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NOTICE AVIS
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THIS
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HASBEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY ASRECEIVED
.' , LATHESE AETE MICROFILMEETELLE QUE
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L'AVO ~ S
R,ECUE..
{
c/
!.
! i l
·nt E EFFECTSOFA_S~F-ADHINISTERIN(;F~TN~~)."~'t ONANXIETY,SELF-CONCEPTANDFITNESS
. "
, .
©
j"'-SO, .eurr,BY':;<'
-,
ATheda Submitte dinhrtt~lFLilfUi _n t ofthe kqu lreooent for theDe&r ..~of
Ma st er of £duution
Jle.part.... tof £duo:at lon d fsy'o:bQlogy t',no(IrlalUn lv e n ityofNe" f oundl~nd
ST.JOUle'S
. .
e · ... . .-.
.\ .
' J
---
The purpo,se,ofthe study vas tvofo l d. F1~stlytolItudY,th ·e eff"'ctllofB.six -v ee k a"'l:obi cfitnessprogr8llloris'Hf-conc.~p.t.Utn",sa lind IInxi "'ty,and sec.ondlyto. inves t igate the relati;nship sbetween the thr-eementioned vadables,
The slllripleused 1n thisllt udyvncOllpo_s e d of 22$ubj'!' c te from thesta ff a!\dll' uden t s of"lie1llOriillUnive-reity ofNewfou~il:1!!nd; 'l'be llu~jec.tsver,"'.given~,8er1~11oft'~~'t~, (both. at-·the.~eginn1ng .~4, . . end
7:7
:of'tlleexpe...ill\l>nt) to~a~uresfutie:tY I'il elf-tont~pt'a,nd f1trte8~'levels.'
' rom'the"22
8:~bje'c.ta that. Vol~t~e~'e~'·~~r:.~h~ ~iio;~eek. fit'~~~8 ·prograi..
" ',' " . ' , ' , ': '. -':'4 , :- . :'..
~:. :' :. '.:.' ' . .'
5 subj ec ,tafailedto'.co~Ple,t.'~".1l1.1'~,f't.h~.PO,rttut8:"an~
, w,:... "' ·;
"'H~na~"'d,~.: ::.::i: . :. "
. :':':."::::·::' :::.':: ::: :",: .,.j: .;~ ;::O .'.'.;':.:~::e~ .~.: .'~:::':"~:::::~ . .-' .,
The correlation sbetween,the':tJire eva lablellweree ale.ulated
",<OS
;"0="'0
S, ,' 0" . ,~"" ~","
..Th."To1,,'oo
bet .. .;''If-' con cept Ilnd.a nxiety WaSlIigq i ~ l calttatt~e ,<.05l~v<"1.' -' , Therellul ~oftheslx-ve ",k fitn ",s sprogra~were analy z",d'ulI~ng theMann-Whitneyustatistics , Subje c.ts who took,p a r tin·th e'fitne ss• " ,'1. .•
peolralldecreasedin'anxiety. Althoulh the.experimentslgroup i1id'l\Ot
.' .. ,. .
increils e'in'U'tnes8-eea greater.~~teritthanthe e?~~ roi,. ~~oul' (u,;'
's2,
p,·>.OS).•:t ""ydid'
1ncrea~e.:'in i~~~e.i;s.
(..--S-. 5 , ·.~ ~ ' <.05) ; ~h~le ~~e
control groupdid.notincreaseinfH n eos (v- '10,p.>.05). T~
, . " , " , ' .
titneosprogralll' hadrigsignifi can t ef f e c t (u-2$; p,:>~05 )on levels of
s~1f-c~ncePt;'
· , "o Stibj.ects,-who.dncreaeedinfimeas,',d e cre a sed in atlX:!,ety.to a.
greater ext":n ttha~Gubj..ee e e ....ho didnotin crea se
i.n
fit'm!sl." ( u•42.5."p; <.05l.
The study concluded that,fitnesil training de cre as e d'a n x i e t y . The"dllt. OJl~ theeffects'ofthefitn~uprost'alll on,f1tn'e~8levels'w~s
'J .,t' "
/ "
. . -:
~. ;,
.':,":
'" ..-;"!":'
: .Jh
",,'. "
r:
l
I i ,
I i
{ .1 \ . .
("
•ACKNOW'!.EDGEMEIfI
-!
The v"rit e yvfshe eto than kthe st aff oft:emorialUnlve~'slt;oy CouDsl'!111ngCentr~fortheirassistan ce ·incarryingo~t th~study•.
Special.t~,n~aareeztended toDr;Te,tr~~~.e:.~oak:for.hi~'\
assistanceall~enc ouragementd'll"!ngthewriting;,fthi8: _the,s~a .: \ ,
~ .'
",',','the,." ',',er,\lgul~ ~ike';:,:ta<',express .~1B:' gr~ti
tude -to.It
the
SUbja~~"'hO par,~~~l.rated intIo.e:.~e.sei~h
•..'
\
Page
ACKNOWt EDGEMgNTS . . . • ••.' • • .•
LI ST OFTAlItES.. .". _.. •• .~ ... . .. •.• •. h' ell'PT"
I. INT""U.CTIO..N.:". .'.•'.' '.'.'•-. ••..•.\ .'.
~tate1lll!nt'~fi~7Poae•••: ; '• ••_. . -.';
-The.Ra~i ona le,of,t h e,Study. . .'• •.• •
~~::::"d:~: : ' . .
~~lf~'~o~~e:+ . .. .. :', _
.Anx.le ty~'I' \~-.
;.
REVIElJ OFLITERATUREAND
,Revie wof'Lite ratu re ., •• ..• •... .. Int rOduct io n and Badc.groun d .". ..'..
CO";""O"~, ,'"" .. """'" Ph''''d
"d' pe~aooalii~_'fac to rs".".'..,"' ,:...':" ...'"r,~...10 .TheThe n peu tlcUseof'Fhysicd Fito,"s ,Trai n i ng:wit ht.hi!!,fhya icaUyan~_Ken~.ll~,~andic:apped: . • ••'21
Ph'Y~lc'ai' ~ilne88
.TU i nln g'.u( "c~n8e
Agent,of· '..
.t~e Pers:~(~HY :ofNor7l..IlUbje.\!tB ••,":,',''-': ••• : 2,', SU~8ry•• :. . . . .•..• .,'•.•..•: ••.••• •
\ 1 .
Hypothe s e ,_ . 31
OIAP1tR
(
AerobicFitnessProgr a m••
AerobicFitnessM'lasu re. •. • . • •'.'•• . • TheSi x te en Persona l!ty Factor Que,llItjotinaire
(16PF}••.• • •'•• • ••••.
' It)- .,' ,.'.,
lteliahillty'·. .• •• • ••••.. '.' • Page.
36 '37
38, 18 Vali?lt y• • • • • •
Suumary•"" ••••.• ••.. • •'.' • ••••
fit ,
.,~e,Te~e" eeSelfConcep tSca le (TSf > ..',':"•,"
Rel~a,~l1~ti..:.. ".',: •','. ; ..."•; -.Vali d i ty••,': :••
,Deaign'and,Analy sis';
IV. RESULTS ANDDISCUSSION., ••• • • •'• • ••
Descript i veData ".•• •," •• : 46
HYPo,th,? s e s•.••',' ••••. • • • ••• •.• Hypoth es i s'1.• • ..'•• .'.' .~,..•• ••
51 51
~p.othe&1s·,2• • • •. •. ','••.• •• •• •• 51
Hypothesis3 •• • • • •••• • • •,•, ••" 51
: .,1.', ,. , . : "
' . .'
~.'.. . ."
.r~.'.' '.' "
52' Hypothesis4'.Hypa!l':es!s'S,•
Hypot he,5!s,6. ,.... •;;· 9 · '· · ' .~3 lIypo·theslS,7.""; ,, ,:";••• ••'••••'.'•• • •' 53
Dis cus s i on .• • •, '.'•• ••"• • • • 53'
Anxiety.,'" "'.'•• • • • ••••• •• • • • • •'•• 53
" "
,F1tne:;rogr~,lIl " :'• •• •.••, •••,••.• •;;• ...vii
-,CHAPTER.
" B•
.
~. . i
-:
Fa..
Self-Conc~t.•,',' .- -.~ 55,-
S_ry :. ·• .•· 56:
. ' . :.' "
. - .",". "
Li _ i u t l oasof theStu dy••• ••••_•• •"."••.•-. 54
~~l~~I~~l:~.~.,RE~~~~: > : : ::
tapl1 eacionil,"; .", ', .",:"•. '-,'
, it'
. "
StatemefltofPurpGlse
· c
Til e purpose'ofthestudy· ",.:!s~lIOfOld :
1. To'i nv .:.s t lg a te~heeHeusof an' Indlvidualbedself-adminb-
~:red f1~lless
prognunonael"Q~l C fltlles~.
self-ec on cept a:d~nXiety.'
2. ToInv e sti ga a the r",latlq nshipbetween aeecb tcfit ne s s, alld
. " . .
'..
auxietyand self-concept.
J
tloi,".
-rr.
~ite'~',~
-;,-hatappeears.
to be.
':I;. '
!!-OIi,]resea rch. 'basefOI"us ing.
"
,
ph, ai calf1t~ess ~rainingasa~~an)j;to achievepsychological,grovth .
"
.
~..
" .very 'U ttU;:t:esell-rch .h a s been-ecndocceddite ctly,US ingfitne ssas a .
~ari~b~f..- n:
'lII'u t~rea of' ~PPli~~tiO~ has
be .." vith t h ephy si::ally' .
,
TheRatf~na1e'of theStudy
. \ .
..n,en.o~t?n ~hatphys i ca lffmeestr~lninghasan important rol e to·t>lay.lll,
~e .de~';lOpt:lent
ofJ'erf;o/lali~l'
and ee ntej,hea lthhll..~. been .
.'
~uppor~ed -~ .r~se arCh
eviden"ce'link i ng" pt'ys i ea\fitnessana me ntal•
:·· pe~lt;; (BU~~Ql~-.~nd s.t"one'::
'1975;.C~tl~66j' !la~l'
...n~·"i1r)ore.
19; 3:?:a~ail andlr.~~.t~(r.:,
,.19 73 ;Sh,uplI~d>';1l1.~Y; · .197ft)::)
The.r",sults~f
theeestud1e~
support
thepeuer
tfla~goOdPh)'s'~i3]"Htnessisesse- ei~tedvit h.a:~~h·fac t~n,a.s:1010anxiety!high'eeLf -eeonc ept,~f~eUngs• q£.sClf-"v")lrth .~sel f-CO~fidenc;(oUdp,,~sohal-;'nd~odaladj us t llleflt.
;amiintell~geDce. . ' i "' , . .
Sllllilarlyothe rrese.1rc 'bers(CoUiDgwuod. 19 72 ;Collingwood and
.. . ' . I '.
J·Wifh,t~._l~71; '~(>h?SOn~Fr e tzaadJohnson,"1 9~8;, ~Pheno~eea1.,
~1:~6.~that phys.lcalc~nditionin,lI:.vas>'aunefult~er.,pyfor' Sele~te~populat io·na.T~<;se<studie.s
and
other I' are-rev.ievedin -Chapte r...J
/
~.
' j
L
and me n ta lly h andic a pp",d .
Thefo11 0101nll are SOIr... ofthepossi~te-r.-a.sonsforthe lillited us e ct phY~icalfLt.n ess training:ISanlnd ~pendentvarfbb)e . Fi rs t , it
"'89 outsidethettaditionalroh of , t ho..e~rofessiOflscommo;;'lr;;je.ferred to as the"hel p i ng profes sions,"·",hic hdeal "ith""'ntal healthand se condl y , becausepe op,l e in the"helping professions " re ceiv ed little or no. traini ngio physiologyor fitne ss train in glindthe )' hllv ei~red
th,eus e offitnessas", "e an s,ofth Rr ap y. Thirdly,IIIiIny peop ledidno t tb i nktheyhad thetime.or facUlt ie sto run fitnessprn gr allls. '
The pr e s en t"
~tudy
foc ussedona lIelf-admi n istere d appr o a ch to·aer ob i c condition.ing. The proeTllCllt s e dinthisstudywasbas edona
~ pro::~l!Iloped by K.~H.
Coope r 0968, 1970). Thi s progra;'" has severa lfeatu resthat he l p it o.ver<'bmem"ny.of,th epOll1l1bfebarrie~lI whi chha ve prevent edt}>e.vi desprc ad us e of Hfness tr.a in ing to enhanr:e psychol o gi c slgrowt h: Itwas cntl yun de rst ood :self- odmln l s te rin g ' and placed.theresponsibiU ty for car r y l ng o"t theprogr a lllon ' t,he individual . These factors nega tedthe needfore Iabor et etr ai nin g and'training rad Ut i e s on the.pa r r ofm..~t>er& ~~··iielpnrc:~siori~
.«In the pastallnos e.a ll thethetllpl'uticphyd c a lfitness trdning progroTnsus edII.very struc turedapproach. The usual fo rmwasforthe -subjec t s to me-eta,.IIgro upIInu..h~rof ti _s ea chwe~kand during
~hes..meet i ngs th'e.subjects ve r e putthro~gha se riesof.. xercise s uod..r th e siJpe l'Vis l on of athera p is~ . Crouptrai ningIlIakes i.tve r y dif fi c ult tolte para tethe .pos sibl e cHec tsof l'rtlupi'h te r~c tionand
, ,
.interac t ionbe twe e ntherap is t and subjects, from the ac tu aleffec tsof af1t ness pro &r am. Ma s s i..an dShepha rd (19 71) foundthst .although an
I '
L
ind ivid ua llind groupappl;oachto a,erobieconditioningyieldedsimilar
. . =--_
~~~~~~i~_~~_5_.__~he__~~~~hol.~~c:-!.Ch,l.ngl:S:h r-ough tahciul:as-tl~SlJlt.ofth eprogramsarediffereot. Th15 ind i<:atedthat (l")'ChOlO&iCa l ~ changesvere the resul t'or'o the r[a t.t o rs suchliSgroup <tn t e r a C f~6n . ~
_rath e r th anbeingsole lythe resultofIIHr n "-,,schan&e. In.addition
~emajorityofst"dl(!!:lcondu ct e d have onlyused _ Ie llubjec tB . • Where as,th~present st u dyused bot h IIlaIe,an dfema lesubjectslind ba s ed
the
resul tson the.to t a lBampl" .Thetwodependen t variab lesof'anXiet y and&elf-conc~ptwere selecte d fot this ,r ese a rchfor II oUlllber of I''''IlOru;;.. Althoughther:has been some research wo rkdone associating anxiety chan ge toElxere ise progra ms , anWllb e r,o f rese a r d.e'rs'(Colli ngwood,
}97 .6;'
Hamme tt,196 7and .vitais , 1973) J elt tha tit ",as nOt~dequ!telye.~Plored'or:Ito:cff'icacy\;Iellrese a rche d . 'l:he secondvariable-, seIl..,eonccpt ,w;>snotus e d,as~;
depend en tvariab leinafitn e s s progl'a... . Thi s variahlealong wit b th e
,
.
anx i e t yvariable areccnstdere dtobe twocharllctc ri~ ti c softhe elllOt1onallyhea l t hyperso n .
~yman
(1972) h","sst"'-te~
tha tfre e dolll from tens ionand.se rtseof self-llorthare traits ofan O'mo ti o"a Uyhea l t hy,
-
pereoo , 'nibsupporte dthe!Ilelect i onof the'two v.. ri abl e !ll. InSUlnIDary,the r:was suppo rtboth fromn lor. i calasI:Iell as a re !llurch
'~~!Ile,
't ha tPhY~.ical
flt ::'s sconditio~ing
enn bring about: :...-...:.psychologica l'ch a nges . ande.anhi' use<dasa toolin the "helpi ngprofes - .'"c-,~ a.ions . ~' ,Hmlever . bef ore physic alHtll e n conqido n t ngis8'7ce p tedas Sme~nsto bringabou ;..ps ych olo gica l qha ngesfur t h e r resea rc h ianeeded. This stu dy \laSdesi~ned.to fill·insome of.t hegaps inext.sting re s e arch s!,d to expl or e
J
JDl)re practi c al lIlethod of fitne s straining fertho sein th e"he l p i.ni profession s. ".'----..,
'"
;'J
i
J
Defin i t i o n of TcI'1lls<
~
The cOlllpone n t ofphysi~alfitness tha t is gen er a llyac cepte das the most senlii tiveindexofovera ll physi ca l condit i o nthatis avai labl etous'toda y islllaxi lllOl laerob i cpower . Thepar a met er take.. intoeonsiderat i ontheoxyg entra ns po rtsystelll andmaybe definedIlSthehighe st oxygl' nuptake anind iv iclual can attai n wh ile pe,rfondngphysical work br e at hin g airatse a level
,,(Bailey,197i;p,15).
Self- con cept
.• •theoverall leve lofaelf e stl!el!l. Pers onswIthhigh score s tc nd tol1kc't helll.'1 elvc 8. fee l'thattheY are~ r.QO nSO f val ue;andworth, 'ha veconfi"""'ceinthelllseives.and act o«o,<1o , ' y· Peop'L "i<h
,~
'f0""e re 'o.h" . , boo<<h'."
olm' wo f t~ ;se e ene ee e tv e e4"1unde sira b le;•.•(F s,1965, p.2).
Anxiety,
Thepe rli on whoscor eshi ghonthi sfac to r-i s highonanxie ty asitiscotllllOl:II ,Yunde rs tood. Hcnee dnotbene u r~t io::,'Bince anx ietycouldbesitu ation a l,butit,~!lproba bletha theha ll' some 111ll1adj",Hment •.Le .he 15di ss a t i s fie d "lth- thedegree to whi chhe isabletomee t thedel'landsoflif..and't? ach i eve whathedesire8 ~( Ins tituteforPe rs " nllUty Md Abili ty re stin g', J972 ,p,26).
'.
( '
j
I
J
/ f
L
1
"
OlAPTERllREVIEW Of LITERATURE AND HYPOTH'ESES
Review of I.1terarute
The followingsection re v revs the relevant lit er a t u re and re aca ro::h fi ndings. Al t ho ughtbe prilllsryconc ern of thest ud~.waBthe effectofIIphysicalf t t nl! 98programon andery"s udse lf - co nce p t,a
. )
,
IlUl!lber ofst ltdi e a reviewe ddealt,wit hene<!f fec t s ofP.hys.i.calfi t ness on otherpe rso nalityt ra its >. The s e.ha vl!beenTevi.e'J:~~'for anumber of'
I."Thebas l~preede e und e l"lyi ng tbestud:(wa sthl!i~tertelat ion of all facen of.th~organi~lIl ;'Th ere f ore ,al t h ou gh~nlY'threevari - ables "'IlIein c lude d inthis .study ,itwa s,ne ces s arytoincluderesearch
·re l a t ingfitne s scon ditioningto othervari",bles .
, 2. Cattell(19 70 )ha s aton "
en~ 'o,f: hlS a~xle ty· scale. ,tjU!lt~
men t . Therefore1.tseeee d logical toconsider thein d~~~...tot:1I1 adjus tmen t in .'a l'lar ea sintn eliteraturereview.
3. LaBenneandGreen e(1969) define d's elf -concep t as: "••• theperson ' s tota,lapp rsis~lofhisap~ellrll~ce•.b~Ckgroundan~origin s , abili tiesandre s ou rces, s.tt1.t udesandfe el i ngs " (p.'10) . This stat e - ment has indi c a te d thatvar dcus personali ty trsitswere're la te d to sel f- conc ep tandconsequen tly th e y wereincludedintheliterature review.
Thisse ctionisdividedin to five areaS:
1. Int"redu c tion andback ground
,2. Cortel~tiona.lstudies'rel a rIng-physical'a n dpl!rsona1i~yfaetors 3. Thetherapeut icuseofphys i c a l fit ness training with the physi callysn dme n tally handicapped
4. Physic a lUtn esstr a i ni ng
85
acha~geage n tO f
,thepl!r6 onal1 t yof normalsub j e cts
~
5."Summal")'
ln t.l"o du c t i on and Background.
HllllII!lett (L967)stated, i'.l.hissrticle·on.p8ychologica~.changu wi th ph)'lI1calf1tn~8B"·training~'th at:. -
Ma(~ int;ete~i"i.n 'I;h~aical PSYch(jlOglca'l ~relat1~nshi-P.
i6'·~~~~~~f: , :;i l;~:~/:e~:;~~a~~n:Zr~~: ~76:,s,~;~~~~p~~~a:;;
th'a:n·tw~IlIillermi il ';.ince ,.there'M S'b..
e n
rehtiVl7iY..}ittle".spec ificgainin our knowledge of these relationahips. Wi t hout doubt;Ilan's ,i n quitins. mind did not illtogether.'over - Lookthis field inallth istime, but.the fnquirbs were speculative lindhyptltheticalrather th arrexperimenta~lind psy ehol ogic al theoriespaid littleattentionto physiology and phy!lica lfactors.,(p; 764) •
ueeee etin thesame ...rtielereviewedSOil..oftheliterature, whichdealt wi thth erel at io nsh ipsbetween'physic'aland psyc.hologlcai·
facto rs. Heconekuded hisarti!:.le·wit h.th efollowi ng statementIt Psychosomaticresearch Jias'indi c a t--e d that physicalchangl;9' result'ft"01:leontinued.psycholog i,e a lstates;'i tseemslogic a l to assumethe -re ve r se, thatpsyc hol ogi c alch~ngesresul('from ph ysi ca l.s t a tes .such'-'s'fitness . AlthoUGh thete.is'a general'assumptio ntha..t this is 'SO,lindcons-1derablec1a111lll .ratherva guelydo culllente d;··th e r eare surprisinglyfewfirlQ].y
-.valida teddata. (p .,7 6 7) . ,
,ut ho'ugbphys ical factors"'ereoften"enUonedin p,ersonal ity theo r y,itwasfl.nsve rysup e~Hd alte ve j and wasno t''incorpo ra te d
I, . "
int ot~e cen ~ r9lthemeo~thethe" r~e$-.'ThemQst notabl(!cJ:ceptlons to th1s weTethl!'conspl.tutiOi'lal,th e ories~fK.retschmer(l926),and of
~
.
:L
Sheldo n (194 2). Constitutional the o ri e s were concernedIdthth ere ra- ti o nshipbe twe en phys i c..l structur e andpe rsonaf Lny , imd there ....as'no attemp t to,estab lish~"Tl)'ca us alroil;tt:lo~ships.
Anotherper so nal i ty mec r tee,\oitl.oconside r ed:physi ca l factors in the for mula ti on of histhe o ry,o il SHaslow (1970 ). The bas e s of Maslow'stheo; 'wasaneedhie rarc h y , .Whieh'wasarranged.iJl th efo110'0lIng order;pliysio1 0g i c a1\needs , safe ty needs ,b,.elongih~a~.d~oveneeds, ear eeaneede'an d
aelf-actual1z~tiQn
needs.-The.1ndlvi'du~1'lr ,p'eisona1~tY
1. wasd~'te~i~ed .~;, '~h~ d~g'r~e
'to'whichthe~~
nee d:'were:8a~~sUed.
,In",.'orde ;"f o r"a n
"~~~~v1~ual
't o·~~v. ,~c~'
to'h~g~e~:'n~ed' 'i~veis-'t:he ~~o;~i:::'~e~'d
. . ::::£.f:::: i;:·.:;~':::::;'h:h:,;:;:r:O:;::>L:::,::::'::;" ;,1 ·
de~elop",,,nt , of person;li~Y;'
.Altho ughthistheor y
.
proVide danexpl a n a ti o n. . Q( ~hy~hysicai .factors ~ffec tpe rson alit y ,t"t'didno toff e T.any:eK~loana}~on:a~to ...hy,elllotio ns.affe ctphysiolog ica lprc ee eses, Wh~leMaslowallo"~dfo r reg re s si on fromhigher neo:d le ...els,.ba.ck',tolot1e~nee dlevels ,tlli s.
reg;CS$ i On",a,s''the
rC ~Ult'~f ' no~r~atiSfyi.ng ,
the,moreb.~Sid surv~v"l
need sorbecauseof- distup tto:nsat-hI&he.::'nee d!e;'el!l~
"
Hasl~~s
theo'r;.dQ.e~ .
prcvfde..an..e,xPlim,~tt,o~n Of
h?"'....Phy~~(,al_
fact~i:-$'.affeet, p;rc~ologic..
.i
.d~'velopment ;h~ever,'thi s, '.r.h~orY', is una ble''t~,explainhOllpsyc:h~log:lcalf....c:fo rsaffec';,, ~hysi c iilfiic:t o rs., There fo re,it wasof 1i Bitedusefuln es s'inexpl~in1ngthe,tW'o- way, i n t e r:", , " " " . ," . ,
. ,'
act io n~etween'physi c a l~d p$~chologicalfa c tor s .p r epea e din't his
. ,
comf>o~edofthree sph e re s of functioning,which"e r !!; in·tel1~ct...l.
emo t i o n a l - i n t erpe r sonal,andpl,ys tca1.·CollinS"o~d(1912)suronrarhed Carkhu ff'~lIlode1 bystartng:
~~::~~=t~~:u~~eP~:~;~:; IIl~~~.e~~:~n~i~~9a1e::p~:~~~a~:tn
in.th e tntE>gra tion'1\'£aper s o n ' s physica lfunetioning wt ththe inte lle c t ual and elllo'rlonal-interpe r .sonal!lphere sof func- ti o ni ng. Ake y ,tenet.ofthe mOde listhatananc reee n t; of functioningin one life sph e re' can haveapositi v eeffee,ton funHioninginthe otherarus.(I'.583)
Physiologicalfactors suchas,fitnes'"tra d i t i.ona l1Y,pla ye d~ ve -ry udnorro l e:int h e deve.1o pme nt',ofper~onalitytj-,'e o ry:",Howeve~ , i~
the"p'a s t"tenyears.th'ere
ha s 'b~en ~ groWi~g:~rend
t"miards a'~o~e·'1~te-
-..
g~~'te~ ~i:he~ry,:Of , P~~s~~;l it~;' ~~ i~~~"tO~k' ~nto c~nstd~i,,~{on '~~i.:,~~p'e~t~
'..-:
,~'t""~t,h'~:Jndi~i;d,~~t; PhY8iC:~l,', Si;li~~i :~d' e;";;;:tio~·a~.,·,; ~~nulll~e~ ~~,~'
r~$eanil\e~s(Isma il',1912;Kan~';'1 912 ;·11" r ; i 8 ,.
)973:
'Ca r k h uUi')97 i) wroteerti~~;s s'uppord'n~ ~:.~nt~gra;ed th~O~Y ~f.·perso~~.lity ,~lld.
th e~ece5sitY
ofinCI ~ding physic~l f~ctlJrs
into p'!,tionality tmi o r y . Themostrecenttren~
:'in rcselltchde~ii~g .
"'itlt'the'rCl~~onSh~ps .
. t>et"'t'~nphysical~hd'ps y ch olo g ic a l va-cbb lcsvae t.oincorpo ra tephy s i cal f.ftnesstr ai ningint,:!a therapeutictolein th e de.ve l OP;"-:n t ."f r.oo d. ,.men~81· heal th. A~UCIber o~re s ea r ch e r ",(~lling,:,oOd:.19U; ;Coliin~oodand WUlett ,'1971;.Vitalo,1973)"C1"P ~e~~ed't llepo s si'bl c tmplica ti onsof
" . ... . ', ' ', .
.
Physie~l
tl:aio.tn gin.thelIl~nta-l
hea l t hprof~~sioO!'l
a,ndthe.ne c e s s i t y.ofth~ i~el~~~~'~t phY"tcal.,~it~
..S$tratn'~ng
progtamS'ir-th etra'i~ing
of.
. .
The'&ro\l.i n gconcer~forpl,y61~albe aLth-byj.bos eworkin~in the,
ment a i
hea~~h
'fi d d,vaS~efiected"i~,'ll
nulliber QC'p,ublfcatJ o ns: Inth~ '
la's t eigh tyears theScho olC:ul.t1an ce \ror1<er has:devote d tv e.,complet e
. '.(
th e s e ts sues di dno t dealspecifi cally withphysic altitn e n
~
tr a i ning, they di dstre s sthe ne edto: thos efneo Lved incOunse ll i ng to.ptOlDO te physic alhea lth. Thearti c l e sin thelleis s uesdbcus sed..Dumberof.heal~htcpfc s , nng ing frOlll ciga r e ttesmoki n gand drugabu seto obes ity q.andplly slc:a lfitne ss . In additionprocee dingsofthe'N~tiondConf er-
enceon Fitness and Health (19 72) and the Na tion alConfe r ence on ElIIployee.Phy.l1 c:al~~tne8!1(197$)containedarticlesstrusinlithe'
"lll1pOr t a ne;-
ot'
pbyaical·fitness ind~ve+oplnggood-mentaihealth . "Theseftt n ; /IS coIIwidevarie t y of persona'H.t y
ctiarat~e:istiCS.
,Thefirstg;oupofst udies'discussedin"this revie whav~dealtvith.pr e-ado lescent children. "-
Rar i ck andHeKe l'(l94~)sele c te d t,h'ete n~s tfitandtenJe aa t ,fi tsubjec:u frOllla sampleof,172 gr ad efive st udent s •.The fitnil!!Ss
",
.
. -"- .. .
te s tlia ttu''Yuse d"to selectthegro,upsfocu s sed"mainly on llIl'a9urell'o f st~engthandeeee elib:lli ty~ They conclud e d.thatth eo.t11ghfi~neaagroup
~a s
bet t e r adjus ted in'lichoo landp~rliOnal
te!atlonships,andh~d _~"
~ell
in te gr ate d,pe~li·onal1ty.
;"1'enon a l and so c ialadjulit1l1enc va..' mea aur edbytea c:he rt"oIt ~ng,j;. _Be ca useth ii'st udysel e c te d tho:-IllOstfit attd,le a st.fit studen-uout ()f8 la r ge grou p,th~ru ul t llofthe study" ,
. -
- .In asl m ~ l,arst udy us ing,seeepIe of28nur seryschool chil dren,
1 ,
i
\ I
"
\)
l
11
Smartand Smart (963) foundth"£Q lln~ingcO(,Talntions(si gn if ic an tat the'p<.O ~,lev.:-})be r ueen ,co r e s ontheKra -.se -\ le be rlc sc'ofmuscula r fitness and adj us t r.lent;bappine~s(rr.•~l);self-con trol(r...48);
dependab ility (r'".48);hes tliklld (r..,36) : an d cmot10:1.aladju!:l't~n.t' (r...58). Adj us tmen tlias determ in edbyte ach er rating s .
Alexander(956)using theoppos iteprocedure,sele cte dtwo groupsbasedon
ad~stment ·~s
snea: ured"by the Stout-Langd.encriter~d
ofWeli-Adjustnle!lt~' ite use da sample of714 grade"B:o:;hoOl'children,48f>
were placedinthewe~ladju s t e dgroupand226 in:t h e'rU:i~'loIei ladjusted
I- i " _ " " , "
g roup., -TheKraus il- WeberMuscu1at: 'FH n e l;!" Test wasgivento'b o t h Stoupi'.
: , ' ,' . t' . " "C,.' . ' •
Theresult~ind i ca te dthat'the'ce.uadj u st e d gr oup'wassig~ificjlnt1y
. . . I. · · · ..
mQrefitthan thenOn wek L adjust edgr cup.
Sengstock(1966 )'i>(laly~etlth"fi~nessof30edu~..al>le'lOe llt a11y ret a r ded b9YS andcomparedt~el!l .toa!:a"'Ple of30nO,~l'la1boysrnatche <!
for c.h ro nol o gicalilt". :he,retard"(&~-:-U~U~!\ seYee~ed" exc\ude hra i n dama ge dand han dl capped b F Fitl\e,s~,uastleas u.redby theAAPH,ER YouthFi'tnessTe st.'The· normal~6ysscor edhiChe; 01\ the:.f1tn" s5'te st;
:hantlie retardedboy s.
I~ 8n,al1Tll\~entic.al study.,.;~
..e(19S9) , DI,50, conc~udedthatnO=~lbeiys wer emore fitth~nr('tard~d.boys. T~.des ignof this study doesnot 'pe'mi tony reason or explana.tion to be Nde lorth~diffetence.:
Clark and Clark (1961) invo;lstl gatedtherelationship between social,s ta t u s andlllea:~.ures·ofst-rength in.tvo groupsofba~' & ;ollegroup con sis ted
bf
toysn~neto11ye.a -rsold and't!,esecondg'toupwas.~deup'o f b QYll 12
to
14 yearsold. ·In th" nine tq 11 ace I;'toup,aB.o c i o grantva susedto a6ses ssod al s'ee ec s, n,eresults "l,owed thatt'hoseboys
",ho scoredhl ghestOnthe vad ousl)lCas ur~ s·of'st 'tc ngt h alsoha dthe
J
,
,/
.
/,I
, 1 I' \
"
highe s t $Oc1al natu•• Social status\.IoUtlea5uredbythe·~nta.lHea lt h AnalysisInventdI',in the troupconulni nllchI!',12to14 )'rarold
bo ,,,,
Although no dUferenc:ewas-foundeeeveee boys 1'111:1'1(lnd10-,1Onthe st reng th~a.uro.there\lU atend ency Corhi gh.r ren gth,cores tobe all!lOc1 a t edwithhigh.odd SU t llS"co res, The resu ltsof thestudy
, '
\le r e noteon el....1v"beca U!laofthe diUefltli lresu l t .in th etwo &rOUP"
Theresu l ts ht thetwoaSl'!'groupswe re attri bute d to eit her an actual
.
,.diff,eceneeatdtffe; in t
age~:
orthefact that'diffe~ent ~a8uriog
.:lristruQl!nt svere",,,..d.in thetllo,c r o ups. Theres~lt8of tl\is8lOOr.
. . .
-",. ::,'we r e spe.c:if,icto theage,sof~hesample-&.nd,werenot,.generaU:Z:.:lblll.to
differenta~e.. . .. '" .
A'si. na tu:udywall_eau 1edoutbyCowley;andbWla1i(1962.) ud oJ a
~i1lllpl~
ofdghty - th re e,10 to12yearoldbO~s,
50c1ll,1'~tafus::
vaslOees un.-dhr.the CovellPerso nalDisti.oce ScdefindCitrte5S va l'
t "
_i.Sure d hy':thePur dueHo~o;"F1t(l e~ sTes t. Asignlf1utl tco~re.h tion of.41\/,1$foundbe t weenUt n e !>s scor es"and sot h .l~tatusscor ea. The
.
~.
signl Ucall.trelatlonshlpvith th is age group su-pported th e"earlier
"I'res ul ts Of'Clar kall.,J'Cla r l<(1961). Ilowever,"lldidnot clar ify vfteth ,tr
th is reht lon..hip"sppUedtoall
age~-
orvs~
"Pe CU1 Ctothatage tr oup....NC:C"raw aod"
Tolb.e,~t
(1953)al~o i~und
that 50dd 5tA"t us_w.,s-relatedtoathletic sblll ey."Although. flt ne ss testloI~5_give nto
till!
sampl e of 438) \lniorhigh sch oolboy!>,,aebletlcpartieipatio~in 1oter- ,ec~oland1n't el:1lluflllPopor t .. ,liSve il as }""gmenu of at h l e til'abili t y"
,
. ' . ...
"\lereat s cusedto'a'SlU9totalability."SOlliernu rCI,lerS. Vitalo
(l~73) '-'foundi
bf!1f.eve d th"'tathle ticabi litylindetli le ti c'p a r tidpa t io n ,:,e:e not good1nd~cll tor.s-.of PhYSical/( t t '85S . Ther<~f~ ~l! ,~he-re s ul n.obtdne~byI-lc:~a"lindTolber twerenot~ttrJbutedapedUc a llyto
,I'
" ',
J~ )3")
Phy,,~c al,fitne ll" .
A"number of studie sinv e s tig.:atedtherelationsh ipbe t ween phy s i ca l "fitnes"andln t e l l,i gen l;e in chlid ren. 1f;'ha ll~Kane.and
.... ;;$..
K1:rk~dall~ )sel l!ctC!dasa mpl e'of48 boys and48 gttl s froa a popu lationof130 Britishprill" tysch oolchildren. The.samp lecontained ,appr OXi,P>ia te l y.cqua.l numbers of1010'.middle,an d high.acade~lc'achie veme nt levels. In t d li gen ce",118Sf1s s~s'"ed.by t-Oti~·IQTe~~~Standard.A~adeudc'
AChievemen~
Teat,r.en~nl
Sch olasti cAb~l~tY !«f1t.. ind th~ NFE.R?~~t °
2', .whlchme~~~tes En~1(8h ll.eh·iev~meni:
•.:'Eit~e~!I~,:,a_S:de.te,r;"i~'ed'ii?',~'··t~~·~
battery
e'ont a in'irig.thr eeg:~.n~ratmptor
:-1':em8'· 5~,. k1.ne~t·hl!"i:1C..'1"t~~$ .~.@v~n-.coo·~.di~lti:io~.-_it,~ms a.nd.·.~i~ ·~~l.a.~ce,~c~~,~.~ ,··_I·~. ~~i:i~c:lual0~' .'~s~~ii : .'J.;
e i:al.i;tat~;:,'\ • •t;li·~. 'c·~ide-n·~('-p~i~t$to
, a
posidv~·.t~la tionshtp·betw~en
some eceeraptit~de' itel'l;.cs'~ec:i~l~lY coo~Jin~d.·on
andb~b"~·';"
. ' . .
.pljYSiCa lan'd i nt e ll ectu a l facto r s.,i tW1\S,.O.flim~tad, .~lsduhlEiSS.~~e
presentstudy.btoc a,useitdid'notrncilsu~een dura nce,fitn ~s s._:wb i ch was th~...i"·conce rno.l.t b e'pr e s ent·s tu dy•.In.the !lallle!lttld~''Ismaii ",t"l.
also investiga .tedth'e
relat ~~nshi~' bf'twe~tl' n",~~r~~i~i~rri
,'!nd~Kc·~overs:ion
•.and. the eeeeph ysica lh'ct~rs. 'Ne'~ro Cicis;'and.exc rovetsion'were measuredby
,th~ Junior'.I~'~~'~l~Y peh.~'nalitY·;n.v~n'i:I;ry
••ls"'~ll
ct~i'.
c:onc:ludedchil t""Ne u r o t ici s m.a n d
extr~ver~ion
vece found to,loa do'aub_IiItllntially on f",ur'
~(
theell. traci:e~ · fact~rs .
'buc···t.he.~xte~t '-
an'ddir~c~
:~'ion
of the:'as'sociationva'~·i~.i .Wi.t~:th~- ~a.ctOI:- , 1Ir1~ the:'
s·e.x~ ;,
the'chHdre""'(p.91)... . •
Clarke.and
'J~man
096°.useda.~lC'
,o.f}17..~.le chlldre?~
,\lhowere
nl~e~ ' tve:l~e
and.f Ute e nyea rs,!fage,to.·i n.v esti S:Bt e't~e
"
. '
.
.relat ionsbipbetwe,e nphysic al andint.(!llec tlllllfft~to.rs . In t e l li gence,
"!as measul'edby; tho Ot1s Self-Adminlste redTe..tof tien tal}-lllcur.ity,. Iowa Sil entRe{ldinl:;Te st andCr ad erciint Average .:"WIlilefitneS9'wa, -
~~sured
byth eRog~r'
sStr.engthIride:,,:"; 'TheyfO~~'~
a :onSiSt.l!nt.,tend.e~cy
{OThi gh strength8u~j·ed.!l
tohavehigh s cc reeon theGtaadat"dpOloler•.Y:nten:i.gencew'a.o;~a'~U;~dbytheller";on_Ne tson'I~i:e~li-geni:e ..'
T~G't' ~~d' 'p.;w~r
'wa s'",,-,~~~rCd
-61a " jU~p te~8eh
te s t.'\~~ir result~
'"i n dl-~~t~d lh~t
notelat10~:,hiP_-_~X~9t~,~ ~:tv~en p~~r.~nd·~t.~te~ ~'lg~.n_ce:
The s"tudie's~:i.thchildr",n.i~·'.g~ne.ra~'_supp'~i-ted;the'idea'that'"',
. ', ",,"" ".,', - ' . .',' '. ',
.•
.physical"aodps y c ho l o gi c al.fll e t o r';':are rl'-bted.·d~~pi t~thefac t'that.•
many
0;
thestudie~ rc~l~w'eio·~·t~lnedillifl!~ent ·.re~u"l~s,'~h~ t'~~t ·t~~·;
"
.,re1atio.ri~hip'~ be~een, fa,ct~rs ,~a.ded "it~: a~~':
'In:~he :'si:u(a.~s,revie"e4.
fitn~~~''w~s_as~red;"ainlyby"st~cngt.ho'rIDOtor'abil'it:l't'at:hertti~n;by"
ear<iiova~~l1i~r :~~d endut:~~~. f~t:P"~~';"
,\hic:h 'is',.a~·~~pted-u·~h~ '>i'~~~
me'~~'ure
oil \ 'otalfit~ess:' (Co;pe~'. : '1970; VitO~.
191 3) . ..... .;';w
ee~:t:.:::::";'::h:;:~;::":::::;: ;:~::::&:.:::,;h: ,:::::;;".~ip .
....
/·· ·· ···r f
1 ." J' 7>
:'i "
.
. -, 15Jones(l94 6)~se'daaedesD.tstrenlith'·mei.~UFe8
to'
sele~tth e , .',- ,'" : -::
" ,. ,... .
" '("te~.mostfitandten bast>·fitboys{roma ..ampleo,~',78Nile,s t u den ts .
He>'then"used'~'~ase study"""tho~10,'f01:1aw
'the
boysove ra
perio dof".-,fheto
e1 ghi:\ean . 'Pe~l",>na11tY ,"~$- aSIl~8.ie4 .bY:t?e
U.C'.::~pu.tatt~ .
.T~at;:R.oge):"~testot-
Pl!t~o~iity;AdjU:'t~Jl,t.1~'~(>~t10n'on(:~ul.tiv;;·~'·~eeord~,~d' teaehe~:;~po~t~ ; ··
'KiS'·~Bult~' :lndi~'~~ed' tha~'~~t ,fi~s't' t~-te " ..
.• ··. :~t~·:;E~;:;j::~~::;::: ::~:f~:it::jh:~l:~;j{j:!::a;;: .. : . ' .:: . . ; ' :.
~~·I;!\::::,:h·;;,~i ::c:· ::::: U ;,i hig~ . . 'ho :; . · . :'• .•• 1 ::' ; ;.
".:j,'
· L . · '··
.r
.\ .
l
16
used inthe study represent c xt rcee levelsof Utn ...and cons equently the ,\e'su":Ltswere not genere Lt aeb Ioto'lIKIr('ecder uteftl ~(, 9 Sle vel s .
One of the rev studl('sthatdealt vith f('ma,lell~bje'ctswas conducted by Young (1971). She lnvestiiatedtherel a t i nn "!l i p. hetveen pe t s o n a l-,.s o c:l a l adjustmentand phy s i ca lfitn e s s by socineconOlllic
. . ...r .
le ve l s . Theeeee ureaent.ins t ru men t s·us ed verc theAAHPf R YouthFitn e ss Tes t . the Califo r n ia Te s t ofPersona~ity ~d.t.he~ocioeconoDliele vel liasde t e rminedby tlcCall'sScale. Her samplecontained 114 eleventh gradeg~rls. Oneof theeonc l l,lsionsreac hedwasth at:
There 1s a significantpositive co rre Lat j.on at'ehe.Q!!level bet ....eenphj s l ca lfitne s s sn dpe r s ona l adjus tme n tandbe t~ee n pQys ical fitnessandpersonal-socialIIdjustmentwithi n th e middle soc:ioeco n om1cgroup .but not within the'ti1 gb orrev 'gJ;OUp s. There arenosignlfica n tcorrelation s betwe enphy Rl cal
fil: n,e s s 'a ndsod a!adjustment. (p. 599)
Yarna ll(l966)useda sampleor75hi g h. schoolboys to1nvest i - gate thll" relationshi.pbe tweenphysic,,~fitnessand pop u la rity . Fitne s s wa sde t e r mi n e dbystreng~h...itetnS ;lndpopularity wasIl'leasurcdby a
,
..:'sociomet ricq~",stionnair",.-Th e r"sultsindicatedth1'\~phy si c l'llfit n'; s s waspo s i tiv ely related~opopularity. H", ...ver.,Ihefitn~sstes tus ed onlyconside redstrengt~l:a t herth anendurl'lnc eeeeaures, which were re cogni:< e das thebe s t tne!asureof totalH~ ne9~(Vi t a l o . 1973 ;Cooper .
. .
1970).
In amorerecent st u d yNeale,Sonat.roee andHet:(9 70)test e d therelatio ns hipbetween phy s i :.al'fitnessandself-esteemin a sa mp le of165 ado lescentboys.'TheAAHFER YouthFit ne ssTestwasused to lI\Casur~fit nesss'n daIO- i tem self-este em scalewas used todet~nn1ne .s elf- e s t e em. Thee tudyfafIed~,~~1-nd.any dif f e r en c e between high and low~1tboy s'onn-:casu res of self -esteem. Nea l e eta1. •vroeer
)
r:
Rc5U lt~ofthe st udy' f'lIned tos uppo rtel,..hy" ot hesl z;:,dr{!la- Uonship . One}possibleinterpr et"Uon isthat th..
"",asurioglnstrUl""nts"lIIflloy e d (nthe s tudY l<er enOe prectse ('no"ghto de tec tthe,re la tions hip. I'ev"rth..less. thepossi- bili t y exis t s thattlt~hyp oth" s i zed rela t lonsh ip'doesno t.in fac t.exI st. orIsvery low.(p , 749)
Thest ud t "" du Ung withhi ghscho o lsubjec tstend e dto assess fitn" s smainlybystrengt q ra th e rth~nby endura.ncl"me a s ures .
Thefinal Rroup of studie s in thi<3sec t i on....ere thos e which fnves t.Lgatedtherela ti onshIpbe rveen phy sicalaljdpsy cho l og i eal fact ors in adu lt and colleg eagesubjec ts.
Sharpand Reilly(1975)'Inv" s .ti gat e dehere l atiOnsh i p ben-en aerobicUtness an d
per~onali~ in
a'sampleof65 malecolle ge Iltude-nt a . Pe rs on alit yfacto rs ...ere.asses;~d\Y f~e
MMPIand£1COI'I
wasdeteJ1l!1ned.
,
by ase rieso[te sts designe d toCleas ur e ae ro b i cca pa ci,!.)·, They foun d that,highf1tneS$~"corre13tedwith 10'"dept-ess ion,lowparan o i aand low sOC1.alintrov e rsion .
Ti,,,
studyus "donly1M!'" sub j ec t s;>ndtl""'refo re theres ulcs were notgen era f La ab Ictoj.fCII3·1e~ub~ects.In a sielilar st ud y ,Webe r(I953) studi(>d the rclattonshi p betwe enfitness and.pe r s onalityIn asa'"Pleof246 ma Lefr eshmen.
Fitn e sswasd~ter1llln"dbythe.lowaPhysi calEfficl e n c yProf il e~ndthe HI'lPIwa susedto ]lIeuure person a lit y . Therl;'s u ltsshowed,thatthe r e waSnO sl.gnifi ca nt re l a tions hip bet ween theS(:o rC!aonYle 'two tests•• Although therl'su lts\le rejusttheoppos iteof .thos e'rep ortedbySha rp andRielly(1975).the studi esWer\!nortota lly contradi ctorybe""use
•differeitt re lit"were usedto ass essfitnes~ . Th" test uS"-dby \leber (1953) eonc e n trated mainly onstr e ngth andth e testusedby Sharp and Rielly,i975 )concentra tedOnl..·.robl c.capac·lty.
Brunner(1969 )in a relatC!dstudyinve sti ga t e d.pe rsona li t y
')
L
dHfere n ce s in adu ltII\IIle " who partici pated.in phylli c<,lact ivitiesand tho s e whowere inactiv e. Aquestion nal t e was ""edto det..rmlnehDlol activ etheIl'Ien wereend anadjectiv e check li st....asused toassess. per s on ali t ych a rac ter i st ic s. The r",,,"ult s indicatedtha tp"rtlcip"nt s we re; morede fensiv e.1II0redo~lnllnt.!!lOre echr.evemeocec rtenredand I:IOre
1
S<!lf-c:onfidentth a n nonpar tlc1p an!:s: The study did not1>Ie8llure fitness andtheref~ret'heresultswereno t general i z ableto f1tnes san d per -
sonalit y . ' ~
Werner and GottheU
~66) '
carriedout a similar study USi n : a sSl:lplcof1,56malesenteringthe UnitedStatesl1il itarY College. On entry to thecol lege~:~jects
werec~asS1fied
as athl e te s oras no'!p~rt iC:iP an tsin epc'r t.s , Sele ctiontoth e groups,wasbasedon parllicipationin highscbooL'tatbIetIcs . Pel·sonal1tytraits were measuredbythe16P F. The study concludedtoot athlete","·~rc;more soci.ab le,moredomi n an t,mort!cnthus t a s t i c,eere adventurous, tougher, eere groupde pendeo r ,m" r e sophi st ica tedandurir e cons,,~vativethan non part ic ipant s. AlthougheOl:lparingeeerve andinac t i ve groupswa s ..popul a r'me th od of in ve s t i gati ng th erela t ionsh ipbetw~enfitn e s s..nd pe r s on a li t y, Vitalo(19 13)afterr(,view~ngthe lite rat.ureconclu ded tha t participa tiQnin nthletics andspo rt s Wal;lIotal wa )'s a good 'meas u r e. offit ne s s. The.studystated tha t be f oreany con clusi Ons"ere
~de.futther.research wa sne ede d ,
Harris (1963)in vestigatedthe relatIons hi p betw e enfit ne s sand hperllo n1l1it y inasamp leoof79 collegewo"",n. The18 mostfitand the . .
18 leastfit,",ollieI'we r e compared on anUlllb e r ofpe rson alityeeas uee s, Fitnesswas,e stedby the Kra ul;e - Ueberree e,\"'ells-Dil l onSit -lI.~ ach
L
Test andthe ScottFitne ssBatte ry.
J
19
the Taylortianif"..tAnl<'ietyScaleand theEd"ard ' !;T'er~ on al Pre ~ere nce Survey. There "'''-5 nosi &n Uic iln ldiff ere nceinanxie t yb.:'l:....ca n the hi ghand 10'"fitgroups . Thehig hfitgrou pscoredhighe r onJ::~duran ce andIn t r a ce ption and 10\ole r on~urturanc eAn dAbase ment On the EPPS than thelowfi tgroup. Thestudyselecte d tllOexereeeftrne s sgrou p s and ther ef orethere sul ts we re notgeneral izabletomoreIIlOderatelevel s ofUtne ll.s.
Inanea r li e rstudy ,t.'elh(1959 )us e dasa mp l e of 80 mal"
colle ges tuden tstostud Y~J ,e,r e la tion s hi p betw eenpi,ysi calfitn" "sand per sonality . The study yielde llatota~of1330correlationshetlleen "- sert e eof,38f1rneS!<te st s andpe rs ona lity'Iacccr c1flI!';"ured byth e16PF and a psychiat ricintervie w. Thisnumberof correlat"iQnll vasj~sttoo gre a tto be adequa tely di s cus sedhere;hoveve1', th efollowingve reSOme of the coeetet.ene tr e nds foun din thecorrelatio n . highfit nesssco r O" s were associat e d...itblow anx i e ty,lowtension.eer e inhi b iti on,IDOre competen tas se r t i ven e s s and greate r sensltiv J t)" ,
8.een(1959) s1;; u di e d the r elat i on s h i pbet...eenfit ness and persoudi t y in asample of48colle ge male s " Fitn e ssvas det erm.1nedby us ing,b rac h ia l pulsevavevar ia bl e s ; Theres,\lt s"'eretha tfitness"'as negativelyrelatedto~asuresof anx ie t y, neur o t i cis mandcya1.cisw.
Ttle~ethod,of measui'ing ficness by brachb.lpu lse"..avevariableava ...
not" wide l y'us e d ll'II!thod and ther e\la svery11l;tle researchevidence to
"support th...reliability
~.nd
va li d ity/ t h i s measu.ingmet h,od. , One of theearliestst udi e s'ieh tes t edthete i a t i on "hi p be t we e n fitness and intelligence vas Johnson(l9!,2). Fitn('s;'...s asse s sedby ate s t'6 fphy$1 ~alskilland inteiligencev~s ~asuredby\
J
L
aco.~legefreshmenexamin at ion,
. '.
Ttrere sult s in di c a t e d that the-re cas
l
20
nOrelationsh ipb" n :..enfitnessand tot t-Utge nce. llo",ev er .ina later studyusi ng only fc",'iJ.eI<ub~ec [ snareandSha y(1964 )foundasign ifi- ca nt rel a ti ons h iphE't"'....nfitnessandintelli gence. The: conclude d that:"AlthoughphysIc ak fitness.~shota generslpredic torof academic succes s,itishigh enoug h to becons i de re dasItnece s s a r yCac torfor the,illlPTOVemen rin thege~e ~al educ~tionofthecollegest u de n t "(p,.' 445). The diff er en tresul tsobtatnedbythe tvc studies vere pos9ibly due tod1ffe~ent'samples
and
d:l: f~eno" tmea sure s of'f i t n es sandintelli - gence. Johns on us..~.ate1tg f physicalskilla~dHar tandShay UI'"e d.~ bat ter yoffitn e s sse e suee s ,Arnette(1968)"in ves tigatedthe'~elation.shipb'er"'e e nfit ness and academic: .ach ievementin a aaruple ,of'fellal~college stude nts.
Fitnes s wa sme~811Tedbya test ha t,te eycon d sti ng of bothstrength an d enduran ce Lt ees. Acade~ic'ach i e1e",p n twasmea sure dbySH.d;! point average. The result sin dic:ote d thatfitness was p03it i vill )'relat e dt6
•
acade mi c.grildepointav " r age,
. .
Powell and Pihml orf(l9 7 1) investigated the re l a tion s hip becveen int e llige n ce and a number ofphys iol ogic alvari abl esusi ngasample of olderadu l t een, Inte l ligen cewas'n:~a'luredby the Cul t u reFairIn~el
ligenceTe standfit nes swasassessedby a hatteryof'ph)'si ological' measurements. Thestudyindi cat e d that Utnes !>~~dables...serereLated toin t e~ ligenc e.
Thest u'd i e s-.in thissec't i0ptana ly t e dth~relationshipsbetl/een.
pers on alityfactor
.
sand a.
varietyof,p hy sica l ia ctors,
: Ingene'TIllthey ind,~catedthatfitn"ss wasr"la; edtoanullbe r~~perso nalitytraits.·Ho~ever .thiseviden ce",,:,.s';'flilllit cd'usefulnes sinsu ppo rti ng fitn.e s s trainingas a _a n s toen han ce mental I,e'alt h becau se itwas nota
)
II . i)
J
l
21
causal relat i on sh ip.
The TherapeuticUse of PhysicalFitness Training witbthe PhY!liciilly and Ment all yHa nd i cappe d
AnUllIber of stu diesinvestigate dthe effects of physi calfit- nea" ruiningon thepe r s on alit y of the physicallyandlfIentallyhandi-
" "
.
capp e d.
,
. ..
Meyer<l955)st udi edtheeffects'o f a,si x'lIlOntheard lov,aa en l a e andstrengt hendur,ane t' fitn e s strai ni n gon"'ardb",hll.vio r.inaoh ho - phr eni cpatien t s . Thete s ul tll,showedJh atthe&tou p~wht eh ,tee'd ve d
" . 0 ,: , _ -. " . ~." "
irai~ing,i mpro ved 11'1behavio rIWr sthan di d·aaat chedco~tr9!L$tOUP
, .
...hi~h
, '
re'i:.ei ve d, .
qotr ain in g.. ,' In.asl~ilar, study.. Vlln·1'i~e:t, '·(l.950)' ,.
asses ~ edtilell1lpac:t ofsix monthsofph.:rsitdtraini ngon the.~ lDD tio nal interp llI"60nal functio ningofschizophre n icpat Ient.s, EmotIonal Int "t"-
. ' ~ \ I
~e.rsonalfu nctioning was bas ed onthe eva lua tionof ward staff. The
re s u Lts in d ica t edthatthegr oup,whi chr~ccivcdtr.aini~;·.lmp rovedon a numbe rofbeh av i oralin dice s. Alaatche,d control grouP.sh~edno change. ~th,s tud ie s faile e! to measurefit~essbeforeantiaf~~ertlie tuin ing progr alllS,andthere forethe rewasnoj.'~idence i:hat ~fitnllslI ehengeoccur r e dortha t the,ch anges in beh av i o r ver e the resu l tof II fitne llBchange.
Colli~~oo1
snd Wi llett(1971)adrJIi n i s'i:er ed a'pro~rllm
cons is t inll f onehourII dayin thellymIlasiuln doingjetggi ng andcai 16t1lenicll,~d ne hou r each dayinthe pool, .n/immin g . The pro gr a mwlIs,-ad~inistered\
'five obese lIIal e
teenag~rs a~d
,laste dfort~r~e
we'eks: Inad~ition·
thefitnes s training thesubj ec t6 reeeIved~ne_hourpet vee k'
o f , cup '~~"'lU" . so;j'"" .?' "
.;",o'mudf"O~"
, ." ,;"'''''0'
\ .
\ )
(L
22
of;the Krau,,-I~eb £!rFitn"l'sTt'st,t,llieh eeesur..dstz:engt haridn..".1- bili t y, "..eight, wais t,siz e , ru tingpulsereteandlu~gcap.aei t y . be f o reand aftert.hefr trainingprogram. Subj ee t simprovedon all fitnessmeasures exceptwaistshean d lung capacity. Self-c<;mc e pt1018$
'measuredbythe Bill'slnd.. xof AdjustmentandValues, Thesumma.rYof tlu! Iltudystated:
Ssdeecn strat ed.si gn if i ca n t rnc reeseeinphysicalfitness perfotvl;l.nce , positi vebody tlrUrude, positiv eself,-a t tit ude.
Belf-a cc e p t an ce,and si gu if i c.,mt decreases·in teal verGlIs ide~l!le~f":dbcz:epancy.(I'.-4 12 ). ,
Howeve r , theimpi l e deffect~'~.(.fit;'",strainin~on~en":cQncep t
w ere
~
notju stified.f~~
tvcrea~on~:
-Fir~,tly., the~~ \oI~S ~~ '_~o~~~ol '&~P .
~s~d' ~o a!lSU~
tn/relauveeffects..ot·Ht"n'es !ltrai~-{~~;grOllP.i'Dtt!r::'
IUte h ed cont rol. ,Thestudyconeludedtha~~
.
. . '
.5s "demOns t ratedgr e a t e r.sign ifi c antlnerea!les.~overa ma tc he del;lntrolgroup ,.i nphysi c alfit n es s perf orr>a nee , .bo dY,at t itud e,positivese lf-attitude,-self,..llc c eptallce an dposit iv ephy s i calintelle ct ualandell>O t ion a l - i n ter....
person~l beh aVi ~rs.•(p .585) . .
~i tne s s"'-'as~a slltedby:.puls erate, sit-ups , pu sh-npsall~t:leasuresof .stre ngthan d flex i b ility.. Pe rso lla}itylIilsessees e a by the81 1;1"sInd ex
/
. ..
.ofAd j ustlll'en tand Va l ne s.andb~,.ins truc tor'nit ings'.
Corder(19&&)-useda.'l'nnpleof2~-gradeS~ho~1 ret nFd~testo
f
! )
23
tnvcstfgate the !OSSibl ceffect sofa I'hY51(.II1training progral'llO~
. sochI statu s . At thecndof the te nweek physlca lfItnes s prog'l'mit IiIlS foundthat the re wasnochangeinsccial,5t a tus.
Astudyby.~:CPhersonet ai,(19&6).1 ~ves ti g a te d.theeffe ctsof 24 ....e..1<t~aduatedexereiseprotramonth~pe r s on al it y of postIi.e~rt
'at t a ckadUlt males•.PersonalitywaslIlear.u'r~dbythe.20-ItemHan1fe~t
Anx i e ty Scale andthe 16PF: No objecti vetestoff1t~e.sso.\:asgiven' bef o reor;•.fter thetraining.pedod.'The s't udy ha d·.o..twob~two,de~lgn-•. nonna!.
a:nd.~ear:·, ;tt~k·.~Ubject~~
ililde;l.~~~i.sers
andho~:,eie~~I.s~r~.
Thc'study"conclu'dedtha tthe-~lIrdi~c'exercise:group ex pedenc e da'
of afit ne38incr ease.
B~c~o~aandStone(~91S).st u~,~'~f,thJt! effe~ts0,£'814'-we e k ey~lin&
.
pr? &Tlilll' an da14-'lJeek.walk-jogf~tne:>sprog:rams onai:e deee, The16P!'wa s usedt~assess p.ersonall.ty:factcir; s , and a batteryof Ht ness tests were usedto'de t e rmi nefitne ~s . this J>:att'eryof tests incluce'd,b~th
strengt hand aerobic fitnes sit,ems.~ The ,re~ults !:h<;l1o'''~ t~at
the r e·,"- w~s41sig~ifica;t'increase I'n fitness in"o th tile cyclingand,joggi ng
groups: The,o:ycling'gr,oup didnot~h..n&~ ;OIl,~n.y:er.son3.1ityfa o:to; s 1 but the j·oggergr.oupbecaee\IIore s elf-Buf.ficient,,~~d'ni~t:~serious.'The fi.~,tthatbO,thtroups',increase din fitness,:h u t onl>,t.he jogge r sehanged in pers on ali t y.lndicllted thatotherfact or sw~reinvo·~vedbesides Ut ne s s .
i .
t
J
.
Thestudlnre v il ed inthi sse cti on'all dea l t ;11t htheeffeeu ofphysieal
fitnC!ss. trtlln~g
on tbepers onali t y ofV/l.t"t0U;!1abnorea L popul a tions . There s ult sO~lned
wer enat ge ne raliz.abletoncreez.eobject.e,
Phste a l.Fit ness'Tr ainin as a
~n
e Ae': tofthe PersonaU t ofNorma Subeeta
This8_~t~ionrev i ewe th eliterat ur e onthe cHeetsof phys ical fi tne ss pro gr llIll8,onthepOe tooaH t yofnormalsubject s .
lsman
a~d"Tracht,.an
1973),whih inv,,~tiga.t:1ng
thephydolo~
giC~~ C~~ng~B ~~~~
t.esul t-,f r'olll"a~
,,\.-"rcise,pt'ogralll'1~: n tdd lli:
age bus i n e s s a:en,no ti ce dtha t thel"e seemedtobe ps ych ological c.hanges liS~ell. .Theywent'ontoeJl?l~rethesepsy chol og i cal ch anges ingreeter de t ai l. Thefitness prog r a m usedcentere daround a'pro gr e ssiv erunni ng • progr~mand laste dfourmon th s; Fromthe60Gubjectaentering the prog l all,two extrene group s . weresele c l:e dbas e d onfitne s sle vel s. Olle·
group containedthe14mo~t~fit men'andtheotllergroupcont ainedt~e 14leastfit.een, Fitness "'as measuredby oxygenintake, blood pre s - sur eandpercen t ofreenbody'1lUI$S.,Penona l1r y wa s assessed bythe 16PF•.Sincethe hi ghfitg1:0up. lIere expecte dto un de rg o.relative ly littlefitnes schan ge ,:-,hile ha vi ng,a shdbrps ychol o gi ealcxper:ian clI- asthelowfitgr oup ,th~Y \7~re.usedasacontrolg....oup, The re9ul t s 6hC?"'edthattho!highfitgroupchan gedvery"littlepsy e~clo g ieally.
.
".
.11owev~r .the~DW,fitgroup beca me;:mor eelOlO ti on ally.stable; ecr eimagi- ner .rve,IIlOreself-su f fi C:1en tandmotegUllt-pi~ne .duringth efitne~.
p~ogralll. The10\:1- 'fltnl!Sll groupliS~ dinthest lidy rep-res en.tl"d, anextfeme le:..el0'£fi~ness . Therefol"etheresultswe reMtgenerd1z.~bleee.
"
,
J
li
, /
l
as
groupsw1t hmor~moderate l..ve r eoffitnes s.
In;\
"i rI11a~ st"dY . .
Shllrplind Rei.
lly (t97Sl.•'Lr<&
a",slllpl" ofcollege nal..,..exp l or ed thept"I" e ts ofanaero bicfit ne s sprogram,0"0 pe rs~n" l i ty. lhee twdy pot n ee douta nUlIlb"rof sigoifie-ant c:orrelathons
~.t..eenchan~esin~hyslca1fitness sc o r es and,.cha ng e sin personal ity 6cores. 8" lMasuredbytheMMPI. FitnessWaSas ses s e d b)' a ser ieaof 'a erob i c fitness tests. Beca us ethere vaenoc.on t r olgroup, pf"tsoftalit y changes,cannotu!'biasedlybe attributed tothe3ElIOb1 c,trai~ing..pro grNl.
lJer ner andGottl1eil(~966)ca r r ie d out/I.stu dyon theeffects of four'y~ar 8of athleticparticiPlll.ion oninal.. sUbj e cts att.h eUnl~ed Slate s MilitslyCollege. Subj ectsOf:-ente dn g the~ollegevere c:1"98i-
r
fi e d as eitherithletlc lIa r t i c i pa nt s or isnon participantsbasedon participat i onin highschool.,thlet l c s. Aspar t'oftheprof,ramat th:
colleg eall cadet sverere qu i re d totake.partinathldics~ It...as hy po th e s iz e d that thenonl'artt1::i pant "W<lllid gainthe eost physicall~
fr ompar t l d p a t l onin college athleti c.sand I":-",,,me psychoIOg;ifallyl:lOl'e similar'to the athl eticpartici pant>""'howouldchan gerl/'lativ!' ly litt l e phys ical l y. ThetcsuktaIndiC:citcd th a tatr.ra<lnat lonth~'participants and nonpartic1pantsvere no eore al Ike in peniollaIitrthanwhenthey
.
, - ''
sta ~ tc dcollege . Sinc eno {ltnelismeasuIe sverc -t..kom , there':las,no
. . ,
c·v l de.n..c.ethatthe nonpaT tic~t'~n tr.i:Olll'i~cre""..dinfitness.
HcPhersot1et'a'1. (1966) in a'study 'ai"""dmainlylilt'a 5ampleof post"he a , t attac)' adultrAl e s. ah ain vestigated~heeffel:;.tsofa fit~es8progra .. onagrollPofno nna lmale s••>:'ThestudycOl\elud~dth ata
, ': - , '
'
gr oup "f.n,armalmen.whodidthef.ltness pr ogt am.de c r e a s edinan xi~ ty
",h11""a cont ro lgroup didnotde creas e 1n anxiety. The ',at u d ydidno t assess~i:tness.be f o reand afte r'.thefi~nessprogr a m;therefore , tlle r e
J
L
as
wasnoev i de nc eth~tat trncss 1oO::1:"eIl5)ecc v e re e.
llar.1Mer and 1,til I:lOIC(1973) r;"'l"r l edout ancxplo r.,roryst u dy 'On the effe c t sof physiologicalchang.>sc>npersonalit yInasa",pl eof adult tlale n Pers onalitywa~assessedby th e16<'1'andfitne ss by a aer i e s of enduran ce type t":SIS. Theonl y perso nal ity chan ge s that co r rela t e d wJ.thincre~sed enduran~ew"r e trusti ng~ndfo rthr ightness.
As(no'ecnr roj grou p "asus e'd,the
persona~~ty Chan~es ca~\'lOt
bea~tr1-'
bu t e d sole ly to ..phys i ca lUtrica..increa s e .
Lindse y (970)usedtWOgro u p sofgra dE., 8ch oolchild r en..to dete nn inethe effe<;ts ofspec.ill.1phys,i~aleducat ionelasse 'son perso n- ali t y. Attheendofthe t"o-ye~pr ogu l;!l t he children inthe cxpe r t - menta lg~oupshQWeda,sign ific an t'improve me nt'infi~ne ss ,butdidppt
's holo/ any $ignifics ncchangeon the.Bh ncha rdIleha~ ior&atingSC<lle •
....lthoughnosign ific antcha nsesoc:cu-.;red ,the r e wasa'tendency fo rlh'"
ch Ud-r e n in~he ~>lperil1lentalgroup to impr ov e Insodalillld personal adj u stm e n t .
bmailand YOUl1S(1916) d\Vid~dan aU male:s"lolPlcint o {our' -.gYO';PSi hi gh fit old,
~lgh.fit, ~'oun~ ,
lo wf i tol d ,:llldlo~ ' f1t
young•.Fitnes swallbas ed all oxyge n!ll lD k "a~dot h "'.rf.ardiovascula rmea s ures.' Per's onali ty fac t~rswer.. .."asu r..o.bylheI&Pf ,the F.PIand
the
and ec y sed e.of.the HU'l tipleAffettAdj..ctiveChe c kLiH. Allsubj e c ts took .-pa rtinafoul:- oo nt hfitne s sprogram,whi c h consis t edlIlainlyof pro-gres Sive.running,and·caiisthenics. Reg 'l rdle ssof~hatgroup'the subjectswe rein,theyWere "",rcs;' cial lyprec ise ,'lllOr epe r sistelltand nneeontrolledat fh!!en'dof thefitness'pro gr am.
since
nocontrol grQ~p·. wa~used',ther~s~lt~cannot sale ly be attri but e d to..a f ltna.ss dnc rc ase.,"
Anotherstudyhythesa,"~nuthor".YoungRn dls=ll (I976).
,
.
inv~stiga tedthe rel a t i ons hip bet\;"''''"rhy slo1o~ l calfactorsandps )'ch o- lo g i ca l factor s hdoreandafter afour-wonth conditi on ingpre gcea- Thecondi t ion ingprogea,. consi s ted of jagg ing,N11isth"nics,runningand. rc creat.Lc nuctfvft Iesa ~ersonaUtyWilSa~selisedby.t be E)·s....nc k rerscn- aUty'Inv.ento~y:lodfitnesswas'measuted
'by
a series'cifca'rdiova.<;.cubr, .' -.' " ' . ' , '#
and endurance tests.'·In the liilllpleof lido;ldle age 1llI'n usedin t.he"St udy ,
".
.
..
.the y.found,that.an mcre asein Htness",as,--re la t e dto an increase1n
.
.. . . .' "-
emotIc rva Ist a b i Uty.. . 'No con'. .trol,gtoup was.., used to ecnt. . ro L'E
....
crthe ef fe c t s of_ta~dolil ~uts ide.Vart.abl es .·~uen'.asgroup·i~'te~a~,tron•.Using alla"'Ple'':If 10'1mlc universi fy'pr~fessors',who vol"n-' tee red,f o r the-study ,~lQrr.ane ta1.. '(1 970) invclIt1gatedthl!effec tsot a cardiovascu l a r fit n e s s nrog re ...(<:~rcuit tr ai ni n g ,joggi. n S.!Iwi c cli ng, tr e a dllli l l running)'on
de~re6sion; ~pres·9ion
wasmeasu re.dbytheZung. \'
.
Se.lf- Rat ingDepr~n iOn,.sedcbothbeforeand,a{t e r'th ~si x--we ~ k training pe rio d.
I\t. th~
endofthestx-ve ek tr" ini nC pe& d .theTes"l t~ i~di-
, .. ,
'J
L
.
' ..
. ' .:
cated thatthe'H i ne ss'program didnot rroduccasign ificantred ueti'on in de pressio n: However ,'ifthc'rc~·ultsoi'th~ll,su bjc cts. 'whovere
~epressed'a tthebeg LrmIng of thepr o gram,,"' e re.analyzedsep a r a tely , thl'Ydemonstr<~dasisnl ( ic antdccr ..a~ein depression. Since the·ll
6U~jeets
were not sev erelydepresse~,
the.resul ~S
we'reprObab~Y
not'du eto's tat.is t ic a l ngres sion . . Thestudydidn~t:assessfitnessatth~"end of thefi t ne s spi"gra m;the ref o r.., there '::11$ 110
·cvi~~.nce,
thllt..the'5'~b-:
j ...etsva ncreas ed in fitness. . ,. . (,
Gu tin
(196~) inYl!6tiga~ed
theI!ffe~~.s
Clfanin~reas~
inphYs.i~';I'
fitnesgon men talshility follolltng stress. Theaamplc of 5"( male
, .
college stulle nn,wallr:ln~om).y,div ided int o..evegroups: O~grolJP
28
recei ve deweperiodsofHenes'sclas ses perweekfo~12veeks•.The second gro upre ce dve dno fitn e!lsclasses. Fi't nessWaSassesse dbythe IndianaMotor,Fi tneSsInde x11 (push-ups ,chIn-ups, i1ta,ndingbrQad. jUDIpS). Ment alabi lity "'aureea a uredbYtheEmployeeAptitudeSurvey . Bothfi tne"ss,'f1.nda>ent 81ab1l1ty.were,.te s U,dtl'e~orelinda'f t~rth,",train- in g peri o d. The resu ltsindica t edthattheexperimental group ln c r e a s e d in Urnes s
t~ ~. gre~ter' ext'~~i', ~h~~'ii1d theco ritrol" g~~~P" , ~~:12~~ek '
. '
.
'. .' . .. ..
:st r"ess. I tvas
'f~~d
thatthe de'gr~~ "of J~tneu illlP~ve'mep.t w'a~ ,~.~gOl~
. .fics.nt i :tre late dtoth ede ,gree'o!
,illpr c"?eIlIentinIllental.abl1!,t/-foll~~8 .streu ~"Th~'f1,tne.&5_;~:~sure__used'1nthest udyc~n~iB ted.of-s~r~'~t~itelllS,'! Vl't.a lCl(191~) ~ndCoop er(1970 ) foundtllatstre-ngt'bitem., alone wei~nottbebes t1iO!8SUreofto t alfit ness .
It.study"byMass.te aod Sh"e phar d(1971) ,jasdesi gnedtoc~mpara.
tbephy'sio l ogi c aland
~8YChill~,~1L-.1I.1 eff~c.ts
of .anindiv1dua.1iZe~versu8,
a groupappro~cbtofit~es8trainin~. Th~-1.nd1v1du a li,zed;'pr ()gra",'1,,8.9 .bas edon.Cooper,'8,( 19 70 ) fitne s s!'pr 08,r alllarid,the',gr oup,pl'ogl'alll"35 .de signed by tht yMu..,Thesa mplecons):,sted oflIli d? fe.•age dbuslne~slllen.
.
,' ~' : .. - " ,.
Atthe,en dofthe, 2h e ek fitnes s progralllthe:following conc lus ions we relllade. :
de cre asedin neurot it:tsm :
3. The JroeDin · the individua+izedpr:o gralll :on lychan gl!dbn one.
