Spiruline : bibliographie scientifique (1966–2006)

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Spiruline : bibliographie scientifique (1966–2006)

établie à l’occasion du 40ème anniversaire de l’avènement de la spiruline « moderne »

Jacques Falquet et

Jean-Pierre Hurni

Antenna Technologies Suisse juin 2007

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Avant-propos

Cette bibliographie ne comporte que des articles de nature scientifique (c’est-à-dire publiés dans des revues avec comités de lectures ou dans des ouvrages de niveau scientifique comparable : actes de conférences, monographies de spécialistes, etc.) concernant la cyanobactérie Arthrospira platensis, encore plus connue sous son ancien nom Spirulina platensis.

Par spiruline « moderne », nous entendons la spiruline dont les propriétés diététiques, métaboliques ou commerciales ont été scientifiquement étudiées.

La présente bibliographie est née des besoins des chercheurs d’Antenna Technologies Suisse de disposer d’une bibliographie aussi exhaustive que possible d’articles scientifiques pour la mise à jour des textes destinés à son lectorat : producteurs de spirulines, ONG préoccupées par la malnutrition, sponsors partageant ces mêmes préoccupations, etc.

Les autres sortes de documents sur les savoirs ou sur les savoir-faire en rapport avec la spiruline, recensés sans la moindre prétention à l’exhaustivité, sont mentionnés dans la « Bibliographie générale spirulinienne » dont la présente Bibliographie doit être considérée comme une Annexe.

Le choix a été fait de rassembler l’ensemble des données pertinentes sur un unique fichier « texte » de sorte à en limiter la taille.

Nous remercions tout particulièrement Antenna Technologies France pour avoir mis à notre disposition les données recueillies dans l’intention d’établir une bibliographie similaire à celle-ci.

Jacques Falquet

Jean-Pierre Hurni

1) Note historique

Le 8 janvier 1966 la revue Nature publiait un bref compte-rendu des résultats scientifiques recueillis par une expédition transsaharienne effectuée l’hiver précédent. Une équipe de scientifiques découvrit à cette occasion qu’une algue comestible récoltée sur les bords du lac Tchad était vendue, séchée, dans les marchés de Fort-Lamy sous forme de galettes. L’analyse révéla que cette algue était presque exclusivement composée de l’organisme Spirulina platensis, et que ce dernier était remarquablement riche en protéines.

Le 23 juillet de cette même année, et dans la même revue, paraissait un article à caractère historique rapportant de multiples témoignages des conquistadores selon lesquels les Aztèques avaient fait une grande consommation d’une algue bleue, non identifiée, récoltée dans le lac de Texcoco et préparée selon des modalités qui évoquaient passablement la « découverte tchadienne ».

Le lac de Texcoco étant alors presque complètement asséché depuis longtemps, l’identification de cette dernière algue semblait ne présenter qu’un intérêt académique. Quelques années après, une usine construite précisément dans le but d’exploiter le sel des dernières poches d’eau salée de ce lac se retrouva encrassée de façon inattendue par un microorganisme verdâtre : la Spirulina maxima des Aztèques, comme on put l’établir alors, avait survécu contre toute attente. Le miracle suivant fut que la direction de l’usine en question, qui eût probablement connaissance des articles de Nature, décida d’exploiter la spiruline au lieu de la saumure : une idée remarquable due à Hubert Durand-Chastel. A cette époque il était beaucoup question de la recherche de nouvelles sources de protéines pour faire face à l’accroissement de la population mondiale.

Ainsi, il y a 40 ans, l’ère de la spiruline moderne, rêvée comme généreuse pourvoyeuse de protéines, de micro nutriments, de colorants et autres merveilles, prenait son essor. Il faudra près d’une trentaine d’années pour se faire une idée plus précise de la réalité; mais au final, il n’y a guère de raisons d’être

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déçu par Spirulina platensis qui s’est révélée, à tout le moins, être un remarquable complément alimentaire, porteur de nombreuses promesses dans le domaine de la Santé.

L’ironie est que l’analyse génétique a dernièrement montré tout à la fois que les Spirulina platensis, Spirulina maxima, Spirulina fusiformis ainsi que d’autres organismes classés dans les genres

Spirulina et Arthrospira ne semblent pas être des espèces différentes mais de simples variantes d’un même organisme. De plus, tout bien considéré, notre spiruline n’appartient pas au genre Spirulina (« petite spirale ») mais bien au genre Arthrospira (« spirale articulée»).

Donc, souhaitons longue vie à Arthrospira platensis, sous toutes ses formes ; et ne la confondons pas avec la Spirulina subsalsa et d’autres espèces qui demeurent dans le genre Spirulina.

2) Au sujet des notices associées aux articles scientifiques

Les notices des articles scientifiques recensés ci-après contiennent si possible :

Un numéro d’identification PMID qui est celui mentionné par la rubrique Pub Med lorsque l’article a été recensé par la base de donnée MEDLINE. Dans le cas contraire, on indique alors un « pas » à la place du nombre attendu.

Comme nous gardons toujours l’espoir d’acquérir tôt ou tard sous un format PDF les documents retenus comme scientifiquement intéressants mais qui ne sont pas encore en notre possession, nous leurs réservons déjà, sous la rubrique « pdf : », un nom de fichier fait du nom du premier auteur complété de la première initiale de son prénom suivie de l’année de parution du document. Si le nom de fichier qui résulte de cette procédure est déjà attribué, on ajoute un « a » directement après l’année, puis un « b » si nécessaire, etc. Tant que nous ne disposons pas du document en question, on ajoute un PAS à la suite du nom de fichier réservé.

Si par la suite nous venons à disposer d’une copie en papier du document, nous supprimons évidemment le PAS et remplaçons l’extension « .pdf » par « .papier ».

Les mots-clés de la rubrique « mots-clés article : » sont ceux fournis par les auteurs mêmes du document, lorsqu’il y en a. Le symbole $ signale le début du mot-clé, ou le début de la chaîne de mots que les auteurs on retenu comme définissant « un » mot-clé plus spécifique.

Les mots-clés de la rubrique « mots-clés Antenna : » sont choisis par les collaborateurs d’Antenna Technologies. Les symbole £ ou ** jouent ici le rôle que $ joue dans le paragraphe précédent.

Sous la rubrique « résumé : », on y trouve en général un résumé, qu’il soit fourni par MEDLINE, ou alors du résumé extrait du document lui-même lorsqu’il y en a un. La place disponible sous

« résumé » sert également à faire figurer toute indication pertinente comme la langue originale de l’article ou toute autre considération qui a paru opportune.

Au final, une notice se présente typiquement sous l’aspect suivant : ---

428: Korsunskii OF, Smolygina LD, Laurinavichene TV, Gogotov IN.

[Low potential c-type cytochrome of Thiocapsa roseopersicina].

Biokhimiia. 1982 Mar;47(3):355-60.

PMID: 6280782

pdf: Korsunskii O 1982.pdf PAS mots-clés article:

mots-clés Antenna: £spirulina-platensis, £spirulina-maxima.

résumé: article en russe

The low potential c-type cytochrome from the phototrophic purple sulphur bacterium

Thiocapsa roseopersicina, strain BBS was isolated in electrophoretically homogeneous state.

The bulk of the cytochrome (approximately 90%) after disruption of the cells remained in the

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membrane fraction. The absorption spectrum of the cytochrome was characterized by the maxima at 420, 523 and 552 nm in the reduced state and at 408 nm in the oxidized one. The cytochrome interacted with CO in the reduced state. The molecular weight of the cytochrome is 50 000. The cytochrome contains great amounts of phenylalanine, leucine, valine, aspartic and glutamic acids and can be reduced by dithionite but not by cysteine, sulfide or ascorbate.

Besides, the cytochrome can also be reduced by NAD(P)H in the presence of NAD(P)- reductases of T. roseopersicina, when ferredoxin of Spirulina platensis or benzyl viologen are added to the reaction mixture. The cytochrome can act as an electron donor (acceptor) for T.

roseopersicina hydrogenase.

3) Bibliographie alphabétique

1: Abd El-Baky HH, El Baz FK, El-Baroty GS.

Production of antioxidant by the green alga Dunaliella salina.

Int J Agr Biol 6, No 1 (2004).

PMID: pas

pdf: Abd El-Baky H 2004.pdf

mots-clés article: $Dulinaliella-salina; $Nitrogen; $Salt-stress; $Carotenoids; $Tocopherols; $UV-B- radiation; $Antioxidant-enzyme.

mots-clés Antenna: £££, £f£.

résumé:

The variation of the lipophilic (carotenoids anda-tocopherol) and hydrophilic (glutathione and ascorbic acid) antioxidant contents, and the activities of antioxidant enzyme such superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and peroxidase (POD), as well as cellular malonaldehyde and stable radicals of D.

salina in response to ultraviolet B (UV-B radiation 290-320 nm) and secondary carotenoid induction conditions (nitrogen starvation and high NaCl concentration) were examined. The results indicate that nitrogen deficiency combined with NaCl stress and UV-B irradiated is potential increase of both lipophilic and hydrophilic antioxidant contents. Also, HPLC analysis of carotenoids extracts showed that D. salina accumulated significant quantities of beta–carotene and secondary carotenoids, mainly astaxanthin and zeaxanthin. Furthermore, the activity of antioxidant enzymes CAT, SOD and POD showed a positive significant correlation with the antioxidant content and with the exposured UV-B irradiance. Cellular malondialhyde content and quantities of alkyl radical-PER signal indicators of lipid peroxidation were much higher in irradiant cells compared to unirradiant cells. These result revealed that D. salina had high resistance to environmental conditions. These qualities therefore make D.

salina good candidates for successful culture in open ponds to production of useful materials, such as beta–carotene, astaxanthin, zeaxanthin, ascorbic acid and a-tocopherol. Also, it could be used to provide a rich source of such antioxidant for health foods.

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2: Abd El-Baky HH, El Baz FK, El-Baroty GS.

Spirulina species as a source of carotenoids and alpha-tocopherol and its anticarcinoma factors.

Biotechnology 2, No 3 (2003) 222-240.

PMID: pas

pdf: Abd El-Baky H 2003b.pdf

mots-clés article: $spirulina; $Nitrogen-and-salt-stress; $carotenoids; $tocopherols; $antitumor;

$viability-and-blue-green-algae.

mots-clés Antenna: £spirulina-platensis, £spirulina-maxima, £f£, £B£.

résumé:

In the present study blue-green alga Spirulina platensis and Spirulina maxima were grown in batch culture at different nitrogen and NaCl concentrations, respectively. Both species were found to respond to nitrogen deficiency and high NaCl level by accumulation of large amounts of commercially important chemicals such as carotenoids and tocopherols. The higher carotenoids and a-tocopherol contents was obtained when Spirulina sp grown at low nitrogen level (51 ppm N), with values ranged from 19.82 to 24.1 mg g^-1 and from 533.2 to 978.5 microg Kg^-1 (dry weight, d.w.), respectively.

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Whilst, these values in cells grown in free nitrogen medium were ranged from 30.15 to 31.13 mg g^-1 and from 960.4 to 1325.7 microg Kg^-1 (d.w), respectively. The high performance liquid

chromatography (HPLC) elution patter of total caroteniods extracted from S. platensis and S. maxima culture contained a-carotene (49.6 to 319.5 microg g^-1 lutein (0.06 to 17.21 microg g^-1, astaxanthin (6.61 to 160.27 microg g^-1, zeaxanthin (1.25 to 18.55 microg g^-1) and cryptoxanthin (1.41 to 20.13 microg g^-1). S. maxima accumulated a large amount of cryptoxanthin and zeaxanthin than that found in S. platensis. The effect of Spirulina species extracts containing various carotenoid compounds and tocopherols on the viability of Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells (EACC) were evaluated. All algae extracts at different concentration of 200 and 400 ppm significant reduced the cell viability ranged from 89.11 to 5.25%. These extracts did not induce any significant changes in DNA fragmentation of treated EACC compared with untreated cells. But lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and glutathione-S- transferase (GST) enzyme activities and glutathione level in treated EACC were significantly higher than that in untreated cells. These finding suggest that algae extracts may be reduce cell viability by other mechanism such as membrane lyases instead of apoptosis. Thus, Spirulina extract rich in carotenoids and tocopherols could be used as chemopreventive agents since they are relative non- toxic.

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3: Abd El-Baky HH.

Over production of phycocayanin pigment in blue green alga Spirulina sp and its inhibitory effect on growth of Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells.

J Med Sci 3, No 4 (2003) 314–324.

PMID: pas

pdf: Abd El-Baky H 2003.pdf (HTML transformé en PDF)

mots-clés article: $Spirulina, $phycocyanin, $antitumor, $viability-and-blue-green-algae.

mots-clés Antenna: £spirulina-platensis, £spirulina-maxima, £f£.

£B£: **Medicine, **Spirulina, **phycocyanin, **Carcinoma-Cells, **IV.

résumé:

Two species of blue green algae Spirulina-platensis and Spirulina-maima were grown in nutrient medium containing different nitrogen and salt levels. In both species increasing nitrogen levels led to increase in phycocyanin pigments from 12.08 to 22.3% and soluble protein content from 29.7 to 86.1 mg gG . Also, Spirulina has great variety in composition of phycocyanin pigments ranging from C- phycocyanin (C-PC) from 1.65 to 4.02%, allophycocyanin (A-PC) from 2.53 to 6.11% and R-

phycocyanin (R-PC) from 5.75 to 12.35% as a results, of changing nitrogen contents and salt stress.

Spirulina platensis at high nitrogen level gave highest percentage of total phycocyanin 9.94% and R- CP 5.75% was the predominate among phycocyanin pigments. The increasing in NaCl levels in nutrient medium led to production significant in phycocyanin contents and soluble protein in Spirulina platensis and Spirulina maxima cells. The composition of phycocyanin pigment was changed markedly as results of increasing in NaCl level. Both algal species grown under combined stress (nitrogen deficient and high NaCl level) produced higher amount of phycocyanin than control. The anti-

carcinoma activity of Spirulina towered Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma Cells (EACC) was evaluated by cell viability, DNA fragmentation and enzymes assay. Phycocyanin significantly inhibited the growth of EACC in a dose-dependent manner. Phycocyanin did not induce DNA fragmentation in EACC, (no ladder of DNA fragments). However, glutathione (GST), the activity of glutathione S- transferase (GST) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were significantly increased over the control level. These findings indicate that phycocyanin may be able to inhibit the growth of EACC by membrane destructor, which led to increase the leakage of cell constituent and increase LDH and GST enzyme activities.

Therefore, algal phycocyanin may have antitumor activity and could be used as a chemoprventive agent.

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4: Abdin el Sherif SA, Clement G.

L'algue alimentaire Spirulina sp. Découverte de lacs naturels à Wadi el Natroun en République Arabe d'Egypte.

Oil & Gas - Science and technology (Revue de l'Institut français du pétrole) 37, No 1 (1982) 123-130.

PMID : pas

pdf: Abdin el Sherif S 1982.pdf PAS

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mots-clés article:

mots-clés Antenna: £ATF£.

résumé:

Bien que connue depuis les temps les plus anciens, la dépression de Wadi el Natroun n'avait jamais été prospectée autrement que pour sa richesse en sels minéraux. C'est en 1977 que les auteurs, cherchant à savoir s'il existait des lacs naturels à Spirulines en République Arabe d'Égypte,

découvrirent dans la dépression de Wadi el Natroun certains lacs comme Abou Gobara et El Khadra où croissaient spontanément les algues spirulines. Le climat du site, l'origine et la composition des eaux, ainsi que la concentration en algues, ont été étudiés afin d'estimer la productivité du site en vue d'une éventuelle exploitation industrielle. L'exploitation de ces lacs permettrait de mettre en valeur le site de Wadi el Natroun par la production d'une substance très riche en protéine pour l'alimentation humaine dont à tant besoin la République Arabe d'Égypte.

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5: Abdulqader G; Barsanti L; Tredici MR.

Harvest of Arthrospira platensis from Lake Kossorom (Chad) and its household usage among the Kanembu.

J. Appl. Phycology 12 (2000) 493-498.

PMID: pas

pdf: Abdulqader G 2000.pdf

mots-clés article: $Arthrospira; $Chad; $dihé; $Kanembu; $Lake-Kossorom; $Spirulina.

mots-clés Antenna: £spirulina-platensis, £S£, £B£.

résumé:

In 1997 a survey was conducted among the Kanembu who harvest Arthrospira (Spirulina) from Lake Kossorom in the Prefecture of Lac (Chad). Information on the amount of Arthrospira harvested and the preparation and use of dihé was obtained by interviewing the women who daily gather around the lake for the harvesting. Dihé is obtained by filtering and sun drying the algal biomass on the sandy shores of the lake. The semi-dried dihé is then cut into small squares and taken to the villages, where the drying is completed on mats in the sun. Dihé is mainly used to prepare la souce, a kind of fish or meat and vegetable broth. Part of the harvest is sold to local consumers or to wholesalers, who trade the product in the markets of Massakori, Massaquet and N'Djamena and also across the border of the country. The local trading value of the dihé annually harvested from Lake Kossorom (about 40 t) amounts to more than US $100,000, which represents an important contribution to the economy of the area.

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6: Acien Fernandez FG, Fernandez Sevilla JM, Sanchez Perez JA, Molina Grima E, Chisti Y.

Airlift-driven external-loop tubular photobioreactors for outdoor production of microalgae: assessment of design and performance.

Chemical Engineering Science 56 (2001) 2721-2732.

PMID: pas

pdf: Acien Fernandez F 2001.pdf mots-clés article:

mots-clés Antenna: £££, £f£, £B£.

résumé:

A methodology is presented for designing photobioreactors with tubular loop solar receivers in which the fluid is circulated by an airlift device. The design method e!ectively combines the relevant aspects of external irradiance-dependent cell growth, oxygen accumulation in the solar loop, oxygen removal in the airlift device, and hydrodynamics of the airlift system that determine the flow velocity through the solar receiver. The design approach developed was used to model and build a 0.2 m^3 outdoor photobioreactor. A compact degasser in the airlift section eliminated dead zones and dark zones, while achieving complete separation of gas and liquid. The measured gas}liquid hydrodynamics, mass transfer, and culture productivity were consistent with the model predictions. The reactor was tested with continuous culture of the microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum at various liquid velocities through the tubular solar receiver. A biomass productivity of 1.20 g l^-1 d^-1 (or 20 g m^-2 d^-1) was obtained

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at a dilution rate of 0.050 h^-1. Solar receiver linear liquid velocities of 0.50 and 0.35 m s^-1 gave similar biomass productivities, but the culture collapsed at lower velocities. An adverse e!ect of high dissolved oxygen concentration on productivity was observed. Oxygen accumulation could be reduced by increasing the liquid velocity and this enhanced the biomass yield.

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7: Adams DG.

How do cyanobacteria glide.

Microbol Today 28 (2003) 131-133.

PMID: pas

pdf: Adams D 2003.pdf mots-clés article:

mots-clés Antenna: £££; £m£; £B£.

résumé :

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8: Adounke R.

UPS: Unité de production de spiruline du CREDESA à Pahou (Bénin).

in L. Charpy et al. (eds.), CICSSD (2004) 164-166.

PMID: pas

pdf: Adounke R 2004.papier mots-clés article:

mots-clés Antenna: £spirulina-platensis; £E£.

résumé:

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9: Adrian J.

Evolution de la lysine des algues Spirulines soumises à des traitements thermiques variés [Changes in the lysine of spiruline algae samples after various heat treatments].

Ann Nutr Aliment. 1975;29(6):603-13.

PMID: 825002

pdf: Adrian J 1975.pdf PAS mots-clés article:

mots-clés Antenna: £££.

résumé: en français

The spirulina algae are microorganisms which are cultivated on Mexican lakes for feeding use. After drying, they contain about 52 per cent of proteins, with 4 per cent of lysine and 1, 7 per cent of methionine. In the studied samples, pH is 6, 2; they are partially autolysed and contain 4 to 18 per cent of free lysine and methionine and 6, 5 per cent of soluble carbohydrates. During heating treatments, the spiurlina lysine reacts as the same as oilcak meal lysine; it resists rather well to autoclaving but less to roasting. The yeast lysine is more stable than the spirulina lysine. The thermic stability of spirulina lysine is caused first by the small amount of free reducing carbohydrates, and for a minor part by the natural acicity of these products. The lysine destruction is proportional to the

autolysis stage of the samples, that is to say the presence of free aminoacids. All the behavior differences between the various spirulina samples disappear when are heated with xylose, which induces a strong Maillard reaction.

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10: Adzamli IK, Petrou A, Sykes AG, Rao KK, Hall DO.

Kinetic studies on reactions of iron-sulphur proteins. Oxidation of the reduced form of Spirulina platensis [2Fe-2S] ferredoxin with inorganic complexes.

Biochem J. 1983 Apr 1;211(1):219-26.

PMID: 6409090 pdf: Adzamli I 1983.pdf mots-clés article:

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mots-clés Antenna: £spirulina-platensis; £fundamental-biology; £photosynthèse; £iron-sulphur- proteins.

résumé:

Kinetic results are presented for the reaction of reduced [2Fe-2S] ferredoxin from the blue-green alga Spirulina platensis with Co(NH3)6(3+), Co(edta)- and Co(acac)3 as oxidants at pH 8.0 at I0.10 (NaCl).

The aim is to compare results obtained with those previously reported for the [2Fe-2S] ferredoxin from parsley, where the two ferredoxins under consideration are in evolutionary terms widely divergent (35% amino acid variations). The three oxidants chosen have different ligand sets and different charges, and are the complexes that in previous studies have given greatest diversity in behaviour.

With Co(NH3)6(3+) first-order rate constants (oxidant in large excess) tend to a limiting value with increasing concentration of oxidant. With Co(edta)- and Co(acac)3 there is no similar tendency to limiting behaviour and a first-order dependence on oxidant is observed. The temperature-dependence of the Co(NH3)6(3+) reaction was investigated, and values were obtained for delta H0 [19.8kJ X mol-1 (4.7kcal X mol-1)] and delta S0 [129.3J X K-1 X mol-1 (30.9 cal X K-1 X mol-1)] for the association step that occurs before electron transfer. Whereas redox-inactive Cr(NH3)6(3+) displays competitive inhibition in the reaction of Co(NH3)6(3+), it accelerates the reaction of Co(edta)-, and only partially blocks the reaction with Co(acac)3. Results obtained are similar to those previously reported for parsley (and spinach) ferredoxin. It is concluded that electrostatics play a dominant role and that a negatively charged functional site on the protein common to all three ferredoxins is influential.

Conserved negative patches at positions 67-69 and 94-96 within 1.0 nm (10A) of an Fe atom of the active site, as well as the exposed S atoms of cysteine residues 41 and 46, which are a part of the Fe2S*2(SR)4(3-) cluster, are the most likely possibilities. The various effects of Cr(NH3)6(3+) provide a means of testing for utilization of the same site in reactions of the ferredoxins with physiological partners.

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11: Ako H, Tamaru CS, Asano L, Yuen B, Yamamoto M.

Achieving natural coloration in fish under culture.

UJNR Technical Report No. 28, 4pp.

PMID: pas

pdf: Ako H 1999.pdf mots-clés article:

mots-clés Antenna: £spirulina-platensis, £S£.

résumé:

Fish that are colored in nature often acquire faded coloration under intensive culture conditions.

Experiments adding top-coated algae to the diets of ornamental fish have resulted in color enhancement. Freshwater red velvet swordtails Xiphophorus helleri, rainbowfish Pseudomugil

furcatus, and topaz cichlids Cichlasoma myrnae became significantly more intensely colored when fed a diet containing 1.5-2.0% of a carotenoid-rich strain of Spirulina platensis and 1.0% of a specially grown Haematococcus pluvialis for 3 wk. Though color enhancement was apparent after only a wk, when the fish consumed these doses of algae, lower doses (0.5% and 0.4%, respectively) were not significantly different for kissing gouramis Helostoma temmincki, 24 K mollies Pachouli latipinna, and rosy barbs Barbus chunkiness, were examined after the 3-wk feeding period. Both treatments were significantly more effective than control treatments with no added carotenoid, and better than treatments with traditional carotenoid sources. Color enhancement appeared to occur via natural carotenoid receptors. Thus, color intensity diminished when fish were stressed, coloration appeared only in males in species where only the males are normally colored, and between rosy barbs and topaz cichlids color enhancement was environment-sensitive. Topaz cichlid color developed only after the aquaria were divided into territories and rosy barb color intensified when floating substrate was present. It is concluded that ornamental fishes are good models for color enhancement through diet and that this enhancement may be achieved using products made by marine biotechnology

companies.

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12: Al'bitskaia ON, Zaitseva GN, Rogozhin SV, Pakhomova MV, Oshanina NP.

[Comparative evaluation of methods for isolating total protein from the biomass of Spirulina platensis].

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Prikl Biokhim Mikrobiol. 1979 Jul-Aug;15(4):612-7.

PMID: 42047

pdf: Al'bitskaia O 1979.pdf PAS mots-clés article:

mots-clés Antenna: £spirulina-platensis.

résumé: en russe

The methods of extracting total protein from the biomass of Spirulina platensis are discussed. The results of studying different procedures of cell wall disruption, soluble protein extraction and precipitation are presented. The best results can be obtained using mechanical disintegration of Spirulina cells for 20 min (at a temperature not higher than 25 degrees C), soluble protein extraction with 0.4% NaOH, and its subsequent precipitation at the isoelectric point with 5% HCl.

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13: Al'bitskaia ON, Zaitseva GN, Pakhomova MV, Goronkova OI, Silakova GS.

[Physiological and biochemical characteristics of Spirulina platensis cultures].

Mikrobiologiia. 1974 Jul-Aug;43(4):649-53.

PMID: 4217878

pdf: Al'bitskaia O 1974.pdf PAS mots-clés article:

résumé: en russe

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14: Al-Batshan HA, Al-Mufarrej SI, Al-Homaidan AA, Qureshi MA.

Enhancement of chicken macrophage phagocytic function and nitrite production by dietary Spirulina platensis.

Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol. 2001 May;23(2):281-9.

PMID: 11417854

pdf: Al-Batshan H 2001.pdf PAS (login)

mots-clés article: $Spirulina-platensis, $Macrophages, $Phagocytosis, $Nitric-oxide, $synthase- activity, $Chicken.

résumé:

The effects of dietary Spirulina platensis on chicken macrophage phagocytic function and nitrite production were examined. Day old broiler (meat-type) chicks were randomly assigned to various pens of electrically heated wire batteries. Dietary treatment groups included a basal diet with no dietary Spirulina added, and three additional groups with 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0% dietary Spirulina. Feed and water were provided for ad libitum consumption from one day of age. Sephadex-elicited macrophages were harvested at 14, 35 and 42 days of age. Phagocytosis assay was performed by co-incubating sheep red blood cells (SRBC) with the adherent macrophage monolayers. For nitrite quantification, macrophage cultures from various dietary treatment groups were stimulated in the presence or absence of 1 microg/mL of Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide. These culture supernatant fractions were then tested for nitrite levels using the Greiss reagent technique. All Spirulina dietary group macrophages exhibited an enhanced phagocytic activity in terms of overall phagocytic percentage (range = 28 to 39% versus 24 to 25% in the basal group) and the average number of SRBC per phagocytic macrophage (range = 2.2 to 3.6 versus 1.8 to 2.5 in the basal group). This increase was linear with each incremental increase of dietary Spirulina. While LPS-induced nitrite levels in macrophages from basal diet group ranged from 60 to 278 microM over the three developmental ages, these levels in all Spirulina dietary groups were significantly higher (0.5% group range = 198 to 457 microM; 1.0% group range = 161 to 359 microM and 2.0% group range = 204 to 420 microM.

These data clearly show that Spirulina platensis feeding upregulates macrophage phagocytic as well as metabolic pathways leading to increased nitric oxide synthase activity. These findings therefore imply that Spirulina platensis may enhance the functions of mononuclear phagocytic system thereby increasing the disease resistance potential in chickens.

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15: Almirall Diaz I, Fernandez Cardenas T, Gonzalez San Miguel HM, Diaz Gonzalez M.

Diseño de una crema para masajes con extracto de spirulina cubana.

Rev Cubana Farm, sep.-dic. 2005, vol.39, no.3, p.0-0.

PMID: pas

pdf: Almirall Diaz I 2005.pdf

mots-clés article: $Spirulin; $cosmetics; $massage-cream.

mots-clés Antenna: £££, £S£.

résumé:

Spirulin constitutes the most used microalga in Cuba and one of the most important worldwide because of its high protein content and excellent combination of vitamins, minerals and anti-oxidative agents that protect the body against harmful action of free radicals. For these reasons, the

manufacture of cosmetic products for the skin care using the bioactive principle of the hydroalcoholic extract of this microalga has been undertaken. The design of a massage cream was technologically, microbiologically and toxicologically evaluated in three different product batches for 18 months. The formulation was stable during the testing period and the toxicological study showed that the cosmetic did not cause skin or eye irritation. The acceptance of the product by 130 consumers was analyzed on the basis of a sensorial test where it was found that the cream was satisfactorily accepted.

La spirulina constituye la microalga de mayor uso en Cuba y una de las más importantes en el ámbito mundial por su alto contenido proteico y poseer una excelente mezcla de vitaminas, minerales y agentes antioxidantes que protegen al organismo contra la acción nociva de los radicales libres. Por estas razones se ha incursionado en la elaboración de productos cosméticos destinados al cuidado de la piel con la utilización del principio bioactivo del extracto hidroalcohólico de esta microalga. Se realizó el diseño de una crema para masajes y se evaluaron 3 lotes del producto hasta los 18 meses desde un punto de vista tecnológico, microbiológico y toxicológico. La formulación resultó ser estable durante el tiempo de ensayo y el estudio toxicológico desarrollado demostró la no irritabilidad dérmica ni oftálmica del cosmético. Se analizó la aceptación del producto por parte de 130 consumidores mediante la aplicación de una prueba sensorial afectiva y se encontró que este es aceptado con agrado.

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16: Amao Y, Komori T.

Bio-photovoltaic conversion device using chlorine-e6 derived from chlorophyll from Spirulina adsorbed on a nanocrystalline TiO2 film electrode.

Biosens Bioelectron. 2004 Mar 15;19(8):843-7.

PMID: 15128103

pdf: Amao Y 2004.pdf PAS mots-clés article:

mots-clés Antenna: £££; £biochimie; £chlorophille.

résumé:

A bio-photovoltaic conversion device based on dye-sensitised solar cell (DSSC) using the visible light sensitisation of chlorine-e6 (Chl-e6) derived from chlorophyll from Spirulina adsorbed on a

nanocrystalline TiO2 film was developed. Form fluorescence spectrum of Chl-e6 adsorbed on a nanocrystalline TiO2 film, the emission of Chl-e6 was effectively quenched by TiO2 nanocrystalline indicating that the effective electron injection from the excited singlet state of Chl-e6 into the conduction band of TiO2 particles occurred. The short-circuit photocurrent density (Isc). the open- circuit photovoltage (Voc). and the fill factor (FF) of solar cell using Chl-e6 adsorbed on a

nanocrystalline TiO2 film electrode were estimated to be 0.305 +/- 0.012 mA cm(-2), 426 +/- 10 mV, and 45.0%, respectively. IPCE values were reached a maximum around the wavelength of absorption maximum (7.40% at 400 nm; 1.44% at 514 nm and 2.91% at 670 nm), indicating that the DSSC using visible light sensitisation of nanocrystalline TiO2 film by Chl-e6 was developed.

Publication Types: Evaluation Studies

* Validation Studies

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17: Ancel P.

Spiruline humanitaire dans les PVD : penser au lendemain.

PMID: pas

pdf: Ancel P 2004.papier mots-clés article:

résumé:

---

18: Andrade MR, Radmann EM, Cerqueira VS, Arruda AS, Burkert JFM, Costa JAV.

Mixotrophic cultivation of Spirulina platensis in different photobioreactor configurations.

PMID: pas

pdf: Andrade M 2004.papier mots-clés article:

résumé:

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19: Andrich G, Zinnai A, Nesti U, Venturi F, Fiorentini R.

Supercritical fluid of oil from microalga spirulina (arthrospira) platensis Acta Alimentaria 35, No 2 (2006) 195-203.

PMID: pas

pdf: Andrich G 2006.pdf

mots-clés article: $microalgae, $Spirulina-(Arthrospira)-platensis, $bioactive-lipids, $gamma-linolenic- acid, $supercritical-fluids, $extraction-kinetics.

mots-clés Antenna: £spirulina-platensis; £m£; £B£.

résumé :

For the extraction of oil from microalgae, which are recognised as an important renewable source of bioactive lipids, supercritical CO2 is regarded with interest being safer than hexane and offering a negligible environmental impact, short extraction time and petroleum-free final product. A

mathematical model, able to describe the kinetics of a supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) process, was applied to the recovery of oil from the cyanobacterium Spirulina (Arthrospira) platensis, characterised by a particularly high content in -linolenic acid (C18:3 -6). In this paper, we examine the kinetics of the SFE and the effect of operating conditions on extraction yield and fatty acid composition of lipid extracts.

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20: Annapurna VV, Deosthale YG, Bamji MS.

Spirulina as a source of vitamin A.

Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 1991 Apr;41(2):125-34.

PMID: 1906616

pdf: Annapurna V 1991.pdf PAS mots-clés article:

mots-clés Antenna: £spirulina-fusiformis.

résumé:

Experiments were carried out to assess spirulina fusiformis-a blue green algae as a source of vitamin A in rats. In one experiment, the control rats were fed synthetic vitamin A and the experimental rats spirulina as the sole source of vitamin A. The liver vitamin A concentration of spirulina-fed rats of both sexes was found to be significantly higher than that of the control rats. In another experiment the absorption of carotenes from the solvent extract of spirulina and their availability (vitamin A value) as judged by the levels of vitamin A and carotene in plasma and liver were compared with those of

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synthetic beta-carotene or vitamin A in male rats. The absorption of beta-carotene from spirulina extract tended to be lower than that of crystalline beta-carotene at doses of 550 and 1100 micrograms of beta-carotene. The difference became insignificant at lower beta-carotene dose of 275 micrograms.

Spirulina carotene-fed rats did not show a strict dose related increase in the liver or serum vitamin A concentration. The liver vitamin A storage and plasma levels of vitamin A of spirulina carotene-fed rats was much higher than expected. The results of the two studies reported suggest that the algae spirulina can be a valuable source of vitamin A.

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21: Antonian AA, Abakumova IA, Meleshko GI, Vlasova TF.

[Possibilities of using proteins from unicellular algae in biological life support systems].

Kosm Biol Aviakosm Med. 1985 Jan-Feb;19(1):65-9.

PMID: 2857798

pdf: Antonian A 1985.pdf PAS mots-clés article:

résumé: en russe

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22: Anusuya DM, Venkataraman LV.

Functional properties of protein products of mass cultivated blue-green alga Spirulina platensis.

Journal of Food Science 49 (1984) 24–27.

PMID: pas

pdf: Anusuya D 1984.pdf PAS mots-clés article:

mots-clés Antenna: £££, £D£.

résumé:

Water and fat absorption capacity, Emulsification Capacity (EC), Foaming Capacity (FC) and Foaming Stability (FS) of flour and protein concentrate of Spirulina cells were compared with those of soybean meal both as a function of pH and NaCl concentration. Water and fat absorption capacities of Spirulina flour were 220g and 190g/100g of sample respectively; those of soybean meal were 230g and

120g/100g of sample. Protein concentrate had a lower water absorption capacity, higher fat absorption capacity than its flour. It had higher EC and similar FC. Spirulina flour had similar EC and FC to that of soybean meal. The FS of flour (18%) and protein concentrate (27%) was poor when compared to soybean meal (55%).

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23: Aoyama K, Uemura I, Miyake J, Asada Y.

Fermentative metabolism to produce hydrogen gas and organic compounds in a cyanobacterium, Spirulina platensis.

J Fermentation Technol 83 (1997) 17-20.

PMID: pas

pdf: Aoyama K 1997.pdf

mots-clés article: $Spirulina, $hydrogen, $organic-acid, $ethanol.

mots-clés Antenna: £spirulina-maxima, £spirulina-platensis; £m£.

£B£: **Technology; **Spirulina; **hydrogen.

résumé :

The non nitrogen-fixing and 6lamentous cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis NIES-46 produced hydrogen gas, ethanol, and low molecular organic acids auto-fermentatively under dark and anaerobic conditions. The fermentative productivity was enhanced by incubating the cyanobacterium under nitrogen-starved conditions. Cell-free extracts of the cyanobacterium catalyzed hydrogen production by the addition of acetyl-coenzyme A and pyruvate. Pyruvate-degrading and acetaldehyde

dehydrogenase activities were observed in the cell-free extracts. These results suggest that the fermentation was dependent on the anaerobic degradation of endogenous glycogen via pyruvate.

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24: Apiradee H, Kalyanee P, Pongsathon P, Patcharaporn D, Matura S, Sanjukta S, Supapon C, Morakot T.

The expression of three desaturase genes of Spirulina platensis in Escherichia coli DH5alpha.

Heterologous expression of Spirulina-desaturase genes.

Mol Biol Rep. 2004 Sep;31(3):177-89.

PMID: 15560373

pdf: Apiradee H 2004.pdf

mots-clés article: $desaturase; $fatty-acid-desaturation; $gene-regulation; $heterologous-expression;

$Spirulina-platensis; $temperature-stress.

mots-clés Antenna: £spirulina-platensis, £££.

résumé:

The genes from a cyanobacterium--Spirulina platensis strain C1--that encode the acyl-lipid desaturases (desC, desA and desD) involved in gamma-linolenic (GLA) synthesis have been successfully expressed for the first time in Escherichia coli by employing a pTrcHisA expression system. In this report, the authors describe the expression of the three Spirulina N-terminal 6xHis- desaturases as well as the functional analysis of these recombinant proteins. The gene products of desC, desA and desD have approximate molecular masses of 37, 45, and 47 kDa, respectively.

Enzymatic activity measurement of these products was carried out in vivo to demonstrate that (i) the expressed proteins are in functional form, and (ii) the cofactors of the host system can complement the system of Spirulina platensis. The study demonstrated that the gene products of desC and desA catalyzed the reactions in vivo where the enzyme substrates were provided in appropriate

concentration. This indicates that the delta9 and delta12 desaturases were expressed in the heterologous host in their active form, and that these two reactions can be carried out in an E. coli host cell using its cofactors system. In contrast, delta6 desaturase activity can be detected only in vitro where electron carriers are provided. This suggests that while this enzyme is expressed in the

heterologous host in its active form, its function in vivo is suppressed, as the electron carriers of the host system cannot complement the system of Spirulina platensis.

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25: Arai S, Yamashita M, Fujimaki M.

Enzymatic modification for improving nutritional qualities and acceptability of proteins extracted from photosynthetic microorganisms Spirulina maxima and Rhodopseudomonas capsulatus.

J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo). 1976;22(6):447-56.

PMID: 828668

pdf: Arai S 1976.pdf PAS mots-clés article:

mots-clés Antenna: £spirulina-maxima.

résumé:

The present study attempts to improve the proteins from a blue-green alga Spirulina maxima and a non-sulfur purple bacterium Rhodopseudomonas capsulatus through their peptic hydrolysis followed by plastein synthesis with papain. The former enzymatic process was effective in removing some photosynthetic pigments and flavors originating in the raw materials. The latter process was successful in incorporating limited amounts of methionine, lysine, and tryptophan, and thus to

synthesize plasteins whose essential amino acid patterns resemble the FAO/WHO suggested pattern (1973). These plasteins had no colors and no flavors.

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26: Ashby MK, Houmard J, Mullineaux CW.

The ycf27 genes from cyanobacteria and eukaryotic algae: distribution and implications for chloroplast evolution.

FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2002 Aug 27;214(1):25-30.

PMID: 12204368 pdf: Ashby M 2002.pdf

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mots-clés article: $rpaA; $rpaB; $Phycobiliprotein; $Two-component-system; $Excitation-energy- coupling.

mots-clés Antenna: £spirulina-platensis; £fundamental-biology; £photosynthèse; £photosystems.

résumé:

The two ycf27 genes from the filamentous cyanobacterium Tolypothrix PCC 7601 have been cloned and sequenced. These two genes, previously designated rpaA and rpaB, encode putative

transcriptional regulators of the 'OmpR' family. In Synechocystis PCC 6803, homologous genes have been linked to the regulation of transfer of excitation energy from the phycobilisome to photosystem (PS) I and PSII respectively. Partial clones from Spirulina platensis, Dactylococcopsis salina and Synechococcus PCC 7002 have also been sequenced. A table of identity between the proteins confirms that RpaB belongs in the same family as the algal ycf27 proteins. However, RpaA is a rather different protein and should lose the designation ycf27. The loss of rpaB from the plastid genomes of eukaryotic algae is associated with the loss of phycobiliproteins, so it is likely that this gene performs a similar role in algae to that in cyanobacteria. The implications for chloroplast evolution are discussed along with the possible identity of the cognate histidine kinase gene in the plastid genomes.

---

27: Association SVP.

Spiruline humanitaire au Togo.

PMID: pas

pdf: Association S 2004.papier mots-clés article:

résumé:

---

28: Ayala A, Manetti G, Burgos R, Ayala F.

Industrial and semi-industrial production of spirulina, Third world potential (modular systems).

PMID: pas

pdf: Ayala A 2004.papier mots-clés article:

résumé:

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29: Ayala Jimenez FA, Bravo Benavente R.

An improved cheap culture medium for the blue-green microalga spirulina.

Eur J Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 15, No 3 (1982) 198-199.

PMID : pas

pdf: Ayala Jimenez F 1982.pdf PAS mots-clés article:

mots-clés Antenna: £spirulina-maxima, £ATF£.

£BL: **Technology, **Spirulina, **nitrogen.

résumé:

The possibility of using crude seasalt, and saltpeter as the basis of a culture medium for the blue- green alga Spirulina maxima, was investigated. Saltpeter appears to be an excellent nitrogen and micronutrient-source and is very cheap. The effect of the nutrient level on algal growth, and nitrogen conversion efficiency, was studied. The results suggest the possibility of using this medium in a large- scale algal culture.

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30: Ayehunie S, Belay A, Baba TW, Ruprecht RM.

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Inhibition of HIV-1 replication by an aqueous extract of Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira platensis).

J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1998 May 1;18(1):7-12.

PMID: 9593452

pdf: Ayehunie S 1998.pdf PAS mots-clés article:

mots-clés Antenna: £spirulina-platensis, £arthrospira-platensis.

£B£: **Medicine, **Spirulina, **water-extract, **antiviral, **IV.

résumé:

An aqueous extract of the blue-green filamentous algae Arthrospira platensis (previously called Spirulina platensis) inhibited HIV-1 replication in human T-cell lines, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), and Langerhans cells (LC). Extract concentrations ranging between 0.3 and 1.2 microg/ml reduced viral production by approximately 50% (50% effective concentration [EC50]) in PBMCs. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) of extract for PBMC growth ranged between 0.8 and 3.1 mg/ml. Depending on the cell type used, therapeutic indices ranged between 200 and 6000. The extract inactivated HIV-1 infectivity directly when preincubated with virus before addition to human T- cell lines. Fractionation of the extract revealed antiviral activity in the polysaccharide fraction and also in a fraction depleted of polysaccharides and tannins. We conclude that aqueous A platensis extracts contain antiretroviral activity that may be of potential clinical interest.

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31: Babu TS, Kumar A, Varma AK.

Effect of light quality on phycobilisome components of the cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis.

Plant Physiol. 1991 Feb;95(2):492-497.

PMID: 16668011 pdf: Babu T 1991.pdf mots-clés article:

mots-clés Antenna: £spirulina-platensis, £A£.

résumé:

Phycobilisomes from the nonchromatic adapting cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis are composed of a central core containing allophycocyanin and rods with phycocyanin and linker polypeptides in a regular array. Room temperature absorption spectra of phycobilisomes from this organism indicated the presence of phycocyanin and allophycocyanin. However, low temperature absorption spectra showed the association of a phycobiliviolin type of chromophore within phycobilisomes. This

chromophore had an absorption maximum at 590 nanometers when phycobilisomes were suspended in 0.75 molar K-phosphate buffer (pH 7.0). Purified phycocyanin from this cyanobacterium was found to consist of three subparticles and the phycobiliviolin type of chromophore was associated with the lowest density subparticle. Circular dichroism spectra of phycocyanin subparticles also indicated the association of this chromophore with the lowest density subparticle. Absorption spectral analysis of alpha and beta subunits of phycocyanin showed that phycobiliviolin type of chromophore was attached to the alpha subunit, but not the beta subunit. Effect of light quality showed that green light enhanced the synthesis of this chromophore as analyzed from the room temperature absorption spectra of phycocyanin subparticles and subunits, while red or white light did not have any effect. Low

temperature absorption spectra of phycobilisomes isolated from green, red, and white light conditions also indicated the enhancement of phycobiliviolin type of chromophore under green light.

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32: Bacelo L, Costa JAV, Rocha LAO, Stanescu G.

Numerical optimization of biomass concentration of the cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis in an open system using Mangueira lagoon water as culture medium.

PMID: pas

pdf: Bacelo L 2004.papier mots-clés article:

résumé:

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33: Baianova IuI, Trubachev IN.

[Comparative evaluation of the vitamin composition of unicellular algae and higher plants grown under artificial conditions].

Prikl Biokhim Mikrobiol. 1981 May-Jun;17(3):400-7.

PMID: 6801639

pdf: Baianova I 1981.pdf PAS mots-clés article:

résumé: en russe

The vitamin composition of representatives of green (Chlorella vulgaris, Platimonas viridis), blue-green (Synechococcus elongatus, Coccopedia, Spirulina platensis, Cyanidium caldarium), red (Porphyridium cruentum) unicellular algae and higher plants (wheat, chufa, beet, carrot, turnip, radish, cucumber, dill, Welsh onion, potato) grown under artificial conditions was examined. The content of B complex vitamins (thiamine, riboflavine, nicotinic and folic acids), ascorbic acid and carotene was measured.

Among the algae studied Chlorella vulgaris and Spirulina platensis showed the highest vitamin activity.

The red alga Porphyridium cruentum contained the lowest quantity of thiamine, riboflavine and carotene and larger amounts of nicotinic acid. Comparison of the content of vitamins C, B1, B2, PP, folic acid and carotene in unicellular algae and higher plants, that are natural and traditional sources of the vitamins, demonstrated that the above green and blue-green algae contain greater than higher plants amounts of thiamine, riboflavine, folic acid and carotene, when calculated per g dry matter. All algae, except for Platimonas viridis and Cyanidium caldarium, are superior to beet and carrot in their content of ascorbic acid and inferior to green vegetables (radish, cabbage, dill and Welsh onion) in that parameter.

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34: Baicus C, Tanasescu C.

Chronic viral hepatitis, the treatment with spiruline for one month has no effect on the aminotransferases.

Rom J Intern Med. 2002;40(1-4):89-94.

PMID: 15526544

pdf: Baicus C 2002.pdf PAS mots-clés article:

mots-clés Antenna: £spirulina-platensis; £médecine; £organes; £foie; £système-hépatique.

résumé:

CONTEXT: Spirulina platensis is extracted from an alga and theoretically has many good effects on the majority of the organs. There is not any published clinical trial on humans.

OBJECTIVE: The evaluation of the efficacy of spiruline in chronic viral liver disease. DESIGN: Double blind, randomised clinical trial.

SETTING: Secondary care university hospital.

PATIENTS: 24 patients with chronic viral liver disease, treated with spiruline or placebo for one month.

OUTCOME MEASUREMENT: Aminotransferases diminution and the modification of a general state score self-evaluated by the patient on an analogic visual scale.

RESULTS: A modification of the aminotransferases level in the detriment of the spiruline treated group has been found (p = 0.036 for ALAT, p = 0.017 for ASAT), and not at the level of the general state score (p = 0.30).

CONCLUSION: Despite the little number of patients, significant results not favouring spiruline have been found.

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35: Bakels RH, van Walraven HS, Krab K, Scholts MJ, Kraayenhof R.

On the activation mechanism of the H(+)-ATP synthase and unusual thermodynamic properties in the alkalophilic cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis.

Eur J Biochem. 1993 May 1;213(3):957-64.

PMID: 8504834

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pdf: Bakels R 1993.pdf PAS mots-clés article:

résumé:

The activation requirements and thermodynamic characteristics of ATP synthase from the alkalophilic cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis were studied in coupled membrane vesicles. Activation by

methanol increased the Vmax, while the Km for MgATP was unaffected (0.7 mM). We propose that in Sp. platensis, as in chloroplasts, the activating effect of methanol is based on perturbation of the gamma-epsilon subunit interaction. Light-driven ATP synthesis by membrane vesicles of Sp. platensis was stimulated by dithiothreitol. The characteristics of the activation of the ATP synthase by the proton electrochemical potential difference (delta mu H+) were analyzed on the basis of the uncoupled rates of ATP hydrolysis as a function of a previously applied proton gradient. Two values of delta mu H+, at which 50% of the enzyme is active, were found; 13-14 kJ.mol-1 for untreated membrane vesicles, and 4-8 kJ.mol-1 for light-treated and dithiothreitol-treated membrane vesicles. These values are lower than the corresponding values for the oxidized and reduced forms, respectively, of the chloroplast enzyme. Although no bulk proton gradient could be observed, membrane vesicles of Sp. platensis were able to maintain an equilibrium phosphate potential (delta Gp) of 40-43.5 kJ.mol-1, comparable to values found for Synechococcus 6716 and Anabaena 7120 membrane vesicles. Acid/base- transition experiments showed that the thermodynamic threshold, delta mu H+, for ATP synthesis, catalyzed by light-treated and dithiothreitol-treated Spirulina membrane vesicles, was less than 5 kJ.mol-1. The activation characteristics and the low thermodynamic threshold allow ATP synthesis to occur at low delta mu H+ values. The findings are discussed, both with respect to differences and similarities with the enzymes from chloroplasts and other cyanobacteria, and with respect to the alkalophilic properties of Sp. platensis.

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36: Bakulin IG, Novozhenov VG, Orlov AM, Gmoshinskii IV, Mazo VK.

[Correction of selenium deficiency in patients with pneumonia].

Vopr Pitan. 2004;73(3):12-4.

PMID: 15335021

pdf: Bakulin I 2004.pdf PAS mots-clés article:

résumé: en russe

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37: Balachandran P, Pugh ND, Ma G, Pasco DS.

Toll-like receptor 2-dependent activation of monocytes by Spirulina polysaccharide and its immune enhancing action in mice.

Int Immunopharmacol. 2006 Dec 5;6(12):1808-14.

PMID: 17052671

pdf: Balachandran P 2006.pdf

mots-clés article: $Spriulina-extract; $Immulina; $Toll-like-receptor; $Mucosal-immune; $Systemic- immune.

mots-clés Antenna: £££, £ATF£.

résumé:

We reported previously that a high molecular weight polysaccharide fraction (Immulina) from Spirulina was a potent activator of NF-kappa B and induced both IL-1 beta and TNF-alpha mRNAs in THP-1 human monocytes. In the present study, we show that NF-kappa B activation by Immulina is suppressed by antibodies to CD14 and TLR2 but not by antibodies to TLR4. Similarly, NF-kappa B directed luciferase expression was enhanced by Immulina treatment when cells were co-transfected with vectors expressing proteins supporting TLR2- (CD14 and TLR2) but not TLR4-(CD14, TLR4, and MD-2) dependent activation. Mice that consumed a chemically defined chow mixed with an extract containing Immulina exhibited changes in several immune parameters. The ex vivo production of IgA and IL-6 from Peyer's patch cells was enhanced 2-fold and interferon-gamma production from spleen cells was increased 4-fold in Immulina-treated mice. The enhanced production of these factors was

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most notable with mice that had consumed this extract for 4 or 5 days. These studies shed light on how Immulina activates cells of the innate immune system and suggests that oral consumption of this polysaccharide can enhance components within both the mucosal and systemic immune systems.

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38: Balasubramanya NN, Sampath SR.

Protein efficiency ratio (PER) of algae Spirulina Indian J Nutr Diet 21 (1984) 165-167.

PMID : pas

pdf : Balasubramanya N 1984.pdf PAS ---

39: Ballot A, Krienitz L, Kotut K, Wiegand C, Metcalf JS, Codd GA, Pflugmacher S.

Cyanobacteria and cyanobacterial toxins in three alkaline Rift Valley lakes of Kenya – Lakes Bogoria, Nakuru and Elmenteita.

J Plankton Res (2004) 26:925-935.

PMID : pas

pdf: Ballot A 2004.pdf mots-clés article: $.

mots-clés Antenna: £spirulina-fusiformis, £j£.

résumé:

For decades frequent mass mortalities of Lesser Flamingos (Phoeniconaias minor Geoffroy) have been observed at alkaline-saline Kenyan Rift Valley lakes. To estimate the potential influence of toxic cyanobacteria on these mass deaths, the phytoplankton communities were investigated in Lakes Bogoria, Nakuru, and Elmenteita. Cyanobacterial toxins were analyzed both in the phytoplankton from the three lakes and in isolated monocyanobacterial strains of Arthrospira fusiformis, Anabaenopsis abijatae, Spirulina subsalsa and Phormidium terebriformis. Lake Bogoria was dominated by the cyanobacterium A. fusiformis. In L. Nakuru and L. Elmenteita the phytoplankton mainly consisted of A.

fusiformis, Anabaenopsis abijatae and A. arnoldii, and in L. Nakuru an unknown Anabaena sp. was also found. Furthermore, this is the first time A. abijatae and the unknown Anabaena sp. have been found in Kenyan lakes. Phytoplankton wet weight biomass was found to be high, reaching 777 mg L-1 in L. Bogoria, 104 mg L-1 in L. Nakuru and 202 mg L-1 in L. Elmenteita. Using HPLC, the

cyanobacterial hepatotoxins microcystin-LR, -RR -YR, -LF and -LA and the neurotoxin anatoxin-a were detected in phytoplankton samples from L. Bogoria and L. Nakuru. Total microcystin

concentrations amounted to 155 microg microcystin-LR equivalents g-1 DW in L. Bogoria, and 4593 microg microcystin-LR equivalents g-1 DW in L. Nakuru, with anatoxin-a concentrations at 9 microg g- 1 DW in L. Bogoria and 223 microg g-1 DW in L. Nakuru. In L. Elmenteita phytoplankton, no

cyanobacterial toxins were found. A. fusiformis was identified as one source of the toxins. The isolated strain of A. fusiformis from L Bogoria was found to produce both microcystin-YR (15.0 microg g-1 DW) and anatoxin-a (10.4 microg g-1 DW), whilst the A. fusiformis strain from L. Nakuru was found to produce anatoxin-a (0.14 microg g-1 DW). Since A. fusiformis mass developments are characteristic of alkaline-saline lakes, health risks to wildlife, especially the Arthrospira-consuming Lesser Flamingo, may be expected.

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40: Baranowsky JD, Dominguez CA, Magarelli PC..

Effects of drying on selected qualities of Spirulina platensis protein.

J Agric Food Chem 32 (1984) 1385-1387.

PMID : pas

pdf: Baranowsky J 1984.pdf mots-clés article:

mots-clés Antenna: £spirulina-platensis, £ATF£, £B£.

résumé:

(19)

Spirulina platensis was collected after culture and dried in four ways: freeze, drum, cabinet, and solar.

Available protein lysine was increased in the treatments involving drying at elevated temperatures, and in vitro enzymatic protein digestibility was increased in all samples over that of an undried control.

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41: Barriga A, Gómez P, Montoya R, González M, Montoya R.

Analyses of ribosomal sequences and biotechnological potential as sources of C-phycocyanin in one Chilean strain of Spirulina and two foreign strains of Arthrospira (Cyanophyceae).

Cryptogamie Algologie 27, No 2 (2006) 185-189.

PMID: pas

pdf: Barriga A 2006.pdf PAS

mots-clés article: $RDRA; $Arthrospira; $C-Phycocyanin; $Phylogenetic-analysis; $Ribosomal- sequences; $Spirulina.

mots-clés Antenna: £Arthrospira-platensis, £Arthrospira-maxima; £££; £n£.

résumé:

Analyses des séquences ribosomales et du potentiel biologique comme sources de phycocyanine-C d'une lignée chilienne de Spirulina et de deux lignées étrangères d'Arthrospira (Cyanophyceae). Une lignée chilienne de Spirulina (S. subsalsa CONC-050) et deux lignées étrangères d'Arthrospira (A.

maxima CONC-040 et A. platensis M2) ont été caractérisées à l'aide de la technique ARDRA (Amplified Ribosomal DNA Restriction Analysis), leurs séquences ont été analysées. En outre, leur potentiel comme source de phycocyanine-C (C-PC) a été évalué. Les profils des fragments de restriction des espaceurs ribosomaux internes transcrits (ITS) de l'Arthrospira maxima CONC-040, s'apparentent à ceux de l'Arthrospira clade (clade II) de Scheldeman et al. (1999). Les séquences ITS de la Spirulina ont été interrompues par le gène ARNtIle tandis que les régions ITS de l'Arthrospira ont été interrompues par les gènes ARNtIle et ARNtAla. L'analyse phylogénique, incluant les séquences ITS chez d'autres lignées présentes dans GenBank, a montré que la région ITS du S. subsalsa CONC-050 est presque identique à celle du S. subsalsa FACHB351, déjà décrite. Au sein des Arthrospira, l'A. maxima CONC-040 a été re-confirmé comme un membre du cluster II, tandis que l'A.

platensis M2 se montre très divergent, en ne se regroupant pas avec une autre lignée d'Arthrospira.

Le contenu de C-PC a été significativement élevé dans le S. subsalsa CONC-050. La capacité anti- oxydante a été évaluée à partir d'extraits aqueux contenant la même quantité de C-PC. L'extrait le plus protecteur a été celui provenant de l'A. maxima CONC-040, qui a été la lignée moins productive en termes de C-PC par volume de culture.

We used Amplified Ribosomal DNA Restriction Analysis (ARDRA) and sequencing to genetically characterize one Chilean strain of Spirulina (S. subsalsa CONC-050) and two foreign strains of Arthrospira (A. maxima CONC-040 and A. platensis M2). The potential of the strains as a source of the pigment C-phycocyanin (C-PC) was also evaluated. Restriction fragment profiles of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) from A. maxima CONC-040 matched those of the one previously well characterized Arthrospira clade (clade II) of Scheldeman et al. (1999). The ITS sequence of Spirulina was interrupted by the tRNAIle gene while the ITS regions of Arthrospira were interrupted by both tRNAIle and tRNAAla genes. Phylogenetic analysis, including ITS sequences from other strains deposited in GenBank, showed that the ITS region of S. subsalsa CONC-050 is almost identical to the previously sequenced S. subsalsa FACHB351. In relation to the Arthrospira group, A. maxima CONC- 040 was reconfirmed as a member of cluster II, while A. platensis M2 was the most divergent and did not group with any other Arthrospira strain. C-PC content was significantly higher in S. subsalsa CONC-050. Antioxidant capacity was evaluated in aqueous extracts containing the same quantity of C-PC. The most protective extract was the one from A. maxima CONC-040, which was the strain that was less productive in terms of C-PC per culture volume.

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42: Baurain D, Renquin L, Grubisic S, Scheldeman P, Belay A, Wilmotte A.

Remarkable conservation of internally transcribed spacer sequences of Arthrospira ("Spirulina") (Cyanophyceae, cyanobacteria) strains from four continents and of recent and 30-year-old dried samples from Africa.

Journal of Phycology 38, no 2 (2002) 384-393.

PMID: pas

pdf: Baurain D 2002.pdf

(20)

mots-clés article:

mots-clés Antenna: £Arthrospira-platensis, £Arthrospira-maxima, £Arthrospira-fusiformis,

£Arthrospira-indica; £N£.

résumé:

The internally transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences of 21 Arthrospira clonal strains from four continents and assigned to four different species (A. platensis, A. maxima, A. fusiformis, A. indica) in the culture collections were determined. Two main clusters, I and II, were differentiated by 49 positions out of 475 nt or 477 nt, respectively. Each cluster was further subdivided into two subclusters. Subclusters I.A and I.B were separated by two substitutions, whereas subclusters II.A and II.B were distinguished by four substitutions. After direct sequencing of the PCR products, three dried samples from Chad aged between 3 months and 35 years yielded a sequence belonging to subcluster I.A, as did a recent commercial product. The strains grown in production plants belonged to the same (sub)clusters as strains from culture collections, mainly I.A and II. PCR primers specific for each cluster and subcluster were designed and tested with crude cell lysates of Arthrospira strains. One dried sample ("dihé" 1) and a herbarium sample from Lake Sonachi (Kenya) only contained I.A sequences, whereas the commercial product was a mixture of the four genotypes and the other two dried samples contained minor polymorphisms characteristic of different clusters. Five clonal Arthrospira strains, thought to be duplicates, showed the simultaneous presence of the two forms of the four diagnostic positions that distinguish subclusters genotype II.A and genotype II.B. This is likely to be caused by multiple copies of the rDNA operon, in a intermediate stage of homogenization between subcluster II.A and subcluster II.B. The high conservation of ITS sequences is in contrast with the assignment to four different species, the great morphological variability of the strains, and their wide geographic distribution.

---

43: Becker EW.

Development of spirulina research in a developing country - India.

in F. Doumenge, H. Durand-Chastee, A. Toulemont, "Spiruline, algue de vie / Spirulina, algae of life", (Musée océanographique, Monaco, 1993) 141-155.

PMID: pas

pdf: Becker E 1993.papier mots-clés article:

remarques: planches en couleur page 213-215.

résumé:

Probably internationally not so well-known, applied research on microalgae in India has a long history, focussed on two main objectives, i.e.: 1) selection and utilization of different strains of cyanobacteria as biofertilizer, 2) efforts to mass-culture algae for human nutrition and animal feeding. These activities, mainly on the latter aspects, were intensified through international cooperations, which in 1976 induced the Indian Government to implement a multi-institutional

All India Coordinated Project on Algae in order to develop and coordinate algal research in India with the view to harness this biological resource as feed, food and fuel, both on the industrial and the rural level. Under this program, the technologies for cultivation, harvesting and processing of Spirulina were optimized. Simultaneously, all necessary nutritional and toxicological tests were carried out to ensure the nutritional value and toxicological safety of the algal product.

As a result of these investigations, the construction of two commercial Spirulina production plants emerged at Mysore and at Madras, whereby the second one is also engaged in the propagation of Spirulina at the rural level. Encouraged by the results achieved so far, the Indian Government decided to initiate large-scale nutritional studies in 1991 and to launch a second All India Coordinated Project on Algae.

In order to support all these projects and to demonstrate the national interest, official specifications for food-grade Spirulina were issued the Indian Ministry of Health at the same time, a unique step so far among the algae producing nations.

--- 44: Belay A.

La spiruline (Arthrospira) peut-elle aider dans le combat contre le SIDA/HIV?

(21)

PMID: pas

pdf: Belay A 2004.papier mots-clés article:

résumé:

---

45: Belay A.

The potential application of Spirulina (Arthrospira) as a nutritional and therapeutic supplement in health management.

JAMA 5, No 2 (2002) 27-48.

PMID: pas

pdf Belay A 2002.pdf mots-clés article:

mots-clés Antenna: £spirulina-platensis, £spirulina-maxima, £arthrospira, £j£.

£B£ : **Medcine, **Spirulina, **review.

résumé:

article de revue

---

46: Belay A, McCalmont M, Kitto GB.

Development of an immunoassay to detect insect contamination of microalgal products.

J Appl Phycol 9, No 5 (1997) 431-436.

PMID: pas

pdf: Belay A 1997.pdf

mots-clés article: $algal-products, $insect-contamination, $immunoassay, $ELISA, $Spirulina,

$Arthrospira, $Chlorella.

mots-clés Antenna: £arthrospira-platensis, £d£.

résumé:

While the insect fragment count is currently the primary test used for assessing insect contamination of food products, this technique is very problematical for assaying microalgal materials. An account is given of a new immunoassay technique,which is based on an enzyme-linked immunosorbent

assay(ELISA) detection of insect myosin and which provides a rapid and convenient means of quantitatively determining the amount of insect contamination in algal product samples with a high degree of replicability. Up to 30 samples can be tested in duplicate in 2.5–3 h. Experiments were carried out with a variety of common contaminant insects of algal products, using various life stages, including Corixidae, Ephydridaeand Chironomidae using both Spirulina (Arthrospira) and Chlorella as typical algal materials. As little as one insect per 50 g sample can readily be detected, with excellent correlation (r2 = 0.99) between the number of insects present and the color produced. A matrix analysis to determine the ruggedness of the immunoassay was carried out following the protocols of the AOAC International and established that minor departures in seven variables from the standard assay resulted in no substantial differences. The insect myosin assay offers a quantitative and reliable means for assessing insect contamination of algal materials and should be considered for adoption as a standard method for this type of product.

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47: Belay A, Kato T, Ota Y.

Spirulina (Arthrospira): potential application as an animal feed supplement.

Journal of Applied Phycology 8, No 4-5 (1996) 303-311.

PMID: pas

pdf: Belay A 1996.pdf PAS

mots-clés article: $animal-feed; $Arthrospira; $growth-and-survival; $immunomodulation;

$macrophage-activation; $Spirulina.

mots-clés Antenna: £££; £N£.

résumé: