l’industrialisation sur le régime hydrologique et sur la qualité de l’eau.
Actes du Colloque d’Amsterdam. Octobre 1977. Co-edition IAHS-Unesco
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Coédition AISH-Unesco.World water balance and water resources o f the earth. (English edition).
Impact o f urbanization and industrialization on water resources planning and management.
Socio-economic aspects o f urban hydrology.
Casebook o f methods of computation of quantitative changes in the hydrological regime o f river basins due t o human activities.
Surface water and ground-water interaction.
Aquifer contamination and protection.
Methods of computation of the water balance of large lakes and reservoirs.
Vol. I Methodology
Vol. II Case studies (in preparation)
Application of results from representative and experimental basins.
Groundwater in hard rocks. (In preparation).
Groundwater Models.
Sedimentation Problems in River Basins.
Methods o f computation of low stream flow.
Proceedings o f t h e Leningrad Symposium on specific aspects o f hydrological computations for water projects (Russian).
Methods o f hydrological computations for water projects.
Hydrological aspects of drought. (In preparation).
Guidebook t o studies of land subsidence due t o groundwater withdrawal.
Guide t o the hydrology o f carbonate rocks.
Vol. I Concepts, problems and methods o f analysis with examples o f their application.
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- Quadrilingual publication: English-French-Spanish-Russian.For details o f the complete series please see the l i s t printed at the end o f this work.
Guide to the hydrology of carbonate rocks
Begun originally by a Working Group
during the International Hydrological Decade, with the technical secretariat provided
by the Food and Agriculture Organization.
Updating and editorial responsibility for the final version provided by :
Philip E. L a Moreaux Betty Morere Wilson Beshir A. Memon
Unesco
The designations employed and the presentation o f material throughout this
publication do not imply the expression o f any opinion whatsoever o n the part o f Unesco concerning the legal status o f any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of i t s frontiers or boundaries.
Published in 1984 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 7, place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris
Printed by Imprimerie de la Manutention, Mayenne ISBN 92-3-102206-7
@ Unesco 1984 Printed in France
Preface
Although the total amount o f water on earth is generally assumed to have remained virtually constant, the rapid growth o f population, together w i t h the extension o f irrigated agriculture anâ industrial development, are stressing the quantity and quality aspects o f the natural system. Because o f the increasing problems, man has begun t o realize that h e can no longer follow a “use and discard” philosophy - either w i t h water resources or any other natural resources. As a result, the need f o r a consistent policy o f rational management o f water resources has become evident.
Rational water management, however, should be founded upon a thorough understanding of water availability and movement. Thus, as a contribution t o the solution o f the world’s water problems, Unesco, in 1965, began the first world-wide programme o f studies o f the hydrological cycle - the International Hydrological Decade (IHD). The research programme was complemented by a major effort in the field o f hydrological education and training. The activities undertaken during the Decade proved t o be o f great interest and value t o Member States. B y the end o f that period, a majority o f Unesco’s Member States had formed IHD National Committees t o carry out relevant national activities and to participate in regional and international co-operation within the IHD programme. The knowledge o f the world’s water resources had substantially improved. Hydrology became widely recognized as an independent professional option and facilities f o r the training o f hydrologists had been developed.
Conscious o f the need t o expand upon the efforts initiated during the International Hydrological Decade and, following the recommendations o f Member States, Unesco, in 1975, launched a new long-term intergovernmental programme, the International Hydrological Programme (IHP), t o follow the Decade.
Although the IHP is basically a scientific and educational programme, Unesco has been aware from the beginning o f a need to direct i t s activities toward the practical solutions o f the world’s very real water resources problems.
Accordingly, and in line w i t h the recommendations o f the 1977 United Nations Water Conference, the objectives o f the International Hydrological Programme have been gradually expanded in order t o cover n o t only hydrological processes considered in interrelationship w i t h t h e environment and human activities, but also the scientific aspects o f multi- purpose utilization and conservation o f water resources t o meet the needs of economic and social development. Thus, while maintaining IHP’s scientific concept, the objectives have shifted perceptibly towards a multidisciplinary approach t o the assessment, planning, and rational management o f water resources.
As part o f Unesco’s contribution‘ t o the objectives o f the IHP, t w o publication series are issued: “Studies and Reports in Hydrology” and “Technical Papers in Hydrology.” In addition t o these publications, and in order t o ex- pedite exchange o f information in the areas in which i t i s most needed, works o f a preliminary nature are issued in the f o n n o f Technical Documents.
The purpose o f the continuing series “Studies and Reports in Hydrology” t o which this volume belongs, i s t o pre- sent data collected and the main results o f hydrological studies, as well as t o provide information o n hydrological research techniques. The proceedings o f symposia are also sometimes included. I t i s hoped that these volumes w i l l furnish material o f both practical and theoretical interest t o water resources scientists and also t o those involved in water resources assessments and the planning for rational water resources management.
Contents
PREFACE FOREWORD
INTRODUCTION (P.E. LaMoreaux)
PART I
-
FACTORS DETERMINING THE WATER REGIME I N CARBONATE ROCKS 1. CARBONATE ROCKS AND G E O L O G I C A L PROCESSES1.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n (L.A. H e i n d l ) 1 . 2 L i t h o l o g y (D.J. Benson) 1 . 2 . 1 M i n e r a l o g y
1.3 S e d i m e n t a t i o n and s t r a t i g r a p h y (D.J. Burdon) 1 . 3 . 1 F a c i e s
1 . 3 . 2 S i z e and shape o f beds
1 . 3 . 3 I n f l u e n c e o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n 1.3.4 E f f e c t s o f p a l e o h i ç t o r y
1 . 4 S t r u c t u r e ( T r a v i s H. Hughes) ' 1 . 4 . 1 P e r m e a b i l i t y and s t r u c t u r e 1 . 4 . 2 F r a c t u r e systems
1 . 4 . 3 T i l t e d and f o l d e d c a r b o n a t e a q u i f e r s 1.5 M i c r o t e x t u r e
-
v o i d s (D.J. Burdon) 1 . 5 . 1 I n t e r s t i c e s1.5.2 M i c r o f i s s u r e s
11 13 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 3 1
36
45
2. HYDROGEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF CARBONATE ROCKS ( G i l b e r t Castany) 47
2 . 1 P o r o s i t y
-
Water s t o r a g e i n k a r s t 472 . 1 . 1 Types o f e f f e c t i v e p o r o s i t y 2.1.2 S t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t
2 . 1 . 3 S t o r a g e c a p a c i t y o f k a r s t i c c a r b o n a t e r o c k s 2 . 2 . 1 P e r m e a b i l i t y t y p e s
2.2.2 C a l c u l a t i o n s
2.2.3 A n i s o t r o p y and h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k s
2.3 P o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n 60 2 . 3 . 1 H e t e r o g e n e i t y o r homogeneity, and t r a n s f o r m e d s p a c i a l s c a l e o f t h e 2.3.2 H e t e r o g e n e i t y and geometry o f t h e medium
2.3.3 Average c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a r o c k mass ( m a s s i f )
2.3.4 V a r i a t i o n o f t h e h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h d e p t h
2.4 Ground-water c i r c u l a t i o n ( H a r r y E. LeGrand) 64
3 . P H Y S I C A L AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CARBONATE WATER (D. L a n g m u i r ) 69
3 . 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 69
3 . 2 . 1 A c t i v i t i e s and i o n i c s t r e n g t h
3.2.2 The r e a c t i o n s and thermodynamic d a t a
3.2.3 S o l u b i l i t i e s o f c a l c i t e an.d d o l o m i t e i n p u r e w a t e r
2.2 P e r m e a b i l i t y 53
d a t a f o r mean v a l u e c a l c u l a t i o n
3.2 Carbonate s o l u t i o n
-
m i n e r a l e q u i l i b r i a c o n c e p t s 693 . 2 . 4 3 . 2 . 5 3 . 2 . 6 3.3 3 . 3 . 1 3 . 3 . 2 3 . 4 3 . 5 3 . 5 . 1 3.5.2 3.5.3 3 . 6 3 . 6 . 1 3 . 6 . 2 3 . 6 . 3 3 . 7 3 . 7 . 1 3 . 7 . 2 4 . 4 . 1 4 . 2 4 . 2 . 1 4 . 2 . 2 4 . 2 . 3 4 . 3 4 . 3 . 1 4 . 3 . 2 4 . 4 4 . 4 . 1 4 . 4 . 2 4 . 4 . 3 4.4.4 4 . 4 . 5 5.
5 . 1 5.2 5 . 2 . 1 5.2.2 5.3 5 . 4 5 . 5 5.6 5 . 6 . 1 5.6.2 5 . 7 5 . 7 . 1 5.7.2 5.7.3 5 . 7 . 4 5 . 7 . 5
E f f e c t o f i o n i c s t r e n g t h on c a l c i t e s o l u b i l i t y The c a l c i u m t o magnesium r a t i o
The s a t u r a t i o n s t a t e o f groundwaters w i t h r e s p e c t t o c a l c i t e and
S o l u b i l i t y o f h a l i t e and gypsum 92
H a l i t e s o l u b i l i t y
Gypsum (and a n h y d r i t e ) s o l u b i l i t y do l o m i t e
M i x i n g o f c a r b o n a t e g r o u n d w a t e r s 94
D i s c u s s i o n o f some c a r b o n a t e groundwater a n a l y s e s 99 T a b l e o f w a t e r a n a l y s e s
I m p o r t a n t c o n t r o l l i n g p r o c e s s e s
V a r i a t i o n i n some m a j o r c h e m i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (Donald Langmuir, I s o t o p i c v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e w a t e r c y c l e and t h e i r h y d r o l o g i c a l S t a b l e i s o t o p e s o f hydrogen and oxygen i n t h e h y d r o l o g i c a l c y c l e T r i t i u m i n t h e h y d r o l o g i c a l c y c l e
Carbon i s o t o p e s i n t h e h y d r o l o g i c a l c y c l e
Appendices 116
C o n c e n t r a t i o n u n i t s and c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r s T a b l e o f w a t e r a n a l y s e s
H e n r i S c h o e l l e r , e t a l . )
s i g n i f i c a n c e (R.M. Brown, e t a i . ) 104
HYDROLOGY OF CARBONATE AREAS
, I n t r o d u c t i o n ( H a r r y E. LeGrand) Runoff and d i s c h a r g e ( B . I . K u d e l i n )
R u n o f f and d i s c h a r g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n k a r s t i c a r e a s R e l a t i o n between r u n o f f and p r e c i p i t a t i o n
R o l e s o f o t h e r f a c t o r s I n f i l t r a t i o n ( H a b i b Z e b i d i )
I n f i l t r a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f k a r s t t e r r a i n
R e l a t i o n s h i p o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n t o i n f i l t r a t i o n and r a t e o f i n f i l t r a t i o n
O u t l e t s (M. Herak and D . J . Burdon) D i f f u s e o u t l e t s
C o n c e n t r a t e d o u t l e t s
S p r i n g d i s c h a r g e i n t o ponds and l a k e s S u r f a c e d i s c h a r g e t o a l l u v i a l a q u i f e r s Submarine s p r i n g d i s c h a r g e
GEOMORPHOLOGY
I n t r o d u c t i o n (L.A. H e i n d l )
K a r s t l a n d f o r m f e a t u r e s and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s C l a s s i f i c a t i o n based on l a n d f o r m
C l a s s i f i c a t i o n system p r o p o s e d b y Q u i n l a n P s e u d o k a r s t
Thermomineral k a r s t ( A r i e I s s a r ) P a l e o k a r s t s ( D . J . Burdon)
A n a l y s i s o f geomorphic p r o c e s s e s Q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s
Q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s
E f f e c t s o f k a r s t t y p e s on s t r e a m f l o w r e g i m e s ( M i l a n Herak) T a b u l a r s h a l l o w k a r s t
B a s i n k a r s t F l u v i o k a r s t
F o l d e d s h a l l o w k a r s t Deep k a r s t
1 3 1 1 3 1 1 3 1
134
138
1 4 3 143 143
147 147 148 149
152
PART II
-
P R A C T I C E S 1576 . METHODS OF INVESTIGATION 157
6 . 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n (L.A. H e i n d l ) 157
6 . 2 G e o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s (L.A. H e i n d l , H.E. LeGrand and V.T. S t r i n g f i e l d ) 158 6 . 2 . 1 F i e l d s t u d i e s
6 ..2.2 6 . 2 . 3 6.2.4 6.3 6 . 3 . 1 6 . 3 . 2 6.3.3 6.3.4 6 . 3 . 5 6 . 3 . 6 6 . 4 6 . 4 . 1 6 . 4 . 2 6 . 4 . 3 6 . 5 6 . 5 . 1 6.5.2 6 . 5 . 3 6 . 5 . 5 6.6 6 . 6 . 1 6 . 6 . 2 6 . 6 . 3 6.7 6 . 7 . 1 6 . 7 . 2 6.7.3 6.7.4 6.7.5 6 . 7 . 6 6.7.7 6 . 7 . 8 6 . 8 6 . 8 . 1 6.8.2 6 . 8 . 3 6 . 8 . 4 6 . 9 6 . 9 . 1 6 . 9 . 2 6 . 9 . 3 6.5 .,4
7.
7 . 1 7.2 7.2.1 7.2.2 7 . 2 . 3 7.3 7 . 3 . 1 7 . 3 . 2 7.3.3 7.3.4 7.4 7 . 4 . 1 7 . 4 . 2
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e s u l t s P r e s e n t a t i o n o f r e s u l t s
F i e l d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f m i n e r a l s (D.J. Burdon) Remote s e n s i n g (P.E. LaMoreaux and B.M. W i l s o n ) Examples o f uses
A e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s S a t e l l i t e imagery
Thermal i n f r a r e d imagery Radar
Data s o u r c e s
G e o p h y s i c a l p r o s p e c t i n g
S u r f a c e methods (J.L. A s t i e r ) B o r e h o l e methods
A i r b o r n e methods Geochemical methods
D i s s o l v e d s o l i d s and gases i n v e s t i g a t i o n s N e u t r o n a c t i v a t i o n a n a l y s i s
E n v i r o n m e n t a l i s * o t o p e h y d r o g e o l o g y ( I A E A s t a f f ) A r t i f i c i a l i s o t o p e h y d r o l o g y
Combined use o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s o t o p e s and a r t i f i c i a l t r a c e r s L a b o r a t o r y d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f p o r o s i t y
L a b o r a t o r y measurement o f p e r m e a b i l i t y F i e l d t e s t s
H y d r o l o g i c o b s e r v a t i o n s and t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ( B . I . K u d e l i n ) 237 O b s e r v a t i o n a l n e t w o r k s
P r e c i p i t a t i o n R u n o f f
E v a p o r a t i o n and r e l a t e d m e t e o r o l o g i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s I n f i l t r a t i o n and i n f l o w
S p r i n g s
Groundwater o b s e r v a t i o n s
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n and p r e s e n t a t i o n o f r e s u l t s
Water b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s ( H a b i b Z e b i d i and H. S c h o e l l e r ) G e n e r a l case o f o v e r a l l w a t e r b a l a n c e
Recession c u r v e
S p e c i a l case o f o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s o r p i e z o m e t e r s C o n c l u s i o n
H y d r o l o g i c mapping ( B a s h i r A. Memon and B e t t y M. W i l s o n ) H y d r o g e o l o g i c a l mapping
I n t e r p r e t i v e maps Water r e s o u r c e s maps
D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a q u i f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( G i l b e r t Castany) 210 166
1 7 1
186
247
259
DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF KARST GROUNDWATER RESOURCES
I n t r o d u c t i o n ( S t a n l e y W. Posey) Resource e v a l u a t i o n
Q u a n t i t a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n ( S t a n l e y W. Posey) Q u a l i t a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n ( S t a n l e y W. Posey) System a n a l y s i s ( S t a n l e y W. Posey)
Development ( A r i e I s s a r and S t a n l e y W. Posey) P r e l i m i n a r y s t u d i e s
Development t e c h n i q u e s
D i s t r i b u t i o n systems ( S t a n l e y W. Poçey)
Consequences o f development ( S t a n l e y W. Posey) Management ( S t a n l e y W. Posey)
G e n e r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s
Ground-water management f u n c t i o n s
2 6 1 2 6 1 2 6 1
267
274
8. METHODS OF COST ESTIMATION (D.J. Burdon) 279
8 . 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 279
8.2 C o s t o f s u r v e y s and i n v e s t i g a t i o n s 2 80
8 . 2 . 1 G e n e r a l f a c t o r s d e t e r m i n i n g c o s t o f s u r v e y s and i n v e s t i g a t i o n s 8.2.2 E s t i m a t e s o f c o s t i n u n i t s o f a r e a i n v e s t i g a t e d
8 . 2 . 3 E s t i m a t e s o f c o s t b y p r o j e c t approach
8.3 8 . 3 . 1 8 . 3 . 2 8.3.3 8 . 3 . 4 8 . 3 . 5 8.3.6 8 . 3 . 7 8 . 3 . 8 8.4 8 . 4 . 1 8 . 4 . 2 8 . 4 . 3 8 . 4 . 4 8.5 8 . 5 . 1 8 . 5 . 2 8 . 5 . 3 8.5.4 8 . 6 8 . 6 . 1 8 . 6 . 2 8.7 8.8
C o s t o f g r o u n d w a t e r development
G e n e r a l case
-
c o s t o f b o r e h o l e s and pumps C o s t o f d r i l l i n gC o s t o f c l e a n i n g , a c i d i z i n g and b l a s t i n g b o r e h o l e s Cost o f t e s t p u m p i n g
C o s t o f c a s i n g and s c r e e n s C o s t o f pumps and m o t o r s
C o s t o f s u r f a c e f i t t i n g s and access C o s t o f s h a f t s and g a l l e r i e s
C o s t o f groundwater e x t r a c t i o n
The groundwater development and p r o t e c t i o n s i t u a t i o n F i x e d c o s t s
O p e r a t i n g c o s t s C o s t o f w a t e r
C o s t o f g r o u n d w a t e r r e c h a r g e and management Recharge o f k a r s t a q u i f e r s
Example o f c o s t c a l c u l a t i o n f o r groundwater r e c h a r g e Cost o f r e c o v e r i n g r e c h a r g e d groundwater
I d e a s on c o s t s o f groundwater management Cost o f groundwater f o r i r r i g a t i o n
A c t u a l c o s t o f i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r o b t a i n e d f r o m underground P r i c e p a i d f o r i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r
Comparative c o s t s o f s u r f a c e and u n d e r g r o u n d w a t e r F e a s i b i l i t y s t u d y f o r p l a n n i n g and i n v e s t m e n t purposes
282
291
297
300
303 303 SELECTED B I B L I O G R A P H Y
CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
307 345
Foreword
T h i s Guide was p r e p a r e d as p a r t o f t h e p r o g r a m o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l H y d r o l o g i c a l Decade ( I H D ) . I t was o r i g i n a l l y o r g a n i z e d b y t h e W o r k i n g Group on t h e H y d r o l o g y o f Carbonate Rocks i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n B a s i n , w h i c h was c o n s t i t u t e d h y t h e I H D C o o r d i n a t i n g C o u n c i l i n t h e f i r s t y e a r o f t h e Decade, 1 9 6 5 . The t e c h n i c a l s e c r e t a r i a t was p r o v i d e d b y t h e Food and A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i z a t i o n , s p e c i f i c a l l y t h r o u g h i t s Water Resources and Development S e r v i c e
i n t h e Land a n d Water Development D i v i s i o n o f t h e A g r i c u l t u r e Department.
The W o r k i n g Group was u n d e r t h e Chairmanship o f P r o f . M i l a n Herak o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Zagreb, Y u g o s l a v i a . I t s members were: D r . E. K a r a g e o r g i o u (Greece)
,
P r o f . E. T o n g i o r g i ( I t a l y ),
M r . A. Hernanz ( S p a i n ),
D r . H. Z e b i d i ( T u n i s i a ),
D r . El. Herak ( Y u g o s l a v i a ),
D r . G. Castany ( I A H ),
P r o f . H. S c h o e l l e r (IASH),
and M r . J. A. Da C o s t a (UNESCO). O b s e r v e r s were: M r . J. R. P e l a e z Pruneda ( S p a i n ),
D r . L. A. H e i n d l (USA),
and D r . Y. B. O s i p o v (USSR). Members o f t h e T e c h n i c a l S e c r e t a r i a t p r o v i d e d b y FAO were: D r . D. J. Burdon, C o n s u l . t i n g H y d r o g e o l o g i s t,
Land and Water Development D i v i s i o n ; M r . C. E.Houston
,
C h i e f,
Water Resources and Development S e r v i c e,
Land and Water Development D i v i s i o n ; M r . R. G. Thomas, H y d r o g e o l o g i s t , Water Resources and Development S e r v i c e , Land and Water Development D i v i s i o n .A t i t s t h i r d m e e t i n g , h e l d i n 1971 i n T u n i s , t h e W o r k i n g Group asked D r s . L. A. H e i n d l , G. Castany and H. S c h o e l l e r t o a c t as e d i t o r s , w i t h D r . H e i n d l assuminçr c h a i r m a n s h i p .
P a r t i c u l a r t h a n k s a r e due t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s N a t i o n a l Committee f o r t h e I H D and i t s Work Group on H y d r o l o g y o f Carbonate T e r r a i n s f o r c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f m a t e r i a l and f o r making D r . H e i n d l a v a i l a b l e f o r h i s t a s k . The U S I I H D Work Group was c h a i r e d s u c c e s s f u l l y b y M r . V. T. S t r i n g f i e l d o f t h e U. S. G e o l o g i c a l Survey ( 1 9 6 7 - 7 2 ) and D r . P. E. LaMoreaux, D i r e c t o r o f t h e G e o l o g i c a l Survey o f Alabama ( 1 9 7 2 - 7 5 )
,
and composed o f D r . W i l l i a m Back, D r . H e i n d l , M r . H. E.LeGrand, and D r . G. B. Maxey.
The p r e s e n t E d i t o r s r e c o g n i z e t h a t many c o m p i l a t i o n s such as t h i s Guide w h i c h i s t h e p r o d u c t o f many a u t h o r s from many c o u n t r i e s , w i l l b e marked b y unevenness o f c o n t e n t
,
s t y l e,
and emphasis. T h i s m a n u s c r i p t has r e c e i v e d t h e s i n c e r e r e v i e w and r e v i s i o n o f a g r e a t many k a r s t s p e c i a l i s t s as a l a b o r o f l o v e . The o r i q i n a l m a n u s c r i p t was a v e r y l a r g e c o l l e c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l p a p e r s w r i t t e n i n d i f f e r e n t f o r m a t , s t y l e s , and E n g l i s h . These o r i g i n a l m a n u s c r i p t s c o n t a i n a g r e a t d e a l o f v a l u a b l e t h e o r y , t h o u g h t , and d a t a but as m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l c h a p t e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s d e v e l o p e d much d u p l i c a t i o n and o m i s s i o n o f m a t e r i a l f o r c o n t i n u i t y .The Guidebook o r i g i n a l l y e v o l v e d t h r o u g h work o f D r . L. A. H e i n d l , D r . G.
Castany, and P r o f . H. S c h o e l - l e r . The m a n u s c r i p t l a t e r was r e v i e w e d by D r . D a v i d Burdon and M r . Jose da C o s t a . When t h e m a n u s c r i p t was r e f e r r e d b y Jose d a c o s t a t o P. E. LaMoreaux i n 1 9 7 9 d u r i n g a v i s i t t o Unesco i n P a r i s , i t was
w i t h c o m p l e t e a u t h o r i t y t o e d i t , r e v i s e , d e l e t e , and u p d a t e as needed.
B e g i n n i n g i n 1 9 8 0 R o b e r t Fambrouqh, h y d r o g e o l o g i s t and J a n i c e Fehlmann, g e o l o g i s t - e d i t o r , o f P. E. LaMoreaux and A s s o c i a t e s , I n c . (PELA)
,
a t t e m p t e d t o c o n t a c t a l l c o n t r i b u t i n g a u t h o r s and o b t a i n any r e v i s i o n o r u p d a t i n g o f m a t e r i a l . Some responded and t h e i r comments were i n t e g r a t e d . S u b s e q u e n t l y , Greg Powers a n d D o y l e B. Knowles o f PELA worked on t h e m a n u s c r i p t and f i n a l l y e n v i r o n m e n t a l g e o l o g i s t B e t t y W i l s o n b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r and e d i t e d t h e f i n a l m a n u s c r i p t t r a n s m i t t e d f o r p u b l i c a t i o n w i t h t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e f r o m D r . B a s h i r A. Memon. O t h e r s e n i o r s t a f f members w i t h PELA p r o v i d i n g g e o l o g i s t . W i l s o n w i t h s u p p o r t i n c l u d e d M r . W i l l i a m J. P o w e l l , D r . T r a v i s H. Hughes, M r .S t a n Posey, and M r . Jon Dow.
E v e r y a t t e m p t was made t o r e t a i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c i n t e g r i t y o f t-he o r i g i n a l m a n u s c r i p t a n d t o i d e n t i f y t h e o r i g i n a l a u t h o r s . However, t o p r o v i d e ' a m a n u s c r i p t w i t h c o n t i n u i t y and w i t h a minimum o f r e p e t i t i o n , i t was n e c e s s a r y
t o d e l e t e many sentences, p a r a g r a p h s and even s e c t i o n s . Some s e c t i o n s were combined o r r e - o r g a n i z e d w i t h o t h e r s and some s u p p l e m e n t a l m a t e r i a l added f o r c o n t i n u i t y . A few s e c t i o n s were t o t a l l y r e w r i t t e n b y new a u t h o r s ; t h e y i n c l u d e s e c t i o n 1 . 4 w h i c h was r e w r i t t e n by T r a v i s Hughes. The o r i g i n a l m a n u s c r i p t was n e v e r c o m p l e t e d b y t h e l a t e L. A. H e i n d l . D o n a l d Langmuir r e w r o t e C h a p t e r 3 u s i n g t h e p r e v i o u s m a n u s c r i p t and p i o n e e r i n g work o f H e n r i S c h o e l l e r as t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r much o f t h e work. I n p l a c e s t h e e d i t o r s p r o v i d e d a d d i t i o n a l r e f e r e n c e s t o more r e c e n t o r s u p p l e m e n t a l l i t e r a t u r e as an a i d t o t h e r e a d e r .
S e c t i o n s and s u b s e c t i o n s w h i c h c a r r y a u t h o r s ' names a r e t h o s e w h i c h were u s e d w i t h m i n o r r e v i e w . Some s e c t i o n s f o r w h i c h n o a.uthor i s l i s t e d c o n t a i n m a j o r r e v i s i o n s b y t h e e d i t o r s . The m a j o r p o r t i o n o f some c h a p t e r s was w r i t t e n by one a u t h o r o r a c o m m i t t e e o f a u t h o r s . I n t h e s e cases, t h e p r i m a r y a u t h o r s a r e l i s t e d w i t h t h e c h a p t e r t i t l e w h i l e t h e a u t h o r s o f any s u p p l e m e n t a l s e c t i o n s a r e l i s t e d a t t h e h e a d i n g s o f t h e s u b s e c t i o n s w h i c h t h e y p r e p a r e d .
The e d i t o r s w o u l d g r a t e f u l l y acknowledge t h e many h o u r s o f t h e p a t i e n t and k n o w l e d g e a b l e c l e r i c a l a s s i s t a n c e g i v e n t o them by Marsha M a r t i n (PELA)
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t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y r e s e a r c h by J a c k y e L a n i e r (PELA, and t h e r e d r a f t i n g o f a l l o f t h e f i g u r e s by t h e G r a p h i c s Department o f PELA.The E d i t o r s
P h i l - i p E. LaMoreaux, P r e s i d e n t
B e t t y M o r e r e W i l s o n , E n v i r o n m e n t a l G e o l o g i s t B a s h i r A. Memon, H y d r o g e o l o g i s t
Introduction
(P. E. LaMoreaux)
The p u r p o s e o f t h i s Guide t o t h e H y d r o l o g y o f Carbonate Rocks i s t o a s s i s t h y d r o g e o l o g i s t s a n d o t h e r s w o r k i n g t o w a r d t h e s o l u t i o n o f p r a c t i c a l w a t e r p r o b l e m s i n c a r b o n a t e t e r r a i n s . I t p r e s e n t s p r i n c i p l e s , p r a c t i c e s and e x p e r i e n c e s i n t h e f i e l d s o f g e o l o g y , c h e m i s t r y , h y d r o l o g y a n d e n g i n e e r i n g w h i c h a r e u s e d i n t h e s t u d y o f w a t e r i n and on c a r b o n a t e r o c k s .
The m a i n d i f f e r e n c e bet.ween c a r b o n a t e a n d most o t h e r r o c k s i s t h e i r c o m p a r a t i v e l y h i g h d e g r e e o f s o l u b i l i t y , w h i c h r e s u l t s i n t h e development o f t h e s u r f a c e and s u b s u r f a c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c a l l e d k a r s t . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e o u t s t a n d i n g f e a t u r e s o f k a r s t s a r e t h e e n l a r g e d f i s s u r e s and v o i d s w h i c h p e r m i t f a s t i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s and l a r g e p r e f e r e n t i a l p e r m e a b i l i t i e s and w h i c h c h a n n e l t h e . w a t e r i n t o a complex d i s t r i b u t i o n p a t t e r n . These c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e SO d i s t i n c t e i v e t h a t t h e h y d r o l o g y o f c a r b o n a t e r o c k s f o r m s a s p e c i a l f a c e t o f h y d r o l o g y and h y d r o g e o l o g y t h a t r e q u i r e s u n u s u a l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e c h e m i s t r y o f b o t h t h e w a t e r and t h e r o c k and s p e c i a l c o n c e p t s and t e c h n i q u e s w h i c h must b e m o d i f i e d o r a d j u s t e d when a p p l i e d t o f r a c t u r e d and c h a n n e l l e d r o c k s o f c a r b o n a t e t e r r a n e s .
The word, h y d r o l o g y i s u s e d i n t h e Guide as i t i s d e f i n e d by t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l H y d r o l o g i c a l Decade: "The s c i e n c e t h a t d e a l s w i t h t h e w a t e r s o f t h e E a r t h , t h e i r o c c u r r e n c e , c i r c u l a t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e i r c h e m i c a l and p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s and t h e i r r e a c t i o n w i t h t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t , i n c l u d i n g t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o l i v i n g b e i n g s " . Thus t h e Guide d e a l s w i t h a l l a s p e c t s o f t h e w a t e r and p r e c i p i t a t i o n a s w e l l a s w i t h g r o u n d w a t e r , w h i c h i n many i n s t a n c e s i s t h e p r i n c i p a l f o c u s o f i n t e r e s t .
The t e r m " c a r b o n a t e r o c k s " i s u s e d i n t h e t i t l e i n p r e f e r e n c e t o such t e r m s as c a r b o n a t e t e r r a n e s o r k a r s t f o r t w o r e a s o n s . F i r s t , i t p l a c e s t h e emphasis on a s p e c i f i c t y p e o f r o c k - c a r b o n a t e , whereas t h e t e r m k a r s t and i t s d e r i v a t i o n s may a l s o r e f e r t o r o c k s c o n t a i n i n g s o l u b l e m i n e r a l s such as gypsum and h a l i t e o r i c e . I t m i g h t even i n c l u d e such n o n - s o l u b l e r o c k s as b a s a l t . A n d second, i t emphasizes t h e f a c t t h e Guide i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e m a t e r i a l
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c a r b o n a t e r o c k
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and n o t w i t h e i t h e r i t s e x p o s u r e a t t h e s u r f a c e o r i t s s t r a t i g r a p h i c p o s i t i o n . Thus t h e G u i d e d e a l s w i t h c a r b o n a t e r o c k s w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e y a r e k a r s t i f i e d , exposed a t t h e s u r f a c e , o r b u r i e d . T h i s i n c l u d e s t h o s e s i t u a t i o n s where k a r s t i f i e d c a r b o n a t e r o c k s a r e b u r i e d b e n e a t h l a y e r s o f non-carhona.te m a t e r i a l s o r a r e u n d e r l y i n g n o n - k a r s t i c t e r r a i n s .Much o f t.he Guide d e a l s w i t h c a r b o n a t e k a r s t phenomena. The s i n g u l a r e f f e c t s a s s o c i . a t e d w i t h c a r b o n a t e r o c k s a r e b e s t e x p r e s s e d i n t h e c l a s s i c k a r s t t e r r a n e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n b a s i n where t h e y have been w i d e l y s t u d i e d . Moreover, t h e c l a s s i c k a r s t phenomena p r o v i d e i n s i g h t n o t o n l y i n t o t h e i r own p r o c e s s e s and f e a t u r e s , but al.so i n t o t h o s e o f i n c i p i e n t , l e s s w e l l developed, and h i d d e n ( b u r i e d ) s t a g e s o f k a r s t i f i c a t i o n . These o c c u r i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n zones between c l a s s i c k a r s t s and n o n - k a . r s t i c t e r r a i n s and between r e l a t i v e l y p u r e c a r b o n a t e r o c k s and t h o s e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g p r o p o r t i o n s o f sand, c l a y and o t h e r m a t e r i a l s .
Water i n c a r b o n a t e t e r r a i n s o c c u r s u n d e r so many u n u s u a l and s u r p r i s i n g c o n d i t i o n s t h a t i t h a s been g i v e n a v e i l o f m y s t e r y b y some. Water i n some k a r s t i c a r e a s appears t o d e f y n a . t . u r a l f o r c e s and t o obey m y s t e r i o u s l a w s . However, i n c a r b o n a t e r o c k s and k a r s t i c t e r r a i n s w a t e r c o n t i n u e s t o f l o w d o w n h i l l . and seeks i t s own l e v e l . These a p p a r e n t l y u n n a t u r a l phenomena a r e due t o measurable d i f f e r e n c e s i n p r e s s u r e , d e n s i t y , s a l i n i t y , t e m p e r a . t u r e , o r o t h e r p h v s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e x i s t i n g u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s somewhat more comp1.e~ t h a n t h o s e o r d i n a r i l y f o u n d i n n a t u r e .
1 3
The Guidebook assumes t h a t t h e u s e r h a s a b a s i c a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h h y d r o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s and p r a c t i c e s , w i t h p e r t i n e n t e l e m e n t s o f g e o l o g y , c h e m i s t r y , and p h y s i c s , and e n g i n e e r i n g methods u s e d i n s u r f a c e w a t e r and g r o u n d w a t e r a n a l y s e s and w i t h t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l , s t a t i s t i c a l , and computer-based t e c h n i q u e s a p p l i c a b l e t o w a t e r s t u d i e s .
The Guide a v o i d s l e n g t h y d i s c u s s i o n s o f c o n c e p t s and i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d i n t e x t s and r e f e r e n c e s , e x c e p t t o show t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n t o c a r b o n a t e h y d r o l o g y .
I n s h o r t , t h i s Guide does n o t presume t o p r e s e n t a l l b a s i c h y d r o l o g i c a l t h e o r y and t e c h n i q u e ; r a t h e r i t c o n c e n t r a t e s on t h e i r u s e i n t h e s t u d y o f c a r b o n a t e r o c k s u n d e r p r a c t i c a l f i e l d and o f f i c e c o n d i t i o n s .
The Guide i s d i v i d e d i n t o t w o p a r t s
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p r i n c i p l e s and p r a c t i c e s . The p a r t on " p r i n c i p l e s " h a s f i v e c h a p t e r s,
d e a l i n g s u c c e s s i v e l y w i t h t h e n a t u r e and s i t u a t i o n o f c a r b o n a t e r o c k s , and p h y s i c a l and c h e m i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e w a t e r w i t h w h i c h t h e r o c k i n t e r a c t s , t h e consequent p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y , and t h e i r dynamic i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s o r h y d r o l o g y a n d t h e i r geomorphology. The second p a r t , p r a c t i c e s , d e a l s w i t h t e c h n i q u e s and a p p l i c a t i o n s . These a r e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o b r o a d c a t e g o r i e s-
t h o s e t h a t a r e i n v o l v e d i n a c t u a l f i e l d work, and t h o s e i n v o l v e d i n t h e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s , such as p l a n n i n g , programming, and f i n a n c i n g .C a r b o n a t e r o c k s , p r i m a r i l y l i m e s t o n e s and d o l o m i t e s , c o m p r i s e r o u g h l y 1 5 p e r c e n t o f a l l s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s and u n d e r l i e 75 p e r c e n t o f t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . B e s i d e s t h e i r g r e a t economic v a l u e as a m i n e r a l r e s o u r c e , c a r b o n a t e r o c k s c o n t a i n , i n p l a c e s , l a r g e amounts o f g r o u n d w a t e r , an i m p o r t a n t q u a n t i t y o f t h e w o r l d ' s s u p p l y
04
p e t r o l e u m and n a t u r a l gas, and v a l u a b l e r e s e r v e s o f t h e w o r l d ' s m e t a l s . Because o f t h e i r u n i q u e and complex c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a g r e a t d e a l o f r e s e a r c h h a s been d e d i c a t e d t o t h e s t u d y o f c a r b o n a t e r o c k s .T h e r e has been an i n c r e a s e d i n t e r e s t i n c a r b o n a t e r o c k s and t h e i r h y d r o l o g i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , as i n d i c a t e d by t h e a t t e n t i o n g i v e n t o t h e s u b j e c t a t many m e e t i n g s and b y t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f work g r o u p s t o s t u d y t h e h y d r o l o g y o f c a r b o n a t e ( o r k a r s t i c } t e r r a i n s a s a p a r t o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l H y d r o l o g i c a l Decade and t h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l H y d r o g e o l o g i s t s . A l i s t o f some o f t h e more i m p o r t a n t m e e t i n g s i s g i v e n i n T a b l e 1, w h i c h u p d a t e s t h e l i s t by L a
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Moreaux, LeGrand and S t r i n g f i e l d ( 1 9 7 5 )
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Recent books on k a r s t h y d r o l o q y
A number o f books on k a r s t and k a r s t h y d r o l o g y have been p u b l i s h e d i n t h e l a s t f i f t e e n y e a r s as a r e s u l t o f i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r e s t i n t h i s f i e l d . Sone o f t h e more i m . p o r t a n t t e x t s a r e :
1.
2 . 3.
4 .
5.
6 . 7 .
8.
9 . 1 0 . 11.
Rack a n d LaMoreaux ( e d s . ) ( 1 9 8 3 ) , V. T. S t r i n g f i e l d Symposium.
F o g l i ( 1 9 8 0 )
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K a r s t H y d r o l o g y and P h y s i c a l S p e l e o l o g y .B u r g e r and D u b e t r e t (eds.) ( 1 9 7 5 1 , H y d r o l o g y o f K a r s t i c T e r r a i n s .
D i l a m a r t e r and C s a l l a n y (eds. ) ( 1 9 7 7 ) H y d r o l o g i c Problems i n K a r s t Regions.
J a c u s ( 1 9 7 7 ) M o r p h o g e n e t i c s o f K a r s t Regions.
J e n n i n g s (1971.) K a r s t .
Herak and S t r i n g f i e l d (eds.) ( 1 9 7 2 ) K a r s t ; I m p o r t a n t K a r s t Regions o f t h e N o r t h e r n Hemisphere.
F i i l a n o v i C ( 1 9 8 1 ) K a r s t H y d r o g e o l o g y .
P e t r i k and Herak (eds.) ( 1 9 6 9 ) K r s J u g o ç l a v i e (Carsus 1 u g o s l a v i . a e )
.
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T o l s o n and D o y l e (eds.) ( 1 9 7 7 ) K a r s t Hydrogeology.
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- a n d UnescoY u g o s l a v Committee f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l H y d r o l o g i c a l Program
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1 3 . Y e v j e v i c h (ea.) ( 1 9 7 6 ) K a r s t H y d r o l o g y and Water Resources.
1 4 . 2 8 t l ( 1 9 7 4 ) K a r s t h y d r o l o g i e .
B i b 1 i o g r a p h i e s
L i t e r a t u r e d e s c r i b i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f c a r b o n a t e r o c k s on man appears i n p u b l i c a t i o n s o f a l l t y p e s , r a n g i n g f r o m s p e c i a l o r f e a t u r e s t o r i e s i n newspapers and magazines t o t e c h n i c a l j o u r n a l s , t e x t b o o k s and t r e a t i s e s . The s o u r c e s o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e a r e w o r l d w i d e , i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e w i d e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c a r b o n a t e r o c k s and t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e t o man. H i s t o r i c a l r e f e r e n c e s on c a r b o n a t e h y d r o l o g y have been r e v i e w e d b y LaMoreaux and o t h e r s ( 1 9 7 5 ) .
As t h e volume o f l i t e r a t u r e on c a r b o n a t e r o c k s grows, t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l w o r k i n g on l i m e s t o n e h y d r o l o g y s t u d i e s may o v e r l o o k i m p o r t a n t p e r t i n e n t l i t e r a t u r e . To h e l p s o l v e t h i s p r o b l e m , b i b l i o g r a p h i e s have been p r e p a r e d . The U n i o n I n t e r n a t i o n a l e de S p e l e o l o g i e h a s been p u b l i s h i n g s p e l e o g i c a l a b s t r a c t s s i n c e 1 9 6 8 , and Tony Oldham, 0 f t h e U . K . has been p u b l i s h i n g " C u r r e n t T i t l e s i n S p e l e o l o g y " s i n c e 1 9 6 9 . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , € o r t h e h y d r o g e o l o g i s t , t h e s e c o l l e c t i o n s a r e o r i e n t e d t o w a r d t h e s p e l e o l o g i s t and o f t e n do n o t c o v e r o t h e r a r e a s .
" A n A n n o t a t e d B i b l i o g r a p h y o f L i m e s t o n e T e r r a i n s " was p r e p a r e d and p u b l i s h e d a s B u l l e t i n 94-A o f t h e G e o l o g i c a l Survey o f Alabama ( 1 9 7 0 ) . T h i s b i b l i o g r a p h y i s composed o f r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e g e o l o g y , h y d r o l o g y , g e o c h e m i s t r y , and g e o p h y s i c s o f c a r b o n a t e r o c k s and t o s e l e c t e d , c l o s e l y r e l a t e d s u b j e c t s . The b i b l i o g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l i s s t o r e d on d i s k s o f an IBM 3 6 0 Model 5 0 computer and i s a v a i l a b l e i n p r i n t o u t f o r m f o r each c a t e g o r y o f i n d e x e d i n f o r m a t i o n . A second e d i t i o n o f t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y , B u l l e t i n 94-GI c o n t a i n s more t h a n 1,500 e n t r i e s .
The b i b l i o g r a p h y was p r e p a r e d b y t h e G e o l o g i c a l Survey o f Alabama as p a r t o f a p r o j e c t on t h e h y d r o l o g y o f l i m e s t o n e t e r r a i n s sponsored b y t h e O f f i c e o f Water Resources o f t h e U. S. Department o f I n t e r i o r ; t h e Department o f Geology and Geoqraphy o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Alabama; t h e Water Resources I n s t i t u t e o f Auburn U n i v e r s i t y ; and t h e U. S. N a t i o n a l Committee f o r t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l H y d r o l o g i c a l Decade o f t h e U. S. N a t i o n a l Academy o f S c i e n c e s
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N a t i o n a l Research C o u n c i l ; and t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f H y d r o g e o l o g i s t s .C o n t r i b u t o r s t o t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y i n c l u d e members o f t h e Commission o f H y d r o g e o l o g y o f K a r s t o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f H y d r o g e o l o g i s t s ; members o f t h e s t a f f s o f s e v e r a l S t a t e G e o l o g i c a l Surveys i n t h e U. S.; members o f t h e d i s t r i c t s t a f f s o f t h e Water Resources D i v i s i o n o f t h e U. S. G e o l o g i c a l Survey; t h e T u n i s i a n Committee o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l H y d r o l o g i c a l Decade; D r . A.
B. A. B r i n k , Department o f Geology, U n i v e r s i t y o f W i t w a t e r s r a n d ; J. E n s l i n , D i r e c t o r , G e o l o g i c a l Survey o f South A f r i c a ; and D r . D a v i d J. Burdon, Food and A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e I J n i t e d N a t i o n s .
P r o g r e s s i n t h e Development o f Methods a n d Techniques f o r t h e S t u d y o f K a r s t Areas
The w o r d k a r s t d e n o t e s any t e r r a i n u n d e r l a i n by compact c a r b o n a t e r o c k s i n w h i c h c i r c u l a t i n g w a t e r has d i s s o l v e d t h e r o c k , c r e a t i n g such p h y s i c a l f e a t u r e s as e n c l o s e d d e p r e s s i o n s , s i n k h o l e s , s w a l l o w h o l e s , l o n g d r y v a l l e y s , s c a r c i t y o f s u r f a c e streams, and s u b t e r r a n e a n d r a i n a g e t h r o u g h s o l u t i o n openings. As m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , k a r s t t e r r a i n s a r e much more p r e d o m i n a n t i n Europe, where t.he i n i t i a l s t u d i e s were made; however, o t h e r k a r s t a r e a s o f t h e w o r l d have been s t u d i e d i n t h e more r e c e n t p a s t .
E a r l y i n t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s a need was r e a l i z e d f o r c l a r i f y i n g t h e numerous terms u s e d i n d i s c u s s i n g t h e h y d r o l o s v and qeomorphology o f c a r b o n a t e t e r r a i n s . I n 1 9 6 5 , " V o c a b u l a i r e F r a n c a i s des Phénomènes K a r s t i q u e s " appeared and p r e s e n t e d F r e n c h e q u i v a l e n t s o f k a r s t terms. Monroe c o m p i l e d "A G l o s s a r y o f K a r s t T e r m i n o l o g y " i n 1 9 7 0 , and i n 1 9 7 3 , a m u l t i l i n g u a l g l o s s a r v was p u b l i s h e d b y UNESCO. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , Gams' " S l o v e n s k a K r a s k a T e r m i n o l o g i j a " ( 1 9 7 3 ) has n o t been t r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l S l o v e n i a n t o E n g l i s h . L e s s comprehensive
g l o s s a r i e s have appeared a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f s e v e r a l b o o k s o n k a r s t ( S w e e t i n g , 1 9 7 3 ) B u r g e r and D u b e r t r e t ( 1 9 7 5 ) and e l s e w h e r e .
I n t h e USSR k a r s t t e r m i n o l o g y was p u b l i s h e d i n g e o g r a p h i c a l ( K a l e s n i k , 1 9 6 8 ) and i n h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l (Makaveev, 1 9 7 1 ) d i c t i o n a r i e s a s w e l l as i n books by Gvozdetsky ( 1 9 5 4 1 , D. S. S o k o l o v ( 1 9 6 2 ) and M a k s i m o v i c h ( 1 9 6 3 , 1 9 6 9 ) .
European c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f g r o u n d - w a t e r c i r c u l a t i o n i n k a r s t t e r r a i n s have come f r o m many i n v e s t i g a t o r s . A n e a r l y w r i t e r on p r i n - c i p l e s o f movement, o c c u r r e n c e , and dynamics o f f l o w o f w a t e r i n k a r s t was A.
G r u n d ( 1 9 0 3 , 1 9 1 0 ) . He and Lehmann ( 1 9 3 2 ) emphasized t h e complex movement o f k a r s t w a t e r and t h e dynamics o f g r o u n d w a t e r i n k a r s t , p a r t i c u l a r l y a s r e l a t e d t o l a r g e s o l u t i o n openings. R o g l i c ( 1 9 6 5 ) h a s a p p l i e d some o f Lehmann's i d e a s t o t h e c i r c u l a t i o n o f w a t e r i n t h e k a r s t o f Y u g o s l a v i a . I n r e c e n t y e a r s , t r a c e r s have been u s e d by many w o r k e r s t o d e t e r m i n e g r o u n d - w a t e r c i r c u l a t i o n p a t t e r n s , i n c l u d i n g Z o t l ( 1 9 6 1 )
,
D u b i t a n s k i ( 1 9 7 1 ),
M i l a n o v i c ( 1 9 7 2 ),
A t k i n s o n and o t h e r s ( 1 9 7 3 ) The ( Y u g o s l a v i a n ) I n s t i t u t e o f K a r s t Research ( G o s p o d a r i c and H a b i c , 1 9 7 6 ) . G e o l o g i c and p h y s i o g r a p h i c i n f l u e n c e s on k a r s t - w a t e r c i r c u l a t i o n have been s t u d i e d by W i l l i a m s ( 1 9 7 0 ) i n w e s t e r n I r e l a n d ; P a t t e r s o n ( 1 9 7 1 ) and A t k i n s o n ( 1 9 7 7 ) i n England; and Z a j t s e v ( 1 9 4 0 ) , S o k o l o v ( 1 9 6 2 ) , Maksimovich (1969), a n d B a b u s h k i n and o t h e r s ( 1 9 7 2 ) i n t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . Work sponsored by t h e Food and A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i z a t i o n i n k a r s t a r e a s h a s a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n ; a r e p o r t by Burdon and P a p a k i s ( 1 9 6 3 ) examines w a t e r r e s o u r c e s and methods o f s t u d y i n g t h e k a r s t h y d r o l o g y o f c i r c u m - m e d i t e r r a n e a n c o u n t r i e s ; a work by Wozab and W i l l i a m s ( 1 9 6 7 ) d e a l s w i t h q r o u n d - w a t e r f l o w p r o b l e m s i n Jamaica,
West I n d i e s .S t r i n g f i e l d ( 1 9 6 6 ) compl.eted an e x t e n s i v e s y n t h e s i s o f t h e k a r s t a r t e s i a n system i n t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n U.S.A. T h i s r e p o r t b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m many d e t a i l e d l o c a l s t u d i e s and d e s c r i b e d t h a t h y d r o l o g i c system, w h i c h i s one o f t h e most p r o l i f i c k a r s t a q u i f e r s known. S t r i n g f i e l d and LeGrand p r e p a r e d a r e v i e w on c a r b o n a t e - r o c k h y d r o l o g y , w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r - ence t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ( 1 9 6 9 a ) , a n d b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r many c o n c e p t s on w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l w o r k e r s g e n e r a l l y agree. They s t u d i e d t h e f r e s h - w a t e r and s a l t - w a t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n f o u r c o a s t a l k a r s t a r e a s , and showed t h a t uneven d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p e r m e a b i l i t y i n c o a s t a l k a r s t s causes m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e n o r m a l b a l a n c e between f r e s h and s a l t w a t e r t h a t h a s been c o n v e n t i o n a l l y d e s c r i b e d i n c o a s t a l sand a q u i f e r s (1969a, 1 9 7 1 ) . A c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e a r i d k a r s t s o f w e s t e r n E g y p t , t h e N u l l a r b o r P l a i n o f A u s t r a l i a , t h e K a i b a b P l a t e a u o f A r i z o n a , and t h e Yucatan P e n i n s u l a o f M e x i c o w i t h h u m i d k a r s t r e g i o n s was made b y S t r i n g f i e l d , LeGrand, and LaMoreaux (1974) i n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d dynamic h y d r o l o g i c p r o c e s s e s i n k a r s t r e g i o n s . To f u r t h e r d e s c r i b e some p r i n c i p l e s , t h e y p u b l i s h e d a r e p o r t ( 1 9 7 7 ) on t h e development o f k a r s t and i t s e f f e c t s on p e r m e a b i l i t y and c i r c u l a t i o n o f w a t e r i n c a r b o n a t e r o c k s , w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n s t a t e s o f t h e U.S.A.
Burdon and P a p a k i s (1963) d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e need f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e r e g i o n a l movement o f k a r s t g r o u n d w a t e r i n t h e i r s t u d y o f a r e a s i n Greece.
T h r a i l k i l l e t a l . ( 1 9 8 2 ) p r o d u c e d an e x t e n s i v e s t u d y on t h e g r o u n d w a t e r i n t h e I n t e r - B l u e g r a s s k a r s t r e g i o n o f K e n t u c k y , U.S.A. S t r i n g f i e l d and LeGrand ( 1 9 6 6 ) d e s c r i b e i n d e t a i l t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f g r o u n d w a t e r i n t h e l i m e s t o n e s i n t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s . Much w o r k h a s a l s o b e e n done o n t h e Edwards A q u i f e r , Texas (Macclay and S m a l l , 1976 and 1 9 8 3 ) . I n t h e USSR t h e r e l a t i o n o f k a r s t t o s t r e a m f l o w h a s been s t u d i e d by Kolodyazshnaya (1961)
,
M o l i t v i n ( 1 9 6 2 ) , S o k o l o v ( 1 9 7 0 1 , B a l k o v ( 1 9 7 0 ) and V l a d i m i r o w ( 1 9 7 0 ) .The t e c t o n i c c o n t r o l on movement o f w a t e r i n k a r s t r e g i o n s i s shown i n a l l c o u n t r i e s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e volume by H e r a k and S t r i n g f i e l d , e d i t o r s ( 1 9 7 2 ) , i n T u r k e y by E r o s k a y and Gunay (1980) and i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a r e a by A v i a s
( 1 9 7 7 ) . I v a n o v (1974) s t a t e d t h a t m a j o r f a u l t s i n t h e m o u n t a i n Crimea a r e t h e m a i n d r a i n s o f f i s s u r e - k a r s t i c w a t e r s t h a t s e r v e a s t h e b a s i s o f k a r s t i f i - c a t i o n . The t i m e o f f a u l t i n g e n a b l e s u s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t i m e when ground-water f l o w a n d t h e p r o c e s s o f k a r s t i f i c a t i o n o f m o r p h o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e s s t a r t e d . The e f f e c t o f t e c t o n i c s on g r o u n d - w a t e r dynamics i n t h e USSR was i n v e s t i g a t e d by P l o t n i k o v and o t h e r s ( 1 9 6 1 )
,
D. S. S o k o l o v ( 1 9 6 2 ),
N. V .Rodionov (1963)
,
G o l v t s y n and o t h e r s (1966),
L y k o s h i n (1968),
and M a r u a s h v i l i (1974).R e g i o n a l maps showing k a r s t h y d r o g e o l o g i c f e a t u r e s a r e p r o v i n g t o b e v e r y u s e f u l i n Y u g o s l a v i a ( M i j a t o v i c , 1 9 7 1 1 , F r a n c e ( P a l o c , 1 9 7 2 ; K i r a l y , 1 9 7 3 )
,
andI t a l y ( B o n i and P a r a t o o , 1 9 6 9 )
,
and i n t h e USSR (Rodionov, 1 9 6 9 ; V l a d i m i r o v , 1 71 9 7 0 ) . Ground-water l e v e l s i n k a r s t r e g i o n s v a r y g r e a t l y i n l o c a l a r e a s and a r e d i f f i c u l t t o measure; t h e r e f o r e , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e w a t e r - l e v e l map o f t h e T e r t i a r y l i m e s t o n e system o f t h e s o u t h e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s ( S t r i n g f i e l d , 1 9 6 6 )
,
and t h e g r o u n d w a t e r b a s i n map o f t h e Mammoth Cave Region, K e n t u c k y( Q u i n l a n and Ray, 1 9 8 1 ) a l m o s t a l l r e g i o n a l k a r s t s t u d i e s show w a t e r movement by a r r o w s on maps r a t h e r t h a n by w a t e r - l e v e l c o n t o u r s . B o t h t h e r e g i o n a l and l o c a l approaches t o k a r s t w a t e r must b e c o n s i d e r e d , as has been done i n t h e T r a n s v a a l , R e p u b l i c o f S o u t h A f r i c a ( E n s l i n , 1 9 6 7 )
,
i n t h e c o a s t a l a r e a s o f Y u g o s l a v i a (Komatina, 1 9 6 5 ),
and i n F r a n c e ( A v i a s , 1 9 6 3 ) .I n t h e USSR, s u b d i v i s i o n o f m a j o r a r e a s a c c o r d i n g t o k a r s t m a n i f e s t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s as a f o r m o f k a r s t mapping has been w i d e l y used. These a r e t h e maps o f M a k s i m o v i c h ( 1 9 6 2 ) on t h e w h o l e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e USSR, Gvozdetsky ( 1 9 5 2 ) on t h e Caucasus, and Rodionov ( 1 9 6 3 ) on t h e European p a r t o f t h e USSR, t h e U r a l s and Caucasus.
A. G. C h i k i s h e v ( 1 9 7 3 ) has p r o d u c e d a g e n e r a l i z e d map c o m b i n i n g r e c e n t s p e l e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .
A r e l a t i v e l y new g r o u p o f t e c h n i q u e s u s i n g s p e c i a l i z e d i n s t r u m e n t s
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s o n a r , geo-bombs, down-hole t e l e v i s i o n cameras, d e e p - w e l l c u r r e n t m e t e r s , down-hole p H samples, c o n d u c t i v i t y ( p r o f i l e ) t r a v e r s e s , and c a l i p e r l o g g i n g d e v i c e s
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i s now i n use. S t u d i e s u s i n g some o f t h e s e t e c h n i a u e s a r e b e i n g made a t P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , t h e G e o l o g i c a l Survey o f Alabama, and t h e U.S. G e o l o g i c a l Survey; t h e G e o l o g i c a l Survey o f S o u t h A f r i c a ; t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M o n t p e l l i e r , France; t h e H. E. T r e b i s n j i c a , Y u g o s l a v i a ; and a t Ploscow S t a t e U n i . v e r s i t y and t h e USSR I n s t i t u t e o f h y d r o g e o l o g y a n d e n g i n e e r i n g g e o l o g y .A complex o f g e o p h y s i c a l methods i n t e n d e d f o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f k a r s t t e r r a i n s , e s p e c i a l l y f o r c o v e r e d o r b u r i e d k a r s t , i s b e i n g w i d e l y a p p l i e d i n t h e USSR ( O g i l v y , 1 9 5 7 , and 1 9 4 8 , G o l o v t s y n and o t h e r s , 1 9 5 7 ) . These i n v e s t i - g a t i o n s a r e i n t e n d e d t o c l a r i f y g e o l o g i c a l - s t r u c t u r a l p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f k a r s t i c m a s s i f s ; t o e v a l u a t e t h e d e g r e e and t h e t r e n d o f j o i n t i n q ; t o l o c a t e and d e t e r m i n e t h e e x t e n t o f k a r s t c a v i t i e s ; t o d i s c o v e r c o n c e a l e d d i s c h a r g e a r e a s ; and t o s t u d y t h e d i r e c t i o n s and r a t e s o f f l o w o f k a r s t w a t e r s w i t h d e p t h , changes i n t e m p e r a t u r e and c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f k a r s t w a t e r s . The m a i n methods u s e d f o r t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e s e i s m i c and g r a v i m e t r i c s u r v e y s , r a d i o w a v e p r o b i n g , h i g h - f r e q u e n c y p r o s p e c t i n g , gamma-ray n e u t r o n l o g g i n g , r e s i s t i v i t y s t u d i e s , m i c r o - m a g n e t i c s u r v e y , h e l i u m s u r v e y , charged-body method, and t h e r e f r a c t e d waves method. G e o p h y s i c a l s t u d i e s a r e combined w i t h h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .
A t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M o n t p e l l i e r , Jacques A v i a s h a s c a r r i e d o u t r e s e a r c h u s i n g s u r f a c e g r a v i t y , r e s i s t i v i t y , and s e i s m i c methods t o d e l i n e a t e s o l u t i o n systems i n l i m e s t o n e , and a down-hole T.V. camera t o d e l i n e a t e s i z e and shape o f s o l u t i o n - c a v i t y development. M u l t i s p e c t r a l p h o t o g r a p h y i s b e i n g u s e d t o
s t u d y d i s c h a r g e f r o m submarine s p r i n g s . T h i s t e c h n i q u e has a l s o been u s e d b y t h e FAO and U.S. G e o l o g i c a l Survey f o r t h e same p u r p o s e i n Jamaica (Kohout and o t h e r s
,
1 9 8 1 ),
S i c i l y , and H a w a i i . C o n s i d e r a b l e a d d i t i o n a l use o f r e m o t e s e n s i n g c a n b e made i n more r e f i n e d s t u d i e s o f w a t e r i n l i m e s t o n e and d o l o m i t e . F o r example, t h e M a r i n e Oceanographic Research I n s t i t u t e i n S p l i t , Y u g o s l a v i a , has u s e d a s o n i c - d e p t h f i n d e r t o map s i n k h o l e s i n t h e l i m e s t o n e on t h e seaf l o o r t h a t d i s c h a r g e w a t e r i n t o t h e open sea. C u r r e n t m e t e r s u s e d b y scuba d i v e r s o f f t h e c o a s t o f F l o r i d a a r e b e i n g u s e d f o r d i s c h a r g e measurement o f s u b t e r r a n e a n s p r i n g f l o w . C o n c e n t r a t e d submarine d i s c h a r g e o f k a r s t i c w a t e r was s t u d i e d by means o f v a r i o u s g e o p h y s i c a l methods by Dakknov ( 1 9 5 1 ) , B r a s h n i n a ( 1 9 6 3 )
,
B u a c h i d z e and M e i i v o v a , ( 1 9 6 7 ),
and L v o v a and Popov ( 1 9 7 1 ) . Moore and S t e w a r t ( 1 9 8 3 ) have u s e d g e o p h y s i c a l methods t o d e l i n e a t e f r a c t u r e t r a c e s whose g e n e r a l l o c a t i o n s were mapped u s i n g a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s .D u r i n g t h e p a s t f i f t e e n ( 1 5 ) y e a r s a g r e a t d e a l o f work i n k a r s t h y d r o l o g y has been done w i t h g e o c h e m i c a l methods. O f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s t h e work o f Back and Hanshaw ( 1 9 7 0 ) i n t h e Yucatan and F I - o r i d a , where t h e y f o u n d c o n t r a s t i n g ‘ground-water g e o c h e m i s t r i e s due t o p r e s e n c e o r l a c k o i a q u i f e r c o n f i n e m e n t . Hanshaw and Back ( 1 9 7 9 ) l a t e r p u b l i s h e d a h i g h l y i n s t r u c t i v e p a p e r on t h e m a j o r g e o c h e m i c a l p r o c e s s e s w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e e v o l u t i o n o f c a r b o n a t e - a q u i f e r systems. Much r e c e n t work i n c a r b o n a t e g e o c h e m i s t r y such as W h i t e ( 1 9 7 7 1 , Plummer, e t a l . ( 1 9 7 8 1 , and N a d l e r e t a l . ( 1 3 8 0 ) has c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e k i n e t i c s o f c h e m i c a l p r o c e s s e s i n c a r b o n a t e a q u i f e r s . Drake ( 1 9 8 2 ) has r e p o r t e d on t h e e f f e c t s o f geomorphology and s e a s o n a l i t y on t h e c h e m i s t r y o f
