of sustainable development practices

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Restructuring the maritime transportation industry : Global overview

of sustainable development practices

ÉTUDES ET RECHERCHES EN TRANSPORT

TRANSPORTATION

SYSTEMS

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ÉTUDES ET RECHERCHES EN TRANSPORT

TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS

Restructuring the maritime transportation industry : Global overview

of sustainable development practices

Claude Comtois

Brian Slack

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RESTRUCTURING THE MARITIME TRANSPORTATION INDUSTRY.

GLOBAL OVERVIEW OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES

Claude Comtois

Centre for Research on Transportation Université de Montréal

Department of geography and

Brian Slack

Centre for Research on Transportation Concordia University

Department of Geography

Undertaken for the ministère des Transports du Québec

April 2007

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This study was undertaken at the request of the ministère des Transports du Québec and received financial support from the Direction de la recherche et de l’environnement.

The contents of this report reflect the views of the authors and not necessarily the official views or opinions of the ministère des Transports du Québec.

References to a law or regulation are given for information purposes only.

These references under no circumstances are to be used to reach a decision or to undertake actions. Readers are asked to refer to the original Acts to obtain information concerning enforcement.

Collaborators

Chantal Ouellet, Secrétariat au transport maritime et à la mise en valeur du Saint-Laurent, ministère des Transports du Québec (MTQ)

Jean François Cappuccilli, Centre for Research on Transportation, Université de Montréal

Jason Burke, Joe Ronzio, John Nick Sanders and Véronique Vendette, Department of Geography, Concordia University

Reading Committee (December 2004)

Jean-Pierre Beaumont, Service de l’environnement, MTQ

Pierre D’Arcy, Comité de concertation navigation, Garde côtière canadienne Danielle Duranceau, Transports Canada

Marcel Labrecque, Administration portuaire de Québec

Claude Mailloux, Société de développement économique du Saint-Laurent (SODES)

Lyne Martin, Administration portuaire de Montréal

Diane-Michèle Potvin, Service de la coordination de la recherche et de l’innovation, MTQ

Nicole Trépanier, Armateurs du Saint-Laurent Legal deposit

Bibliothèque nationale du Québec, 2007 ISBN 978-2-550-49270-2

ISBN 978-2-550-49271-9 (pdf)

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ANALYTICAL REPORT FORM

Transports Québec Publication N^o

RTQ-07-01

Title and subtitle

Restructuring the maritime transportation industry : global

overview of sustainable development practices Publication of the report (Year – Month)

2007-04

Title of research projet

Maritime Transportation : Development of the Sustainable Navigation Concept for the St.Lawrence

Contrat N^o (RRDD-AA-CCXX)

2520-02-QZ01

Project N°

R421.1P3

Author (s)

Claude Comtois and Brian Slack

Starting date

April 2002

Finishing date

March 2005

Project officer

Chantal Ouellet

Cost

80 000 $

Performing organisation (name and address)

Centre for research on transportation Montréal university

P.O.Box 6128, Downtown branch Montréal (Québec) H3C 3J7 and

Department of geography Concordia University

1455, de Maisonneuve West Montréal (Québec) H3G 1M8

Sponsoring agency (name and address)

Direction de la recherche et de l’environnement 930, chemin Sainte-Foy, 6^e étage

Québec (Québec) G1S 4X9

Problem

Elsewhere in the world, is sustainable development fashioning maritime transport development? What are the best practices of ports and shipping lines? Should marine community of the Saint Lawrence adopt some of these practices to further develop a sustainable maritime transport? These are some of the issues from which an international portrait, a unique reference tool, was conceived.

Objectives

The aim of the study was to transmit to the marine community (ministry of Transport, industry, environmental groups and local community), an evaluation of best practices of sustainable development applied to ports and shipping.

Méthodology

From an analysis of the web sites of 800 ports and 120 shipping lines, completed with interviews in United States, Europe and Asia, the researchers Claude Comtois and Brian Slack undertook a global overview : the marine industry is being restructured; more and more adopting practices of sustainable maritime transport allows to maintain or strengthen the competitiveness of ports and shipping lines.

Résults and recommandations

In the final report, the development conditions shaping the industry are presented. The types of environmental issues confronting the industry are then identified. This is followed by a detailed examination of the development of short sea shipping around the world in terms of operating conditions, promotion policies and environmental impacts. The elements, mechanisms and constraints linked with applying sustainabledevelopment practices are explained. Finally, the competing factors of environmental performance and their implications for the Great Lakes-Saint-Lawrencesystem are underlined. The Ministry supports the development of a sustainable maritime transport, notably through research.

Language of document

Français Anglais Autre (spécifier) :

Key words

Sustainable maritime transportation

No. of pages

220

No. of bibliographical references

124

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RESTRUCTURING THE MARITIME TRANSPORTATION INDUSTRY.

GLOBAL OVERVIEW OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES

SUMMARY

Sustainable development strategies are a reality. Sustainable development is a model for growth that secures social equity and allows economic progress while preserving resources and ecosystems. Everywhere, these strategies aim at achieving a balance between the economic, social and environmental pillars of growth processes. Henceforth, transport systems must be economically viable while taking into consideration the social and environment conditions of the host communities. In this regard maritime transport has a major role to play. It is an efficient mode, capable of handling large quantities of freight, and with the capacity to take on traffic diverted from overloaded land transport systems. Maritime transport is particularly well suited to playing a major role in the achievement of sustainable development. However, despite being perceived as a “green” mode of transport, it does generate some negative effects on the environment. This raises a series of issues at the basis of this analysis. What are the issues of port development, marine shipping and sustainable development at the international level? What are the current best practices? How can sustainable development be applied to the Great Lakes- Saint Lawrence system?

These issues are analyzed on the basis of international fieldwork supported by a review of the scientific literature, government reports and the annual reports of port authorities and shipping lines. In addition, we have undertaken a content analysis of the web sites of 800 port authorities and 120 shipping lines, and interviewed 47 people from universities, governments and industry.

The results of our study comprise seven components.

Contemporary conditions shaping the development of transport systems Transport systems constitute a fundamental element in the formation of economic spaces. All scenarios of economic growth rest on an increase in freight, passenger and information traffic. Between 1996 and 2000, growth in world trade has exceeded that of the world maritime fleet. This reflects improved productivity in the maritime fleet through an increase in ship loading capacity . More importantly, this improvement brings to light the cumulative connections between infrastructures, industrial production and the built environment.

World regions cannot avoid intermodalism. This function rests on the most important markets, those that generate the highest revenues and offer the greatest potential for growth. In addition, the organization of transport linked to intermodal and technological progress is increasingly based on the quality of logistic services.

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Intermodalism and logistics generate major economic, social and environmental upheavals. Sustainable development perspectives are increasingly defined to take into account the role and function of maritime transport.

Sustainable maritime transport

The literature review and the international data collected between April 1, 2003 and March 10, 2005, demonstrate that long-term sustainable development includes environmental, social and economic dimensions. There is widespread consensus on the importance of these three dimensions. The environmental dimension requires balancing of the interactions between human activities and the natural environment. For the social dimension, the objective is to find solutions to contemporary problems raised by technology and economic growth in order to channel changes to respect present and future societies, in the context of democratic participation and international legislation. For the economic dimension, the objective is to orientate progress in the direction of economic efficiency.

The literature review shows that environmental conditions may complicate, delay, or constrain maritime transport. The competitiveness of ports and shipping companies is partly determined by the physical geography of coastal zones and passages, which may limit port expansion and the ability to accommodate ever-larger ships. Technology has given the maritime industry the ability to modify the environment. These modifications that impact on the biophysical environment engender costs: vulnerable ecosystems may be transformed, others may be destroyed, while in some other cases artificial ecosystems may be created.

Our study has demonstrated that the paradigm of sustainable development is increasingly taking root and has become an essential factor in the functioning, organisation and performance of the maritime industry – port administrations and shipping companies.

In a very large number of countries adjustments to legislation are being undertaken to conform to the rules and regulations of the IMO. This study stresses that compliance with international conventions involves both the private sector and the signatory states who may apply the rules in many ways, notably by self-regulation of the industry, or by the controls established by the coastal state, the flag state of ships, or the state in which the port is located. It has been demonstrated that these means of control are favourable for port operations and shipping.

In addition, our study reveals that port administrations and regular shipping lines that are preoccupied by economic and market concerns must, increasingly, consider social and environmental factors in their business strategies in order to respond to the growing concerns of their customers and

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the communities in which they operate. Adopting a strategy of sustainable development may give ports and shipping lines a competitive advantage and enhance efficiency and profitability.

Global overview of sustainable development practices applied to port authorities and shipping lines

With the goal of determining the sustainable development perspectives of the maritime industry, we constructed a database comprising 800 ports and 120 shipping lines. These enterprises differ greatly in terms of ownership, sources of financing, types of activities and traffic volumes.

From the evidence collected it is clear that the maritime industry faces many challenges, problems and legislative obstacles in achieving the goal of sustainable development. Nevertheless, there appears to be a consensus about the relative importance of the different challenges. Through the international survey we ranked and examined the most important challenges identified by the industry itself. Many of these challenges were shared by port authorities and the shipping companies (water quality, air quality, waste management, resource conservation, energy consumption, emergency plans, oil spills, antifouling paints, dust emissions), while others were specific to one or the other. Thus, noise, dredging, soil contamination and odours were problems identified by port authorities, while ship recycling and the transportation of hazardous materials were issues raised by shipping lines.

In addition to the question of legislation, our study demonstrates that shippers are also placing pressure on the marine industry, affecting competitiveness and the decision-making process. Port authorities or shipping lines that fail to respond to these challenges will be marginalized. This will eventually apply across all geographical regions to all port authorities and shipping companies.

The results of the international survey of sustainable development practices by ports and shipping lines reveal a wide range of strategies and practices.

Several maritime industry leaders have adopted sustainable development as one of their major concerns. At the international level, the port authorities that exhibit the best examples of environmental leadership are found in Australia, Northern Europe and the West Coast of North America. The best performers among shipping lines include MOL and NYK of Japan, P&O Nedlloyd of the United Kingdom and Wallenius Lines of Sweden.

Short sea shipping

Short sea shipping appears to be the transport mode most capable of resolving many of the problems brought about by the increased use of transport in the context of sustainable development. Many countries around the world have recognized the importance of promoting short sea shipping because it possesses a number of commercial and environmental advantages. More

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detailed analysis reveals, however, that this perspective has to be nuanced.

Inevitably, different components of the industry give rise to a wide range of environmental benefits as well as drawbacks. Moreover, the tools available to promote the industry differ considerably. Any promotion has to recognize the strengths and weaknesses of short sea shipping, especially in terms of taxation and administrative procedures. Developing short sea shipping also requires that the links with other modes be harmonized, which in turn raises problems of investment allocation.

International portrait of the policies to promote short sea shipping

Sustainable development is at the heart of the main interventions promoting short sea shipping, but we have observed that environmental concerns remain secondary. The diffusion of knowledge concerning best practices has been a critical factor in the promotion of short sea shipping, particularly if this promotion provides evidence of integration in transport chains. Promotion requires the participation of all levels of government, and administrative as well as political action is required. The evidence points to the greatest success being achieved by a relatively small number of government agents who have experience and responsibility for short sea shipping.

Applying sustainable development strategies to the maritime industry Relations between ports, maritime transport and sustainable development take place at many geographical scales. Our study demonstrates the particular relevance of importing knowledge, experience and practices of sustainability applied to ports and shipping. For several years the concept of sustainable development has led several port administrations and shipping lines to adopt sustainability as a fundamental principle of their business policies and to implement measures to reduce the environmental impacts of their activities.

Our study indicates that there are many ways in which to implement sustainable development that take into account social, economic and environmental factors. One of the bases of all these methods is an environmental management system, to which social and economic dimensions are added. Our detailed interviews reveal the increasing adoption of environmental management systems by port authorities and regular shipping lines in many parts of the world.

There exist many different environmental management systems. Our study suggests that the choice is particular to each enterprise, based on the risks measured or perceived by the enterprise and on the geographic milieu of the company’s operations. The structure of an environmental management system for ports and shipping lines is complex. However, several basic interrelated factors need to be considered in the elaboration of a management program.

The adoption of an environmental management system (EMS) requires the

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conformity of marine operations with environmental legislation. The most elaborate EMSs involve international certification.

All environmental management systems are influenced by constraints of application and by management strategies. The trajectories of sustainable development depend upon the roles port authorities and shipping companies can or should play in the process. There are several measures that need to be put in place to facilitate the administration of a system in the maritime industry.

These include quantifying indicators, formulating a schedule of operations, establishing environmental standards, fixing responsibilities, planning control mechanisms and selecting sustainable development measures.

Our analysis underlines the important role of governments in elaborating policies, strategies and measures to attain the social, economic and environmental goals of sustainable development. Having defined these goals, the best way to implement them is to transfer the responsibility to port authorities and shipping companies themselves. These actors can thus apply the policies in light of their particular geographical and sectoral conditions.

Our study has revealed a great interest of port authorities and shipping lines in performance indicators. These indicators should: 1) measure the human resource and financial implications of existing environmental and sustainability efforts; 2) compare this performance over time; and 3) communicate the results to shareholders, the community and the government. Applying performance indicators is a means of integrating environmental management within the traditional commercial interests of the enterprise.

Great Lakes–Saint Lawrence system

Comparing the grand axes of fluvial transport in the world reveals that the Saint Lawrence is a privileged system, but is one that is under-utilized for freight transportation.

Important progress towards sustainable development has been made by different levels of government in Canada over the past few years. In Québec, this is manifest with the publication of the Maritime and Fluvial Transport Policy. Nevertheless, important lacunae in laws and policies are evident.

Certain problems that have been recognized internationally, such as soil contamination, dust emissions, odours, noise etc. have not been properly addressed by legislation in Canada.

Interviews undertaken in Québec reveal that only the port of Montréal has an environmental program. The other port administrations on the Saint Lawrence ignore the challenges of sustainable development or assume it is the responsibility of the commercial terminal operators. Moreover, no port administration or shipping line in 2005 possessed an environmental management system.

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The complexity of international, federal and provincial legislation and the frequent changes constitute a brake on implementing sustainable development strategies in the port and shipping industry and in the development of short sea shipping on the Saint Lawrence River.

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RESTRUCTURING THE MARITIME TRANSPORTATION INDUSTRY. GLOBAL OVERVIEW OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ... 15

LIST OF FIGURES ... 17

LIST OF MAPS... 17

LIST OF PLATES ... 17

LIST OF PEOPLE INTERVIEWED... 19

1. INTRODUCTION ... 29

1.1. Changing conditions ... 29

1.2. Mandate... 29

1.3. Methodology ... 29

1.4. Financial support ... 32

2. CONTEMPORARY CONDITIONS SHAPING THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORT SYSTEMS ... 33

2.1. Evolution of transport systems... 33

2.2. Changes imposed by intermodalism... 34

2.3. Logistics and the search for sustainable development ... 37

2.4. Issues and objectives ... 38

3. SUSTAINABLE MARITIME TRANSPORT ... 39

3.1. Definitions of sustainable transport... 39

3.2. Literature review on the environment, port development and shipping ... ... 41

3.2.1. Marine environment ... 41

3.2.2. Port development and the environment... 42

3.2.3. Maritime transport and the environment ... 42

3.3. Sustainable development issues applied to the marine industry ... 44

3.4. Physical environment and maritime transport... 45

3.5. International legislation on the activities of the marine industry... 51

3.5.1. The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) ... 51

3.5.2. The MARPOL Convention ... 53

3.5.3. Implementation of international legislation... 55

3.5.4. Industry self regulation... 55

3.5.5. Control by coastal State... 57

3.5.6. Control by ship’s flag State ... 57

3.5.7. Control by port State... 57

3.6. Practices of sustainable development and competitiveness of the marine industry ... 58

3.6.1. The competitive factor ... 59

3.6.2. The profit factor... 60

3.7. Conclusion... 61

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4. GLOBAL OVERVIEW OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES

APPLIED TO PORT AUTHORITIES AND SHIPPING LINES ... 63

4.1. Analytical framework... 63

4.1.1. Methodology ... 63

4.1.2. Environmental profile of the marine industry ... 68

4.1.3. Environmental issues of the marine industry ... 68

4.2. Environmental issues common to port authorities and shipping lines . 70 4.2.1. Water quality (ballast water, waste water from ships, stormwater and snow removal) ... 71

4.2.2. Air quality ... 77

4.2.3. Waste management... 80

4.2.4. Resource conservation ... 82

4.2.5. Energy consumption ... 84

4.2.6. Emergency plans ... 87

4.2.7. Oil spills ... 89

4.2.8. Antifouling paints ... 91

4.2.9. Dust emission ... 93

4.3. Environmental issues specific to port authorities... 95

4.3.1. Noise... 95

4.3.2. Dredging ... 96

4.3.3 Contaminated soil ... 99

4.3.4. Odours ... 102

4.4. Environmental issues specific to shipping lines... 103

4.4.1. Ship recycling ... 103

4.4.2. Hazardous materials... 105

5. SHORT SEA SHIPPING... 113

5.1. Typology of shipping... 113

5.2. Short sea shipping: some definitional issues... 114

5.2.1. Scale and geographic scope ... 114

5.2.2. Size and type of vessels ... 114

5.2.3. Functions ... 114

5.2.4. Scope... 114

5.3. Inland and coastal trafic... 115

5.4. Operational challenges confronting short sea shipping ... 118

5.4.1. Regulatory issues ... 118

5.4.2. Intermodal integration ... 120

5.4.3. Physical constraints ... 120

5.4.4. Ports ... 121

5.4.5. Economics ... 121

6. INTERNATIONAL PORTRAIT OF THE POLICIES TO PROMOTE SHORT SEA SHIPPING... 123

6.1. Promotion policies for short sea shipping ... 123

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6.1.1. European Union... 123

6.1.2. National responses within the European Union... 128

6.1.3. United States ... 133

6.1.4. China ... 136

6.2. Environmental impacts ... 136

6.2.1. General observations... 137

6.2.2. Intermodal comparisons of emissions ... 137

6.2.3. Environmental assessment of the PACT program... 140

6.2.4. Environmental assessment of the MARCO POLO lI program ... 140

6.3. Strategies for the development of short sea shipping... 141

7. APPLYING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES TO THE MARITIME INDUSTRY... 145

7.1. International overview... 145

7.2. Environmental management systems... 146

7.3. Constraints in applying EMS... 148

7.3.1. Data inventory problems... 148

7.3.2. Costs... 148

7.3.3. Risks of prosecution ... 148

7.4. Applying management systems to sustainable development ... 149

7.4.1. Quantifying the environmental indicators... 149

7.4.2. Formulating a timetable ... 149

7.4.3. Establishing standards of environmental quality... 150

7.4.4. Fixing a schedule of conditions... 150

7.4.5. Planning control measures ... 153

7.4.6. Instruments to attain sustainable development ... 153

7.5. Positive economic impacts ... 154

7.6. Structure of a sustainable development program applied to ports and maritime transport... 157

8. GREAT LAKES-SAINT LAWRENCE SYSTEM... 163

8.1. Great Lakes–Saint-Lawrence system... 163

8.2. Initiatives by the Québec Ministry of Transport... 165

8.3. Recent initiatives by Transport Canada... 166

8.4. Canada–United States initiatives... 167

9. SYNTHESIS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 169

9.1. Introduction... 169

9.2. Contemporary conditions shaping the development of transport systems... 169

9.2.1. Salient facts ... 169

9.2.2. Recommendations... 170

9.3. Sustainable maritime transport ... 170

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9.4. Global overview of sustainable development practices applied to port authorities and shipping lines ... 172

9.5. Short sea shipping... 174

9.6. International portrait of the policies to promote short sea shipping ... 175

9.7. Applying sustainable development strategies to the maritime industry ... 176

9.8. Great Lakes–Saint-Lawrence system... 178

9.9. International survey of sustainable fluvial-maritime transport... 179

9.9.2. Recommendation... 179

9.9.3. New research axes ... 179

10.CONCLUSION... 181

11.BIBLIOGRAPHY... 183

Annex 1 – Addresses of institutions on maritime transport, port development and the environment ... 197

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 World seaborne trade, 1970-2002 (billions of tons-miles) ... 45

Table 2 Technical features of container ships in service, 1968-2003 ... 48

Table 3 Selected sample of marine accidents, 1986-2003 ... 49

Table 4 Entry into force of IMO conventions concerned with the environment, 1969-2004 ... 54

Table 5 Regional port State control agreements, 2004 ... 58

Table 6 Environmental issues of port authorities, 2004 ... 69

Table 7 Environmental issues of shipping lines, 2004 ... 69

Table 8 Environmental issues of the marine industry, 2004.... ... 70

Table 9 Port authorities with the best environmental performance, 2004 ... 108

Table 10 Shipping lines with the best environmental performance, 2004 ... 110

Table 11 Freight traffic in the United States by mode, 1965-2000 (ton- miles)... 116

Table 12 Freight transport activities by mode, value and volume in the United States, 1993-2002... 117

Table 13 Expected costs and benefits of Marco Polo ll, 2004... ...128

Table 14 National Short Sea Shipping Promotion Centres of the European Union, 2004 ... 129

Table 15 Energy consumption and polluting emissions between different ship and truck classes in Europe, 2001... 139

Table 16 External impacts of modal shift actions of Marco Polo II, 2003 (€ billions) ... 141

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Diagram of multimodal platforms ... 35 Figure 2 Structure of a sustainable development program applied to

ports and maritime transport ... 158

LIST OF MAPS

Map 1 Global shipping trunk routes ... 47 Map 2 Environmental profile of selected ports, 2004... 66 Map 3 Environmental profile of selected shipping lines, 2004 ... 67 Map 4 Biological invasions by ballast water around the world, 2004 . 73 Map 5 Port authorities with the best environmental performance,

2004 ... 109 Map 6 Shipping lines with the best environmental performance,

2004 ... 111 Map 7 Priority projects of the Trans European Transport Network,

2003.... ... 124 Map 8 The distribution system of the port of New York and New

Jersey, 2004... 135

LISTE OF PLATES

Plate 1 Performance indicators of sustainable transport from the Centre for sutainable transportation, 2002... 41 Plate 2 Functioning of the International Maritime Organisation (IMO),

2004 ... 52 Plate 3 Selected private independent classification societies, 2004.... 56 Plate 4 Environmental code of Sweden, 2004 ... 152

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LIST OF PEOPLE INTERVIEWED Belgium

Monsieur Jacques Charlier, Ph. D.

Professeur

Institut de géographie

Université catholique de Louvain Bâtiment Mercator

Place Louis Pasteur 3 B-1348 Louvain-La-Neuve BELGIUM

Mr. Willy De Decker

Short Sea Promotion Centre Flanders Verbingsdok Ootkai 13

2000 Antwerp BELGIUM

Monsieur Julien Fohal Centre d’étude de la mobilité Université de Bruxelles Bruxelles

BELGIUM

Mr. Ismo Koskinen

Short Sea Shipping and Port Policy DG TREN: Energy and Transport Rue de la Loi 256

B-1049 Brussels BELGIUM

Mr. Theo Notteboom, Ph. D.

Professor and Director

Institute of Transport and Maritime Management Antwerp University

Middelheimlaan 1 B-2020 Antwerp BELGIUM Mr. Willi Piecyk

German Member of the European Parliament European Parliament

Brussels BELGIUM

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Mr. Stefan Tostmann, Ph.D.

Head Intermodality and Logistics DG TREN: Energy and Transport Rue de la Loi 256

B-1049 Brussels BELGIUM Canada

Monsieur Dennis Fortune

Directeur des services environnementaux CP Ships

4150, Sainte-Catherine Ouest, bureau 200 Montréal (Québec) H3Z 2R8

CANADA

Mr. Scott Galloway

Director Trade Development Vancouver Port Authority 1900 Granville Square 200, Granville Street

Vancouver (British Columbia) V6C 2P9 CANADA

Madame Nancy Hudon

Conseillère en environnement Administration portuaire de Québec 150, rue Dalhousie

C.P. 2268, Québec (Québec) G1K 7P7 CANADA

Madame Lyne Martin Chef de l’environnement

Administration portuaire de Montréal Édifice du Port de Montréal

Cité du Havre

Montréal (Québec) H3C 3R5 CANADA

Monsieur Patrick Robitaille Directeur

Marketing et planification stratégique Administration portuaire de Québec 150, rue Dalhousie

C.P. 2268

Québec (Québec) G1K 7P7 CANADA

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China

Ms. Chen Yan Manager

Wenzhou Economy Construction Planning Institute 7/F. Construction Mansion No. 210

Feixia South Road Wenzhou

PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Mr. Jonathan Chow Wai Kit

Engineer

Hong Kong International Terminals Limited Hutchison Port Holdings Group

Terminal 4

Kwai Chung Container Port Container Port Road South Kwai Chung, New Territories Hong Kong, SAR

PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Ms. Dong Jieshuang, Ph.D.

Professor

Centre for Urban and Regional Development Planning University of Shanghai for Science and Technology 516 Jungong Road, Shanghai 200093

PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Mr. Fan Bingquan, Ph.D.

Professor and Director

Centre for Research on Transportation System University of Shanghai for Science and Technology 516 Jungong Road, Shanghai 200093

PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Ms. Kathy Hui Yuet Ling

Construction project/maintenance manager Hong Kong International Terminals Limited Hutchison Port Holdings Group

Terminal 4

PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA

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Ms. Becky Loo, Ph.D.

Associate professor Department of geography University of Hong Kong Pokfulam Road

Hong Kong, SAR

PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Mr. Qiang Wang

Advisor of transport economy and public policy Shanghai Transportation Investment (Group) Co., Ltd 18F, Bashing Building

525 Jianguo Road East Shanghai 200025

PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Mr. James Wang, Ph.D.

Associate professor Department of geography University of Hong Kong Pokfulam Road

Hong Kong, SAR

PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Mr. Wang Cang

General manager

Wenzhou Economy Construction Planning Institute 7/F. Construction Mansion No. 210

Feixia South Road Wenzhou

PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Mr. Paul K.K. Wong

Maintenance Superintendent

Hong Kong International Terminals Limited Hutchison Port Holdings Group

Terminal 4

PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA

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Mr. Xu Kangwu

Senior engineer and Professor Shanghai Institute of Traffic engineer 193 Hankou Road

Shanghai 200002

PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Mr. Zhou Xizhao, Ph.D.

Professor

School of Economics and Management Shanghai Maritime University

1550 Pudong Avenue Shanghai 200135

PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Mr. Zhuo Guozhu

Executive director

Wenzhou Municipal Development Planning Commission 184 Guangchang Road

Wenzhou

PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Spain

Mr. Pedro Perez Munoz Gabinete de Presidencia

Autoritat Portuaria de Barcelona Barcelona

SPAIN

United States Mr. Atef Ahmed

Manager, Environmental Programs Port Commerce Department

The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey 225 Park Avenue South – 11th floor

New York, NY 10003 UNITED STATES Mr. Joseph Monaco

Environmental Project Manager Port Commerce Department

New York, NY 10003 UNITED STATES

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Mr. William Nurthen

Manager, Strategic Support Initiatives Port Commerce Department

New York, NY 10003 UNITED STATES Mr. Scott C. White US Coast Guard

Port Safety Industry Liaison

New York, NY 10003 UNITED STATES France

Monsieur Antoine Frémont, Ph. D.

Université du Havre

UFR des Lettres et Sciences humaines UMR 6063 I.D.E.E.S/CIRTAI du CNRS 25, rue Philippe Lebon

76086 Le Havre CEDEX FRANCE

Monsieur Jacques Marcadon, Ph. D.

Géolittomer, LETG UMR 6554 - CNRS Université de Nantes

rue de la Censive du Tertre B.P. 81227

44312 Nantes CEDEX 3 FRANCE

Italy

Mr.Tim Halhead General Manager

MedCenter Container Terminal Gioia Tauro Calabria

ITALY

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Mrs. Tizianaa Margia General Affairs

Port Authority of Gioia Tauro Gioia Tauro Calabria

ITALY Malta

Monsieur Charles Abela Malta Ports Directorate Valetta, MALTA

United Kingdom

Mrs. Rhona Fairgrieve, Ph.D.

Environment Officer Associated British Ports 150 Holborn Street London EC1N 2LR UNITED KINGDOM

Mrs. Gillian Reynolds, Ph. D.

Principal Surveyor

Environmental Engineering Lloyd’s Register of Shipping 71 Fenchurch Street

London EC3M 4BS UNITED KINGDOM Mr. Tim Stojanovic, Ph. D.

School of Earth, Ocean and Planetary Science Cardiff University

P.O. Box 914

Main Building Park Place Cardiff CF10 3YE Wales UNITED KINGDOM

Mr. Chris Wooldridge, Ph. D.

Director of studies Marine Geography Cardiff University

P.O. Box 914

Main Building Park Place Cardiff CF10 3YE Wales UNITED KINGDOM

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Sweden

Mr. Björn Dufva, Ph.D.

Deputy Director General

Division for Sustainable Development and Environmental Legislation Ministry of the Environment

SE- 103 33 Stockholm SWEDEN

Mr Gunnar Eriksson, Ph.D.

Deputy Director

Division for Transport Policy

Ministry of Industry, Employment and Communications SE- 103 33 Stockholm

SWEDEN

Mrs. Sara Gorton, Ph.D.

Environmental Manager Wallenius Marine AB P.O. Box 17086 SE- 104 62 Stockholm SWEDEN

Mrs. Aili Käärik

Political and Public Affairs Officer Canadian Embassy

Tegelbacken 4, 7th floor

Box 16129, SE-103 23 Stockholm SWEDEN

Mrs. Cecilia Kolga

Head of Corporate Communications Soya Group

P.O. Box 17086, SE- 104 62 Stockholm SWEDEN

Mr. Harald Perby Deputy Director

Ministry of the Environment SE- 103 33 Stockholm SWEDEN

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Mrs. Gun Rudeberg Company Lawyer Environmental Manager The Port of Stockholm Magasin 2, Frihamnen P.O. Box 27314, SE-102 54 Stockholm SWEDEN

Mrs. Ǻsa Wilske

Environmental Manager The Port of Göteborg AB SE- 403 38 Göteborg SWEDEN

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Changing conditions

The changes imposed by the need for sustainable development are a reality.

They must answer the different demands of social development resulting from economic growth. This process must, however, be undertaken in a context where ecosystem protection has a considerable effect on the policies and practices of transport systems management. The number of environmental laws is increasing. There is already a complex system of differential charging based on congestion, pollution emissions and traffic safety, to compensate for the external costs generated by freight and passenger transport. Sustainable development has become a key feature in the processes of economic growth.

The processes of sustainable development have an impact on the strategies of the transport industry and orient investment decisions. The capacity to resolve environmental problems has become a competitive factor for shippers, carriers and terminal operators (Comtois and Slack, 2003).

1.2. Mandate

We obtained a mandate from the Secrétariat au transport maritime et à la mise en valeur du Saint-Laurent, of the ministère des Transports du Québec, to undertake a research project on maritime transportation and sustainable development at the international level.

The objectives of the research blueprint are: 1) to specify the issues of port development, marine shipping and sustainable development at the international level; 2) to identify and analyze current best practices; and 3) to evaluate how sustainable development can be applied to the Great Lakes Saint Lawrence system. Generally, marine shipping includes pleasure-boating, cruises, ferries and freight transport. While all these types of navigation have an impact on the environment, the current mandate essentially focuses on commercial shipping, namely freight transportation by ship and short sea shipping.

1.3. Methodology

The methodological approach is determined by the research objectives, the conceptual framework underlining the problem and the empirical considerations of the project – port regions, public and private actors, professional practices.

Given that the literature and the information on sustainable development strategies applied to port systems and commercial shipping are fragmented, fieldwork was necessary to collect primary data. On site visits, meetings with managers and public officials, users and local agencies were the essential input for the analysis and the evaluation. We established a list of public and

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private institutions that offer specialized services in terms of marine transport, port development or the environment (annex 1). A sample of agencies from the industry and governments around the world were asked series of open questions in relation to their activities and the objectives of the project. Our approach aimed at answering 11 questions:

• What environmental, port or shipping issues are identified and analyzed?

• What is the quality of the legislative framework?

• What is the quality of the referenced database?

• What are the problems treated – health and safety, dredging, waste management, energy supply, air, water, soil quality, ecosystem, etc.?

• How are these issues measured – description, frequency, recording instruments, analytical techniques, impact assessment, etc.?

• What are the performance indicators of environmental protection – government, industrial, scientific norms?

• What environmental management system is used? What factors influenced this choice?

• Is the environmental management system accredited? By whom?

Organization, government, local community, etc.

• What is the usage frequency of the environmental management program – regular, occasional, case by case?

• What is the degree of integration between the environmental management program and the shipping and port operations – database, survey, report, information diffusion, personnel training, and support for the decision-making process?

• What is the impact of using an environmental management system on risk management, environmental protection and the productivity of the marine industry?

The data allows the best practices of the industry, the main issues in managing sustainable development and the challenges that shape port development and commercial shipping to be identified. In accordance with the research ethics that govern all research projects, we have treated the information obtained in the strictest confidentiality. The results of the interviews have been compiled in such a way that no individual or enterprise consulted can be identified.

The research project comprises eight methodological components, dealt with in as many chapters.

Chapter Two presents the initial research and is based on an evaluation of current conditions in the development of transport systems. This section is

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presented: 1) to understand the recent evolution of transport systems; 2) to recognize economic, social and environmental changes imposed by intermodalism and logistics; 3) to evaluate the importance of marine transport in the various initiative of sustainable development; and 4) to present the issues and objectives of the research.

Chapter Three is concerned with the interpretation of these changes in light of sustainable development and provides a detailed examination of the literature addressing sustainable development. The goal of this section is: 1) to present a typology of definitions on sustainable transport; 2) to evaluate the progress of knowledge pertaining to the environment, port development and commercial shipping; and 3) to understand the problems of sustainable development applied to the marine industry in relation to environmental conditions, international legislation and competitiveness.

Chapter Four presents an international overview of the sustainable development practices of port administrations and marine carriers. The goal is:

1) to formulate a diagnosis concerning the environmental evaluation of port administrations and shipping lines; and 2) to specify the main issues, problems and international legislations that underpin the best practices of sustainable development for the whole of the marine industry.

Chapter Five presents a description of short sea shipping and elaborates an international portrait of the operating conditions of this type of marine transport.

The objective of this section is: 1) to present a typology of short sea shipping;

2) to clarify the motives that preside over the diversity of definitions concerning short sea shipping; 3) to measure the importance of coastal and inland marine traffic; and 4) to evaluate the problem of short sea shipping according to legal, intermodal, physical, port and economic dimensions.

Chapter Six provides an international portrait of sustainable development practices applied to short sea shipping. The goal is: 1) to compare promotion policies of short sea shipping; 2) to evaluate the environmental impacts of short sea shipping; and 3) to present growth strategies of short sea shipping.

Chapter Seven evaluates the implementing tools of sustainable development strategies applied to port system and commercial shipping. The goal is: 1) to undertake a global overview of sustainable development practices that constitute the subject of the study; 2) to identify the main environmental management systems, their application constraints and management strategies; 3) to measure the economic impacts resulting from sustainable development practices; and 4) to propose the structure of a program of sustainable development applied to ports and shipping.

Chapter Eight presents the necessary conditions for the transfer of sustainable development strategies to the Saint Lawrence system. The goal of this section is: 1) to undertake a brief survey of the Great Lakes-Saint Lawrence; 2) to specify the actions of the ministère des Transports du Québec; 3) to present

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recent decisions of Transport Canada; and 4) to acknowledge the joint initiatives between Canada and United States.

Chapter Nine presents a summary of salient facts for each of the main findings of the research and proposes a series of recommendations. This is followed by a conclusion and the bibliography. The report ends with an annex of the corresponding addresses of institutions interested in marine transport, port development and the environment.

1.4. Financial support

In order to conduct this research we received financial support mainly from the ministère des Transports du Québec. The Centre for Research on Transportation, the Department of Geography and the Centre for East Asian Studies at the Université de Montréal, as well as the Department of Geography at Concordia University, also provided support.

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2. CONTEMPORARY CONDITIONS SHAPING THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORT SYSTEMS

Contemporary transport systems are undergoing a profound mutation. The policies of the World Trade Organization have led to an expansion of international trade. Besides, the introduction of market-based reforms in numerous countries has created new opportunities for transportation resulting in a globalisation in the organisation of production and considerable changes in the industrial structure of many countries. These new economic perspectives have been underpinned by an expansion of sea-land connections. This chapter aims at evaluating the contemporary conditions in the development of transport systems. The specific objectives are: 1) to understand the recent evolution of transport systems; 2) to recognize economic, social and environmental changes imposed by intermodalism and logistics; 3) to evaluate the importance of marine transport various sustainable development initiatives; and 4) to present the issues and objectives of the research.

2.1. Evolution of transport systems

Transport systems constitute a fundamental element in the formation of economic spaces. All scenarios of economic growth rest on an increase in freight, passenger and information traffic. Between 1996 and 2000, the growth in world trade has exceeded that of the world maritime fleet. This reflects improved productivity in the maritime fleet through an increase in ship loading capacity. More importantly, this improvement brings to light the cumulative connections between infrastructures, industrial production and the built environment. Economic blocs reflect a periodic superimposition of transport and communications technologies over inter-urban trading links. Consequently, the introduction of technological innovations is associated with the addition of new infrastructures leading to a refashioning of existing networks.

For the past 20 years, much restructuring has occurred within the world’s economic zones. Recent advances in transport and communications such as container shipping, increasing vessel size, jumbo jets, logistics and the extensive application of information technologies to the management of traffic has created a new infrastructural arena permitting the emergence of a fresh set of economic and political activities.

The reduction in time and cost of transport inherent in these transformations has widened the markets of multinational firms and their subsidiary companies and encouraged the use of smaller production and distribution units. This process has led to the decline of traditional industrial functions, a restructuring of the labour market and the emergence of new opportunities for the development of local resources.

In this process, economic prosperity is closely associated with network hubs within development corridors where the infrastructure endowment is correlated

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with high levels of accessibility – such as Montréal-Toronto; Montréal-New York; Vancouver-Seattle; Boston-Washington. Hub ports are the loading- unloading freight platforms, often containerized, welcoming large vessels of regular ocean shipping lines and smaller feeder vessels supplying them. These infrastructure requirements, demanding important investments beyond government financial capabilities, have led to an extensive process of liberalization in the organization of transport systems. The government of Canada has adopted a series of divestiture policies of its transport systems, privatizing publicly- owned transport companies and commercializing ports and airports. Many of these policies have favoured the emergence of an extremely competitive transport market, marked by a multiplication of linkages, the development of new routes, free fare structures and greater autonomy for transport firms in the organization of their operations (Dion, Slack and Comtois, 2002). New, denser infrastructures, based on multi-layered links, have intensified the network conditions or the network economy of North America.

2.2. Changes imposed by intermodalism

World regions cannot avoid intermodalism (Comtois and Rimmer, 1997). This function rests on the most important markets, those that generate the highest revenues and offer the greatest potential for growth. The concept of intermodalism has been developed to counter past preoccupations that only analyzed individual transport modes. A multimodal platform does not only include land and sea networks, but also air and telecommunications connections. Nodes produce flows of freight, passengers and information.

Connections are corridors that facilitate movement of goods, people and information (figure 1).

In figure 1, we have classified terminals in terms of platforms, proto-platforms and other nodes from an analysis of statistics of sea, air and telecommunication traffic data. Platforms represent terminals with the highest rankings in terms of international traffic for all modes and telecommunications.

Proto-platforms have an important international traffic in at least two modes.

The other nodes are not among the most important transport terminals, but are part of existing global transport and communications networks. Applied to the Asia-Pacific region, our analysis identifies Hong Kong, Los Angeles-Long Beach, Tokyo, Singapore, Taipei-Kaohsiung, Seoul-Pusan and Bangkok as platforms. Proto-platforms include Osaka, San Francisco, Seattle-Tacoma, Manila, Nagoya, Sydney and Jakarta-Tanjung Priok. The other nodes include Beijing-Tianjin, Brisbane, Fukuoka, Dalian-Shenyang, Ho Chi Minh, Kuala Lumpur-Port Klang, Melbourne, Sapporo, Shanghai-Nanjing and Vancouver.

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Figure 1 Diagram of multimodal platforms

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Synergy is possible between these different modes. Despite intermodal competition, global processes facilitate the management of transport systems.

Telecommunications have become a key feature in the functioning of logistics systems. In this context, all existing transport terminals must be integrated physically. Besides, in the perspective of a system extracting the maximum potential from existing infrastructures, it is necessary to provide greater modal choice and even to influence this choice according to economic and environmental needs. This process occurs however in a context where containerization, international shipping alliances and the emergence of global terminal operators modify considerably terminals and their supporting transport networks.

The spatial imprint of terminals – airports, rail yards and ports – and their accessibility by railways, highways and inland waterway dredging are increasing. The areas required to operate new airports are immense. There are projects of 10,000 hectares. Activities within rail freight terminals currently in operation require configurations of more than three kilometres long. Increasing vessel size and growth in traffic have also imposed an examination of expansion and location strategies of port and marine activities.

There is very strong competition among ports to build infrastructures that will precede demand with a view to attract carriers. This includes urban region projects that permit the expansion of new industrial sectors supported by several ports – petrochemical and energy industries. Coastal areas required for new berthing space are highly coveted. Contemporary terminals must secure sites of at least 60 hectares. Port expansion strategies around the world are varied. In Hong Kong and New York, port administrations have decided to reconfigure old port sites. In Rotterdam, Antwerp, Le Havre, Singapore and Los Angeles, strategies are founded on an expansion towards contiguous areas. In Vancouver, Marseille, London and Shanghai, new spatial requirements are fulfilled through the relocation of port activities on new sites.

These strategies demonstrate that proposed new sites for unloading, handling and warehousing is a major issue for many port administrations. Often they cannot adapt existing sites to the new transport environment. Besides, port expansion through reclaimed land is often difficult because of the important negative environmental impacts involved in these proposals. Expansion on areas immediately adjacent is often impossible. Port infrastructures that were originally built on sites beyond urban fringes have rapidly been constrained by surrounding urban development. Port administrations come under enormous pressure from real estate agents seeking urban waterfronts. It is important to underline that port site property and adjacent lands are sometimes characterized by different zoning laws – municipal, provincial and federal – whose respective land use plans often come into conflict. Relocation of port activities represents a challenge; it is difficult to find adequate land areas, the costs of transferring marine activities are enormous and these sites can break up integrated transport systems while distancing the port from its traditional local markets.

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2.3. Logistics and the search for sustainable development

The dynamics of transport systems underpins the transformation of economies whose growth rests increasingly on the performance of economic processes and project management – production lines, work organization and distribution systems. In this context, the organization of transport systems, linked with intermodalism and technological progresses, depend more and more on the quality of logistics services. Logistics is not a new concept. It conditions the flow of goods and information, from acquiring materials to warehousing and inventory techniques and final distribution of finished products. Contemporary economic mutations have led to a logistics revolution that henceforth requires working with customers on the processes of circulation, to detect the weakest points and the most costly activities and to conceive solutions. The objective is to synchronize production and distribution activities between firms through an intensive use of information exchange networks. But this process generates important economic, social and environmental upheavals, as specified below.

The most performing logistics systems facilitate the growth of commercial exchanges. Moreover, the new logistics modify traditional comparative advantages. The labour market can be precarious, since logistics permit a diversification of manufacturing processes and allow greater flexibility in the location of production. Logistics services are thus associated with the creation of new networks, with changes in industrial structures and with the emergence, decline or abandonment of numerous employment sectors. Henceforth, local economic growth is inscribed within global processes.

Logistics systems also target the reduction of transport and distribution costs through a disaggregation of the supply chain. The system requires the creation of vast distribution centres often located outside metropolitan areas from where large numbers of small parcels are shipped to customers. Not only do logistics services result in exceptional land take, but they also involve more ton- kilometres of freight transported. Logistics services certainly increase benefits to users, but they do not take responsibility for the social and environmental costs.

Besides, logistics systems have given rise to two economic phenomena: just- in-time and door-to-door. These management methods favour air and truck shipments, considered the most reliable, but also the most energy consuming.

Rail and ships, which are the most efficient in terms of energy consumption, are perceived as the least reliable in terms of logistics (Rodrigue, Slack and Comtois, 2001).

There is a need to underline that since the mid 1980s, all these changes in logistics and transport systems have been undertaken in parallel with the search for a balance between the economic, social and environmental pillars of sustainable development, notably by the World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission, 1987), The Earth Summit on

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Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, 1992) and the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg, 2002). Everywhere, there seems to be an increasing focus on collective responsibility for the practices and policies of sustainable development. It is now becoming a preoccupation of the transport industry.

2.4. Issues and objectives

To answer the objectives of sustainable development, transport systems must be profitable, compatible with the environment and favourable for the local communities. Traffic growth, dominated by road transport, the importance of airfreight in logistics services and the need for additional spaces for transport terminals, represent challenges that cannot be answered by the current status quo. In this context, maritime transport has a major role to play. It is a reliable mode of transport, capable of handling large amounts of freight, and can thus relieve congested land transportation services. Although perceived as “green”, maritime transport still has an impact on the environment.

The analysis of the best practices and best experiences currently in operation at the international scale and that should be applied to the Great Lakes-Saint Lawrence system raises a series of key issues:

• What environmental factors are affected by port development and shipping?

• What environmental policies are linked to port development and shipping?

• What sustainable development practices currently used by public and private administrations are linked to port development and shipping?

• Which factors promote complementarity or intermodal transfer from a sustainable development standpoint?

• What are the links between the practices of the marine industry on the one hand, and the policies of sustainable transport on the other hand?

• How do these programs integrate environmental aspects and operational constraints (port and shipping) in policy formulation?

• What are the impacts on ports, terminal capacity, traffic and networks, and notably on the means to manage them?

• What mechanisms exist to optimize industry practices and harmonize the relationship with the imperatives of sustainable development?

• How are these programs used and evaluated by the marine industry and by local, regional and national governments?

• What is the social impact of port development and marine shipping?

The objective is therefore to: 1) extract the variables and recurrent issues that affect sustainable development as it applies to the port system and shipping; 2) identify intervention policies for sustainable development; 3) establish linkages between policies and practices of sustainable development; and 4) evaluate the conditions for their application to the Great Lakes-Saint Lawrence system.

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3. SUSTAINABLE MARITIME TRANSPORT

The interpretation of contemporary changes in transport systems from the sustainable development standpoint requires a detailed examination of the literature on sustainable transport. This section will: 1) present a typology of definitions of sustainable transport; 2) evaluate the progress of knowledge pertaining to the environment, port development and commercial shipping; and 3) examine the problems of sustainable development applied to the marine industry in relation to environmental conditions, international legislation and competitiveness.

3.1. Definitions of sustainable transport

The concept of sustainable development was popularized in 1987 with the publication of the Brundtland report, “Our common future”. According to the report, sustainable development is the ability to meet the needs of the current generation without compromising the needs of future generations. The concept sanctioned in 1992 at the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro linked environmental issues with those of development. Sustainable development involves the equitable sharing of the benefits of economic progress by focusing on the conservation and preservation of natural resources, and by tackling the reciprocal influences of environmental, social and economic issues. When explained, these objectives of sustainable development seem to be shared and even demanded by most institutions and citizens.

The emergence of a consensus on the need to implement sustainable development strategies to the growth, performance and organization of transport systems has been facilitated by the dissemination of several definitions of the concept of sustainable transport.

In 1996, The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) designated environmentally sustainable transport as one that does not endanger public health and ecosystems and meet access needs, while using renewable resources below their rate of generation, and using non-renewable resources below the development rates of renewable substitutes (OCDE, 1996; Canada, 1997).

In 2001, at the ninth session of the Commission on Sustainable Development of the United Nations (CSDUN), the concept of sustainable development when applied to transport was defined as referring to its role in securing a balance between equity, efficiency and the capacity to answer the needs of future generations. More specifically, this implies: 1) maintaining a level of economic growth that would create the necessary wealth to achieve sustainable development; 2) environmental protection, at the local and global scale, through the reasonable use of non renewable resources and the development of new technologies; and 3) protection of individual well-being by reducing the impacts of pollution and poverty. In this context, a policy of sustainable

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transport must pursue several objectives, namely: 1) securing energy supply;

2) reflecting the costs of non renewable resources in transport vehicle operations; 3) adopting production processes respective of the environment by eliminating negative externalities detrimental to future generations (Nations Unies, 2001a).

During the same year, the need to promote linkages between economic efficiency, social progress and environmental protection, applied to transport systems, was further enhanced when Sweden held the Presidency of the Council of the European Union (EU). The European Union Transport Ministers agreed on a resolution integrating environmental and sustainability issues into transport policy. More specifically, a sustainable transport system was defined as one that:

1. makes it possible to satisfy the basic needs for communication and development of individual, businesses and organizations in a safe way for the individual and ecosystems and which promotes equality within and between generations;

2. offers good value for money, functions in a fair and efficient way, makes available different types of transport opportunities, support a competitive economy and balanced regional development; and

3. restricts emissions and waste to a quantity that the earth can absorb, uses renewable assets at or under the level at which these can be renewed, and keeps the consequences of uses of land and noise to a minimum (Sweden, 2002).

Canada has been an active member of the Commission on Sustainable Development of the United Nations since its creation in 1992. In 1996, the Canadian government, with the financial support of Environment Canada and Transport Canada, created the Centre for Sustainable Transportation, a non- profit organization with a Canadian charter. In 2003, the centre presented a list of 14 performance indicators for sustainable transport (plate 1).