Administration and development policy

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I '~''!TED

NATiONS

"""'~ONOMIC

ND

Distr.

LIMITED

":)CIAL COUNCIL

Original, ENGLISH

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ECONOMIC COMAISSION FOR AFRICA Seminar on urgent AdministrativG Problems of African GovernI:lents Addis Ababa, 2 - 12 October 1962

DOCCMENTS Or"T!CE

62-214.0

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ADMIIHSTRA.TIOll AND DZVELOPMENT POLICY (Prepared by

F.J. Tickner

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Acting Director, Division for Public Administration Department of Economic and Social Affairs

uni t"d lia tions)

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Seminar on Urgent Administrative Problems of African GovemlMnts

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 2-12 October 1962

ADMINISTRATION AND DEVELOPMENl' POLlCY

Prepared by F. J. Tickner

Acting Director, Division for Public Administration Department of EconOlllic and Social Affairs

United Nations

62-1.,0339

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Administration and Developl:ent Policy

1. The ffilfly irrlependent cOJ.ntries are so deeply involved ..nth

eco~omic Fro ble.~s of national development that tIle n"ed to ;;ive at~ent.ion

to other c;'.lestions ?:'r1.y h8.ve to tal:e second plEce. Ho..rever:Lt is very important that thUr governmental organization ehoJ.ld be fully equipp~

to ]"eet the dell'.an1s of n;l.tion;l.l developme!lt and tr:at the :,.ethC'ds a.dopted by "heir rrc.nistries, agencies and dep3rtments shruld be fully adequate fcr th"ir ;;urpose. Quit e apart from this intimate association odth eccnomic and social d3veloprnnt, c;ood adrlinistration is in itself an ircportant factor in the sv.ccessful political developrrent of a newly indep3ndent cotmtry.

2. If a govemn:ent u:'ldertakes an extensb.'e developrrent ,1!'Ogrru:me withov.t previously ~st3.blishin..i a.dequa to &...,d effscti ve public adrninistration, i t is lilro to incur delars in t.he schedele of davelor,m(mt be:::euse of

lmi;nagin::..ti ve a:,d 't.l,:"!rlul;" burea'..lcr:~tic ;.;~ edures. It 'I,jill ce~te.ir:l:r

f-i·,\i. it;;)alf cor.aritted :'0 hi~·~r cos~s th':lU :.t 1"r;)1~ld b?ve i:tcurred had

ther~ bero ~fficient El?chinery for }t.~king finfH2cial estiu0..iJes. dad planni :; \{121 ;lisa crc'at'l ':1e'-c.~'S throlljl bad

t1al1as

Llle supply of raw lrct"rial, machinery or nan:)C'.ler. 'L'here may even by int",rruption or SnSIJension in the de\relopment oJ: projects cccailse cf \l:'lforeseen lack

<::f funds ',cud break:!cwns or poor results because pro::;rar.:?:e p1<::=in..; and

C,:E':; rol~ are inadequate or of poor c:.uality.

3.

Jibrtu."'l'l.te1y 1:1any of the Afri C3.n countriC)s are alre".dy equipped ,f. th ,,<n ~dlninistl·fl.ti ve s:;'S :,e:n : ... };ich !\mcticns reasonabl;; .vell. ;';ven so,

Che.f'~9S In tha a.dr:rl..nistrati~J'e structure ^;"2.y be necess;;;.ry as a co~e(i\lenc·~

cf the increesing tempo of /!evelopment and ti:) new delllE.nds rode b;;'

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inderendence upon the 12chinery of Bcvernment. These cha.nges are likely to be brought a1:x)u t by reform or reorganization of the

existing adninistration. This may involve extensive rearrangements or even the creation of net< departoonts of gov'9rnlmnt to lOOet new administrative requirements.

4. A

dynamic adnri.nistr'>tion necessarily accepts char.ges

to

meet the reed for pro.;:res6 but these changes should not be left to come about \U1systematically by unplanned evolution. There l:' .. st be plalL'l~d

developrrl'lnt in administration as there is planned devalop<:ent in other fields. This plann-,d developma-:t of administratioo is an inte~ral

part of the whole soci.al and econond.c planning of the country. To achieve it there must be a \U1it of ionrnlllmt responsible fOl."

administrative planninS and for the carr,:1.ng cut

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adrlnistrative improVelr.ent s. To be successf'ul such a u."lit must enjoy the confidence of every depart:nent of gcvemrrent so that its advice £.nd reco!l1Eelldations 1::1.11 be accepl;ed throuahout the public service as ccmpetent, authoritative and. diain!;. 3I'ested.

5. In

the ne;·/ly independent co'~ntry administrative chan~es and poHtical changes must w:f'!e together. The new Gtlverrur.cnt has to oo;,tinue to aaninister the country by means of the public service

which it has inherited frem tbeJRst. So complex is Dlodem "dmir.ietration th2t thGr6 is no tilre to recreate the administrative systen:. h,).rever

iJn~,ortant mao' be the political cral'¥!.es WhiC.'l have taken place. The old administrative IT~chinery is certain to have 6trer~h which sho~!d

be used to 5up;oort the new gov~rnment and it Imlet therefore be contin~ed

into the new ern ~d it must be improved to mee~ thanew dembnds which are placed on it.

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6.

The former officials of govel'IlllB'lt may Withdraw, or othEll"wise disappear, because they are unwilling to accept the political chan::;6e, or are out of s]lllpathy with the neW' r8giJne. but their functions

must be carried on. Revenue must be collected, import licenses ~ust

be issued, custor.:s examination lIlUst cort.inue at the ports, read

traffic regulnilions lIlUSt be administered, health s'3l'vices must continue, .... hatever the poli~i CIl.l situation and .thatever stage of inde?endence the country ha s achieved. l<ewly ind ependent crontries must not only carryon basic functions such as these, they must also org,:lnize ^tJO undertak'3 new ones, because their OOW' 30VerIlllEnt shave ?!,omised to do more for the people after independence than the govcrl1!rent has ever done before.

7. The accept:,'ed techniques of administration are to some degree independent of politi cs

rut:.

whatever thair poli tical i11~olications they must be follow-ed in ~he :in tere at s of good government :in spite of

politi cal, soc1:::.1 or economic change. No administr"tive sysca-,' can escape from it s own P/',st. New government s illily adopt ,~hey JJ:ay :;:odify ^J they rray change, the;' may enh!lJlce, but they cannot afford to ne,y.ect t,he precesses of adm.i.nistration. They may cooU3e the spirit of an administration but even i f they dislike "he inh:>ritance Lefa their predecessors. they mU'lt keep ~h~ administration :in bein,g until they cnn brirl6 aboo t the changes which they consider desirable.

c.

Administra.tive changes 3.re nOl"Ulal occurre.·ces ⁱⁿ a~- society.

Even in countries of great adJ::inistl'3.tivEi maturity. where political cha.n:::es are ra.rely revolutionary, the ,mblic service 'Hust constantly make changes and"revis9 its rrethods and procedures to keep pace W"ith the tdmes. No administration can afford to be static even in a

conservativa society. The addition of mw functions and the disc<:mtinuance

of obsolescent. services are constantly taJrJ.I".g place in any govem- :nental systffil. Old 'days of renderiq;; services are eith eX' modified or replaced by ne,' techniques. These changes may IT-ake neCeSSiiI"',{

ch:.nzes in the struct:u'e of zovernmEnt and changes in working

relationships. I t is p!'efFrr'a.ble tbiit "ucb "Iterations should be ir.trod- uced gradually but sorntirues drastic ;cnd sudden chan,:;?s beco418

nec:)ssary. In any ca.se modification "r:d ch"n2~ sh,"',ld be the rule and not the e}:ception. Thu;s no developing coun\;ry nee::! feel any aversioCl to acl'devin~ by evclutioCl rather than by revoluticnary m--tho'lS M edministr::.':c::'ve sys'vem suitA.ble to it s contemporary needs.

9.

These arguments apply to two diffe!'snt phas~s of gover:r:urent and administration. They apply to broad Ci1.1estions of ,"overnmental organization - the nu:mer of minis':cri4s, the groupir.g of functions to t.hC) best adva'1t. age, or the arrangenant s ne cessar,{ to ensure that 'uhe policies decided 'lpon c;t the highest lPvPl are l'e5..t:g c?rried out effectively at

tre

lO·~'ler levels cf. sovernmerr~. 'They al::ply ,'Jith 8c:.ual force to detailed chiUlJes in a1r.lirustr"-tive I!letbo:l: e.(j~ tiJchniques.

Thrz^r ?_?::'lly tl-rou,:ho:'1.t the ce . .ldm::-;, :'.E ,-rell 0.8 t.r!I'C'1~~!12:;,t t!:;e ",:cv::r:;,';.1cnt.

If a countpY embarks upon lddesprea.d changes in ecOl,ondc or social policy, its administrai;ion at the executive levels - in the capital am in ;.he provinces and districts - must be met.hodically- organized

for its tasks or there .;ill be no effect.ive results. Estil:ocltes of revenue and expendit.ure, ho,;ev,;r carefully prepared, have no real value i f the machin8TY of assessruent and collection and the safeg.1ards for correct allocation of che $ums authorized, are :;'neffective or inefficient .c:fforts to improve ti18 haalth of the nation .;ill have no success if the local health services and local healt.h officials do not carry out their pc.rt of the nati.;nal plan effectively.

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10. Thus administrative techniques are twofuld in character.

There are the major questions of overall organization at the oentre and the detailed problems of administration at the working levals.

Beth are essential to the executim of developnmlt polioy. They are \!.sually grouped together under the title ^of "Organization and Kethods" or "Organization ani Nanagement^ll• Some prefer to desoribe the broader funotion as the machinery

or

government; some describe this as "Big 0" in contrast to the methoos

or

adlliinistration, Which they designate "Big WI. This does not. imply that the broad !\motions lack method orthat the details lack organization. .ihatevilr terminology is used there are these two fields far administrative development and the term "Organizatim and M.ethods" has this twofold implication.

ll. There is no absolute rule in the oorono1ogical sequence of the two parts. in the organization and methods operation. Some

administrative analysts prefer to start from the bot tom,

to

stud,}' the detailed steps of a specific procedure ani gradually work up towards an organization well adjusted to the requirements of an efficient e.ystem

or

work. Others start from the general structure of the ministry or department and work doom wards tl<olOards eacb individual procedure. There is, of course, a third possibility of a simultaneous effort in both fields, but this depends on the ava:i.1abili\;y

and the time at the disposal of the organization

am

methods staff.

12. The executive structure of governruent 1. determined by political, even constitutional implications, such as the relationship between legislative and exeoutive, the existence and nature ^of a oabinet system, ani so on. It is also determined

bY

the development policy of the

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government. I t a government decides to emba:rk upon a bold progrEillllle

or

public health or social. inaurance, effective ministries of health and public loIeltare will be necessary. Developments of this kind lId.ll have a widespread impact on the machinery of governmmt and services of secondary importance need

to

be made as efficient as those which are primrily con::erned. If a government decides upon detailed planning of the econ~, effective administrative machinery must De designed to prepare Iohe national plan and to achieve its implem- entation once it has been prepared and approved. This must be achieved either through a specialized ministry

or

economics or planning or by effective coordination - through the cabinet or otherwise -- of the work of ex1stin& ministries in relation to the plan •

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The .broad function, the machinery

or

govenl.llBlt, is necessarily a matter for m.i.nl:sters and in this field decisions ^ma;y have to be taken in cabinet. Certainly these questions will have to be discussed at ministerial level and before decisions can be reached, ministers need advice on alternative solutions to the part.icular problem with .mich they are called upon to deal, possibly also information concernin&

the practice in other courn.ries. It my be that advice

or

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character can be formulated within existin& ministries, but in a devel-

opi~ country the advice which is needed ~ concern such fundaluental.

problems of organization as the overall distribution of 1I.mctions

between the ):inistries, the fields

or

activity to be left far goverrunent corporations, tile need far establishing central planning am cont.rol units, the instrwrents far im.erministerial and int.eraJency coordination, the relationship between c~tral and field offices, the degree of

devolution of authority from the central government to provincial

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am local IlUthori'ties

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the irtternal st.ructure

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each m1n1str,v, agency or department. It may even cOIXIern naif ministries ;yet

to

be established or may deal with problE!ll1S Ifhich are as ;yet entirel.;r u.nf'amiliar in the cour::ttr,v. Thus in a developing country it becOll8s almost a necessity to create a spec:i.alized unit to deal lfith

problEims of governmental organization. Such a unit IIIIlSt be located at a strategic point in the gwernmental structure, where its advice -.d.ll not only be 1lIJst:. effective W:t. also where it Ifill itself carr,v the prestige necessar,v for success of its operations.

1.4.

It may evan be necessar,v, as a prelilllinary, to send abroad the specialist:.s who are to staff this unit for study umer the United Nations, or other, felloWllilip progl"1U1IIIl8 in order that they may gain wider SlCplrience thania possible in the changing situation in their own country. When the timso comes to dralf up a progl"a.IIIIle of overall aaninistrative reform, or more specifically ,to study the structure ani functions of the mihistries, agencies and

departments, it may be necessar,v to ask for a mission

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high level experts from abroad, ;,bo will work on the project in close association with the nat.ional specialiats on t.he subject.

15. The improvement of methods is no less specialized a tecjlnique, rut it calls for a different type of approach. Here the decision does not usually ifM)lve quest:.ions of broad policy and seldom involves const.itutional or legislative amen:ima.nts or cbanges. Better

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more effective methods bring clear bensfits at all levels of government operations.

An

i.mprooTed system of handling correspondence may cut

down the time

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answering letters trom Ifeeks to

u.,..

Better ma.thode of tiling records will enable information to be made available in

minutes instead of hours. Detter layout. 0 f offices for receiving the public, lUay demonstrably mal<l:l for easier h<>ulling of enquiries a.'1d more satisfied applicants. better systems of accrunting my save time ani costs in the handling of public funds and at the

same time increase security am t.aJ..;e audit easier and more effective.

16.

In lIE.ny parts of the ,;arld governments are e:xperimenting '<lith mechanized accounting systEmS which provide essential data on the levels am trends of public expen:liture. These are related to the processes of budgeting in such a way that they provide U.nisters with r,he basic financial data required for development plaming.

'rne more hi,$ly mechanized office tachniques should be approached ,<lith caution in Ghe developing countrie 6, out rationalization of procedures can frequently be achieved by the use of modern office equipment.

17. By the year 1960 thirty three countries had developed units, identifiable as dealing with the study of organization and methods • . UthouJh this kind of activity within the framework of governIlllnt ie now relatively cOWlllOnplace, it "eelLS to have originated in the English-speaking co.mtries. 'rhe first goverwnt to give ehe title

"Organization and l-lethods" to such a unit was that of the United Kingdom, in 1941. 'fhe United Sr,ates had already set up a federal office of }~geIllent and Organization in 1937. In tbese two and other countries work of this character had been performed under different titles at least since the

em

of the first world war.

n

i6 significant, in the two instances quoted, that in the

linited Kingdom this specialization is to oe foum in the £reasury and in the United StaT-es in the oureau of the .tludget in the Executive Office of tOil President, in botb countries in tOil department UlOst

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concerned with the economical administratim of the national finances. Of tl:e thirty three units ident.ified aa existing in 1960, seven ,jere located ...ithin "he central secretariat of toe Prime Hinister or President.. Two units identified in 1960 ';ere in Africa (Ghana and Sudan) ani up to th"t tine tl:e united j<la.tions had provided technical assistance in Organization and hethods to four Africa., countries (Egypt, Ghana., Libya and ;.orocco).

I!}. In a lllJlIlber of African countries national institutes of public administration have been established in recent years. SOIi,e of them are now serving as centres for the objective analysis of the structure and Ilk3thods of ~he 6OV~C.t which they serve. others have been instrwrental in helping the government. "ith the eat.ablishment of organization and methods units to assist vlith general scherues of reorganization as well as to study ~lle working methods of specific organa of governxrent.

19. Thus there is already cmsideraole experience availaole in this field of organization and meti;ods and there are a. number of

count r:i.e s from which e.xpert advisors can be drawn for "he technical assistance in this field. '£here are reccgnized techniJ:jues associated ',;ith this kind of work. Studies of governmentoJ. and departmental structure have become a recognized preliminary to a more detailed eJ!3l11ination of adjustment. of staff to work load, to simplification of procedure, to the design of working docwnents, of filing systems, of office furniture and even of entire office buildings.

20. In SOle;:) count.ries Organization and ~.ethods units have oeen

placed in tile cent.ral personnel agerey. 'fhis r.akes it possi..,le

to uaint.ain a very close association between plans for reorganization

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and tr..ll· associa ted adjuSLllIBnt s of staff, but this may lead to

misunderstanding that a primary function of organization and me~hods

is to secure eocmcn1ea in personnel.

the

organization and 1J6thods section is a6serrti~ an advisory unit, .. ilerells~;1e organization and control of personnel is a lIBngensnt function. Although the organization and methods unit has this advisory churacter, it gees without saying that its advice, if well considered and based on

reliable data often carries weight superior to that of a Simple order or instruction. 'rha ud.t shruld not taka responsibility for tl:e execution of its projects out if necauary, it should be willing to assist during the implement ation of iL s recolll!Jendations or even by taking over the direction of operations for a limited period in order' to set the machine running anJ to give an e=ple of ^<10'1/ a particular project should be handled.

21. There are also more intangible but impor _a.nt areas of study in the search for acillinistrat.ive improvement.. Development planning calls for effective communication between the vdl'ious units of

governmnt and betdeen the government and the public. In this matter the way in >lhich tachnicpes of conmunication are used is not less important. than the technical design of communicating equiprrent.

Coordination of effort throl.<gh exchaI<Se of infonnation, through meetings and tnroClgh lllUVual appr~ciation and understanding between units and indiV1id.als is essential for the proper preparation and administration of developwent plans. Coordination of tnis kind delllands technical competence, ,1-llpartiality and indepEndence of thought on the pert of the staff ccncemed but these c;ualiti es cannot be fully effective without an adequately organized adl!linistrative struoture and an adequate SYS0Em of comruunication in which "he individuals concerned can work.

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And:.her area in which nethods Swly is valuaiile is the con:.rols which need to be established in order to v"ri.fy "he achievement of programmes, the quality and quantity of productivit.y of effort., t.he financial aspect.s of governm:mt.al operat.ions, the effect.iveness of nethod adopted and

~he ,;a:y in fthich legal obligations imposed by 'c.he parliament. are being net..

22. 'rhus a ne>il..y independ en t. ca:1I'lt.ry shruld inc lude t.ile 'developmEnt.

of a fully effect.ive admi.n1at.ration as an important item in it.s general policy of nat. ional development.. This involves a full review of it.s gell eral nachinery of gPvernmmt.. 'l.'he functions of each minis1:.ry l!IIlSt De e:xamined t.o n;ake sure t.hat t.oey are organi2lec1 and grouped lLlost

effectively and t~t no funct.ion has Deen overlooked or ~~splaced.

Having determined the composition of~he unit. s of goverru:tant,

effective machinery of coordination must also be designed. 1~0t. only is ttl ere med for a central planning office, out there must be '" central office of the prime minister, or of the cabinet, which will ensure tr.at

"Ill polic;y of tile (loverru:tant is carried ru~ in general and in detail.

The need f<.;r cor,sultation and cooperation bet'ween depart.lllents IlUst

become automatic throughout the public service. Effective !leans ImJ.St be devised for t.he collectim of infonnat.ion wren a decision has '(.0 be reached and for tae dissemination of instructions for t.he decision to be carried cut as soon as it has been taken.

~j. Organization and methods units are in a stroq: positim 1;.0 offer advice on these problems of COlm!U:!lications, which are so important in the effective I!~".nagement of public affairs. 'J.'oey can also of fer advice

on :'he lliore mechanical tools of =agement such as tile design of office foI'llls and 'the preparation of job descriptions and working instructions

am

"he standardization of teI'lll1nology.

24. Developrumt policy is not cnly a matter for the central offices of government. It affects the whole econoq and the whole society of the ccuntry. 'Therefore tl:e local units of government must be effective and must be kept ;leU il1fomed. These loc"l units are of two kinds; there are field offices of "he cmtral departments and local authoritie s Iii th some measure of popular representation and self-governn:ent. Nany h.frican countries have ccntinued, modified or otherwise, the practice of appointUlg District Officers. There are often advantages, particularly in rural areas, in baving a s:ingle officer responsible for coordinating all functions of government.

Tribal institutio,nsmve also, in some instances, been razrged success- fully into tre L,odern structure of gov"rnlllent.

25. The relationship between central and decentralised units of government needs proper organization. It cannot oe left to develop by its OA'Il evolution. l·.unici palities lllUst coopera:'e \'iith central gov- ernmsnt in a wa;! which recognizes t-heir juri sJi ctional independence and at the SiIL.S tiitiD th31r de,lendence on the centre for technical advice ani possibly also for funds. 'l';,e decentralised fidd offices.

or district offices. must receive support from headquarters and

adequate information to carr, out c.heir tasks .lith full underst",rrli.ng of the policy .Laid down 0, the gov(~nment. I t my oc thd.t ... he

differentiation is not so s:iJ:'>,le as between cent-ral and local ~overn­

ment. Ill. some ccuntries planni~ is pa.-ticularly important in schemes for regienal develop:nent, based perhaps on river basin

development, or ether geograpr~cal considerations. For these regional schemes special administrative orgailizat.ion "ay become neCeSSilrY.

26. I t is clear freI!. this analysis that prebleL:.S of organization and oethods can arise at every point in ~he administrative Sr.rllcture.

t'hey may vary fre::., say, tt;re most effective sye ~em of general governmental "

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audit to tb3 best way of handling "r'l'lications a.t a small local employ;rent office. t:.very ministry is concerned "t evory level of it. s oparations. Some winistries 1",,1' be such large orgb.nizations in thamselves th'lt they will set up t.helr own organizations and

methods unit, not described ?erhaps oy this titlemt recognizably r;;eeting this need. This is a developwJnt to be encouraged but no 60Verntuent

should lJe cent €lnt to see iIUproveme;·;ts ap;:;lied only in a specialized sector of its operations. '-'oreover departm .. mtal units are necessarily limit ed in tDeir SMpe md .'..n practice they soon discover that

there is a great deal to oe learned from one another. .sven if a governnront did not set up a central unit but left organization and methods 'lark to individual ministries, it ... ould soon

find the senior officers of these units gettiq; together formally, or infornlally to confer and to compare their experience and ~rjeir

results.

Z7. Consultation of this kind is very important as a means of achieving coordinated advances. Progress may not al~ays be possible on all fronts sllrllltaneously. Advances in individual .eotiaas

of government are to be encourage:!, provided "h.s.t they are follo ... ed later by general ccnsolidation. This will be achieved by coordina.tion and exchange of infor.ntion bet ... een the responsible ol'ficers in the Vd.!'-

ious units.

28. Thus i t =y be taken for granted that the ",verru;ent. laced

\<liti serious DI'oo1em~

.

of tl.is cba.rac:.cr will need to set up an

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organization and Llethods unit or dep3.rtmoot. 'the specia.l requirements of the newly independent country, conscious of a need for improved administration to further a pOlicy of development, make tds even

lil0re impera.tive than elsewhere.

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29. In the new country the organization and methods unit must have direct relaT.ionship to the unit responsible for development planning.

They may not necessarily be located in Lh!il sane ministry, if devel- oprrent planning is regarded as an activity of a ministry of finance or of economics, although much depends en Lhe range of functions of the ministry of finance. Even so, the organization and mel:.hods unit must be located at the V'3ry centre and associated with the highest level of direction, so as to be in a position L ⁰ gain the maximum advdlltage in developing good organization and good methods throughout tbe structure of gov"rnment. '£0 achieve this it must have the prestige given by che support of senior nunisters and of the prime lidnister or the president himself. It must also be fulJ.y aware of 'che direction which developr,,'nt policy is taking and have advance infonnal notice of im;:elliing developrra-lts in order to prepare the ground for the implenentation of developna1t plans by suggesting any necessary modifications

:n

the structure of governr..ent, and by proposing tbe int roduction of new methods or even of new units of administration to meet the more radical departures from existing

policy.

30. Having determined the locatioo. of Lhe unit, it becomes

necessary to find the appropriate personnel. Organization and met hods is not a specific science. It nuJllt be described as a systematic and cmtinued search for i~rovelll3nt, to be achieved sometin.es by am.bitious and extensive planning, sometimes by meticulous attention to detail. 'fhe individual must have breadth of approach, analytical ability and an eye for detail. "l'{le successful unit will have

the varied qualities of a team; sore of its rnanbers may excel in the broad analysis, SCil:e in ingenuity for mechanical improvements, others in attentien to detail. Their selection depends very greatly

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on aptitudes; the ir prof essional develop.,Ellt depends to a large degree on experiErice in oheir task. .he successful soLl.tion of one problem leads to a more intelligent apprach to the next.

31.

This SUd5ests that organization ard nethods work is pragmatic rather than scientific, and that trainir'5 is of lit .. "le ir;,pDrtance.

'rhis is far frOll! the case. l>ven if praeti ee ;r~"kes per feet am success may come from ini'ini"e patien ce ^Oller detail, t.here are certain

qualities nec3ssary for success "hich, even i f frequently irmate,

ow.

be develop3d throllgh training. ';;ven vile a.titud," of mind of ohe individual enquirer am his a,)preach to his colleagues and to his work can oe developed by instruction.

32. 'rhus "he selection at.d trainil\5 of or"anization and lmthods staff are important fe8.tures in "Le success of "ne ul:.ir.lE.te

illlj)I'OVel:l9nts "hich the govemr,13nt lil'ily hope to Ilnke in the adlll:l..nat.ra~

ion of its developn~ent policy and t,e gOVert1lliel1t of ^iJ. new country may find it hard to select and train ":le required individuals.

i~ew !§:'vernmmts are usually short of train()d and experienced staff.

,;hen a capable am ima,~:iJlative ilidivid.wl has o",en found ~here is uften

pre~sure t(, set hila to "urk on an il,a;l,Jdi",,,ely ;:roducti ve task.

Organization ana UBc.;jexis 'fork is only ilriirectly productive and to spend time on trainilJe postpones the ~lOll"mt "t"h ich even tllis indirectly production.a.ll begin. :';raininG of organizac;ion and methois staff must thus oe seen as an :JlVestlllent for tr;e future.

33.

'rile tNinin~ itself is not easily arr"'lbed. i'he .fork is novel in clw.racter am it may be recessary as a firs~ step ~o send a 3'103011 n:..;.clcrJ.5 of staff abrooad for training. ·i'tJis is expel:..si ve ^j

unless tile i1elp of one of ~ile technical aid progralili,les cun be invoked,

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and it postpones even furth"r '~he day \ihen tbe work ,d.ll h,;ve ef:"ecti ve result s. ilowev8I', ,"s already su,~. ,est ed,

organiz&tion aLd methods o'Or k, is to 3. kr 6e degree('1Je systeJ.iatic ani cornparaGive application of eXiJ6rience J.;,d ;ihen '"lle sr,ai'i' is inexperienced there must necessarily be a period ,-Ihilst experier,ce is being acquired.

34.

'>lhen tile se dil'~'iculties have been overCOlJle and ~lJe or31lJlizution IlJld r:etnods unit is estal!lished and fully staffed acur,e proolems of priorities L:r .. edi£.tely ,,-rise j,n a re.,ly developinz; cout,try.

A necessarily small unit has to decide, or to De giVEl"l su.;.d;;.nce in tel"liOS of t:1e 3eneral policy of "he govdmment, on prioricies dnd on the sequence of assi(;;nnmts. • .. t fir<>t i t way oe necessary

"0 place greaGcr emphasis on organizativn 'chan on lootnods Jut

fro: .. thte to the there .. t i l irevitably arise ins~ances ,mere an i,.:provel,lent in H,ethods '/ill have .,idespread and beneficial effect.

':he ^lIOri< of cbe orz,anization <J.."ld llletJ10ds unir, i::.self needs to be organized and ~)13IH!ed to ..Jest advantage.

35. In SOl:le llc',.;ly developiil6 cou.n~ri-, s it rlay be :1ecess ry to seek ti'le :lel]1 of l:iore exp~ri enced scaff frc~. aDroad, but so far

I!Idvise and train local staff rat.h~r 1;1.,dll unUert,,,ke (lssi6nnents vhemse1ves. Success in "ooth organization and JIJ.':)vbexis degends on intirratel:no"led,,8 of ~,la "drninistra-Lic)n and m aoility ~o learn from experience in ~)reviv"s assiOllmnt s. Unt.il local stu.:'f ac(;uire t.hi., knowledge and ex)"rience, the organization a,hi "",mods unir, is not building itself up for the future, for oi", ",:o.;:i.edge and expClrience of ci,e int cn'lbtional expert ,>Jill disapp~"r when he leaves tba country.

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36.

In a number of cfrican coU\~ries, notably ggypt, PJ'thiopia, "bana,

providing practical training of organization aDd ma,;,ho,js porsonnel.

Civil eervants, selected freEl vd.l'ious n;inisGries, areoeing ~ven sbort, but im:.ensive, courses by e:xpf>.rts in c.;,he United .. a1:.ions or other

technical assistance prograJeti'".es. This .;,rainif\g develops kno,[led"e in

I organization and "l~:;.bods 'work as an ins'.;,itution and isouili:, up by lleanS of practical exercises in existing administrat.ive situaticns. T.1US even during tile process of training i;:lL,ediaGe improve;Jlents inoot.b organization an:! methods may be achieved in <:.ne ;rinistries willing to offer facili:;.ies far vois kind of operation.

37.

Thus t.lle effective organization and methods unit depends for its success on co"'rect location <lithin t.ne frall'" war k of ell" adntin- istraticn, effetc"i ve support from the higbc 5t lev::ls ai' i,OV rt1ment, c'l,reful selection aIld adequate "raining of its personnel, Willillg acceptance of its aid by all dapartrn nts, sympathe~ic dealinc;s witil

of t.echniques a.nj t..:" e gradual biJ.llding up 01' <::n effect..i vc t.e~t • • ri th

a long -:;erm int.ere5t in~.'8ir ,york clr;d an int.illllce kno.iled..;e Df,

and aS$oci1.tior. ,{i-c,h, the devel0:txH::::nt policy of c.i-.e :;.ov'rnw.ent •

•