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ECA/PHSD/HRP/91/10/[5.2(i)(c)
UNITED NATIONS
ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA
Public Administration, Human Resources and Social Development Division
ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES FOR UNIVERSITY STAFF
NOVEMBER 1991
Background and Justification
1. It is now generally recognized that the human conditions and human resources constitute one of the most serious bottlenecks for development. This is particularly critical in Africa where, as the recent World Bank report observed that the lack of human resources constitutes the major constraint on the development of the region.1 In most developing countries, human resource development is no largely seen only as a means of supplying trained personnel for employers in the formal sector. Rather it is increasingly being regarded as a basic human need, as a means for meeting other basic needs, as an activity that sustains and accelerates overall development. Thus human resource development through education should be seen as one of the most effective means of fighting underdevelopment at the individual, organizational, community and national levels.
2. Utilization, on the other hand, relates to the extent to which human resources are acquired, developed, organized, managed, and deployed for the maximum achievement of individual, collective, organizational, or national goals and objectives. It is the appropriate organizational criterion for assessing the effectiveness of human resource development initiatives. From an organizational view point, human resources utilization must be understood in the context of its impact on the effective performance and coordination of organization's critical operating and strategic management tasks.
3. Many organizations/institutions, therefore, feel that proper training can provide a significant contribution to the achievement of their objectives, by assisting the newly recruited staff with initial or on-the-job-training; providing in-service training of existing staff; or by adequately preparing staff for more senior responsibilities through the acquisition of new knowledge and skills and a general broadening of their outlook. Thus we may look at "Organizational Development" (OD) as 'a development process embracing a wide variety of behavioural and management approaches designed to make human behaviour and relationship in an
organization more effective, primarily through probing behaviour problems attitudes, motives, and values of participants, and adopting such techniques as management by objectives and revision of task structure to make coordination more effective.t2 While it is misleading to speak of OD as a clearly integrated approach to producing change, thes proponents3 of this approach argue that it can lead to improved organizational health and effectiveness.
4. In this regard, staff and organizational development programmes are as much a response and a strategy for attracting, retaining, motivating and developing staff in an organization. Most programmes are instituted as a mechanism for enhancing efficiency and effectiveness of staff members and to ensure that people of high calibre are attracted to work for the organization; thus people are motivated to work harder and uplift the name of the organization concerned, furthermore these are given opportunity for self development and fulfilment.
5. There is, therefore, the need for educational institutions, whether public, private, parastatal to initiate and co-ordinate organizational development programmes for the development of staff during the course of their employment and to ensure that the staff needs are met. This may be accomplished through:
(a) Research and Development to acquire new knowledge, ideas, skills and technological know-how in response to felt societal, institutional or national needs?
(b) Training of staff through short or long training courses/programmes whether formal or non-formal training programmes designed to provide new knowledge, skills and attitudes and provide the institutions with a new cadre of leadership for sustained growth of the organization or institution; and,
(c) Demonstration by staff to i 1 lustrate the best of the current practices, trends, knowledge and skills. This may be done through the dissemination of information and knowledge in workshops, seminars, symposia, mass media and by direct contact with the institutions or organizations.
6. In examining staff development of higher education in a world perspective, one finds two features worthy of note. The first is that little attention was paid in the past to preparing staff to teach as it was assumed that subject specialization and the acquisition of post-graduate degree implied an automatic ability to communicate this knowledge to others. We may note that this is unlike the position in most primary schools or even pre-school institutions which both insist on some form of teacher training as a pre-requisite or a licence to embark on a career in these areas.
Fortunately, this omission has been realised in the recent past and provision is now being made for the acquisition of pedagogical knowledge and skills in many academic staff development programmes.
The second feature is of a more recent origin and refers to the realization that universities can no longer be cloisters divorced from reality and the needs of the societies in which they are members.
7. Today, universities whether in developing or industrialized countries have to adapt to the ever-increasing changes occuring in the social, economic, political and technological environment in which they operate. Such transformation, in most instances, have been necessary for survival as universities are confronted with crucial questions concerning their contribution to the solution of vital problems in their respective societies. Whether we like it or not, society as a whole is taking a much greater interest in the contribution universities make and universities are becoming more
accountable to the communities they serve.
8. Against the preceding background, increasingly, there is recognition of the need for a review and determination of the ways of facing the dynamic changes and new expectations for the universities to become developmental ones.
9. Given the concern for improvement in academic staffs professional and academic excellence and a review of the incentive systems, administrative and institutional support systems, etc. it was not a coincidence that ECA* in regard to the University Staff Development Programme advocated for (a) staff development programme to be undertaken along side organizational development (b) the development of academic excellence by the way of training for higher degrees be undertaken along side the development of
professional excellence (by way of nurturing improvement in the key professonal functions of research, teaching, guidance and counselling, publication and management), and (c) academic staff training and career development be undertaken along side that of administrative, secretarial and technical support staff; and indeed (d) the involvement of not only the university leadership clusters, but also the rest of the academic and administrative staff. Hence, the central notion of (a) is to co-join Staff and Development with Organization Development; of (b) is that a Staff Development Programme when well done can contribute towards and support Organizational Development effort and vice versa; and of (c) because of the interrelationship between the critical elements in both Staff Development and Organizational Development and the realization that one may not operate without the other.
10. In situations that call for initiating change, both the organizational/administrative units and senior academics, department chairmen, deans and indeed the top archelons of the university are crucial. The former to provide the enabling environment within which to get the most out of the staff; and the latter to provide the necessary guidance and support in the education, training, counselling, performance assessment and evaluation of younger and newer colleagues on their road to professional excellence.
11. Two inter-related strategies underlie the efforts of modern universities to staff their academic departments. The first concern is the need to replace staff or fill new vacancies. The second concerns the academic development of staff once appointed to the service of the university. We need to point out here that institutions of higher education differ in size, age, academic objectives, structure, needs and resources. For the older universities, age and change of circumstances take their toll of existing staff and force the university to look for fresh leadership or additional manpower. For the newer universities, that is, those dependent on expatriate personnel, the recruitment, retention and advancement of local academic staff is an issue of great pre-occupation. For all universities, there is an abiding obligation to enable staff to replenish, up-date, strengthen or extend their base for teaching, research or service to their community. The pace at which new knowledge accumulates makes staff
development desirable. University's decisions to adopt the new roles makes this essential.
12. How a university meets its obligations to renew and develop staff on the one hand and at the same time discharge its many obligations, may well determine the nature and quality of university. It is therefore appropriate to ask whether staff development should be made a continuing and central responsibility of universities in Africa. If so, what goals and objectives should staff development programmes achieve? In what way can the planning and implementation of such programmes be systematized? These and other questions are raised in this paper and efforts will be made to understand the impact of the university staff development programmes in the creation and development of special cadre of manpower in Africa.
Goals and Objectives of University Staff Development Programmes
13. Every university has the basic purpose of achieving two sets of objectives with respect to the management of its human resources.
The first set has to do with improving the performance of its staff members to deliver goods and services for which the university was formed in the first place. Productivity of any given university — whether it is measured in terms of units produced, the quality of services rendered or cost effectiveness of the operation — largely depends on the performance of the staff members, irrespective of their rank.
14. The second set of objectives has to do with developing and maintaining the human potential that serves as the backbone of the university. The capacity of any university to survive and to respond to the competitive challenges from time to time can only be sustained and mobilized when it has a highly competent and motivated manpower. Thus the effectiveness of the management of any university very much depends on the nature of the human resources it possesses. In other words, an effective university is one that has members who exhibit high levels of both work-related motivation (i.e., job and university commitment) and work performance. Viewing of university's effectiveness in this manner presupposes the
existence of a system of management practice and employee behaviour that is conducive to high levels of work motivation and performance.5
15. In this regard, a reappraisal of the operations of university staff development programmes must, of necessity, involve a re assessment of their goals and objectives. Furthermore, one needs to distinguish between the objectives of pre-service programmes for academic life and those of special programmes for the further development of established academics. The former aims at equipping candidates for initial appointment while the latter provides an opportunity for them to replenish their stock of knowledge, to accelerate their academic growth and development, and to increase their claim to positions of higher responsibility.
16. However, even when this distinction in objectives is made, there remains the fact that most staff development programmes take only a limited vision of their scope and do not normally concern themselves with long-term issues which ultimately affect the quality of staffing and the nature of personnel required.6 It should be pointed out here that one of the primary goals of staff development programmes must be to enable existing staff to adjust to change while equipping future staff to work in changing circumstances. It follows, therefore, that staff development cannot be viewed purely in the short-term but rather it is a continuous and permanent responsibility of universities.
17. The certainty of change and its demand dictates that one should enquire as to whether there are general and permanent competences that staff development programmes should impart. In addition, one must ask whether there are both short-term and long- term requirements for academic positions which should bias the selection of candidates for teaching and research and, staff development.
18. Following the above-mentioned requirements, the role the African Universities in the 1990s and beyond could be summed under five major functions:
(i) Pursuits, promotion and dissemination of knowledge — The emphasis being on practical knowledge 'immediately useful to
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the generality of people, and therefore, locally oriented and motivated';7
(ii) Research — with priority given to research into local problems that will contribute to the amelioration of the life
of the poor and the ordinary man;
(iii) Provision of intellectual leadership — involving not only research and acquisition of knowledge, but its wide and effective diffusion, so as to light the beacons by which governments, industry, commerce and the rural population can plan and execute meaningful programmes of economic and social
development;
(iv) Manpower development — not just graduates who have tended in the past to be 'highly academic and generalists' but 'skilled personnel' including middle-level manpower in whose production the university must participate; and
(v) Promoting social and economic modernization — through breaking the chains of tradition which bind them within the walls of the campus and involve themselves with the social
milieu.
19. These broad considerations should be kept in mind as we examine
some commonly accepted notions of requirements for the assessment of university staff academic appointments:(a) Ability to Teach and do Research. It is common to assume that every academic must have the necessary ability, academic specialization, knowledge and skills, to meet the teaching and research requirements of his post. Universities attempt to satisfy themselves on this score by close scrutiny of qualifications (usually those obtained as a condition to entry into the profession), experience (or senoirity), referees' reports and personal knowledge gained through contact or interview. Generally, the problem is not how to assess these competencies but rather in deciding what emphasis ought to be placed separately on teaching and research ability at the time of appointment and/or promotion.
(b) Competence in Curriculum Planning and Development. Apart
from teaching and research, there are areas in which competencies of prospective university teachers must be developed. Most university teachers would accept that the results of research and the advancement of knowledge must be brought into the curriculum of the students. Indeed, skills and competences of the university staff in planning and management of curriculum change are therefore an important part of training of academics. Apart of curriculum development, there are such questions as more effective ways of teaching, the need for team and inter-disciplinary co operation, advanced techniques of individual and programme evaluation — all of which make teaching-learning much more exciting, challenging and taxing. Some teachers do acquire these competencies through a process of trial and error, or by apprenticeship to more experienced academics. One wonders, however, whether a staff development programme could assist such academics in acquiring new approaches to teaching and evaluation less painfully for themselves and their students.
Indeed, this is one of the issues that has been very much neglected in the organizational development programmes for university staff in most African countries.
(c) Attitudesr Values and Societal Demands. The university teachers of the past worked in an atmosphere in which change was regarded as a gradual process. Today, the tempo of change is expected to be faster than in the colonial times. As universities are expected to assist in bringing about quick change and development, graduates must be more than adequate for the jobs they are employed to do and universities must equip them with the necessary knowledge and skills. To initiate the academic into a position as challenging as this and to expose existing teachers to the increased demands of their society, must become part of the task of new and expanded staff development programmes in Africa.
The Management. Systematization of Planning and Implementation Of
Staff Development Programmes.
20. Systematic curriculum planning constitute a prerequisite for
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systematic planning and programming of staff training. Without such a base, predictions of future training needs would only be a matter of chance. Without such systematization, the process of curriculum change will itself be in jeopadry as new appointees or candidates find themselves out of step with the needs of say, the department concerned and as existing staff competencies are found to be inadequate to cover new needs.
21. Another form of staff training which needs systematizing is that which is normally given on the job. It is again suggested that the analysis of job content should be an aid to the process of systematizing on-the-job training in academic departments. The analysis should be able to list the minimum competencies, qualities and types of experience that will enable new candidate to do the job in hand. Thereafter, a programme on-the-job training is aimed at developing the necessary competencies and exposing the candidate to those types of experiences that will help him can be drawn up.
Indeed, on-the-job training is one approach that universities must consider in implementing localization and staff development
schemes.
22. Often a good number of African universities invite expensive personnel from abroad to man their senior positions of academic departments. Instead of attaching local personnel to them, the local academic is sent away to earn his degree abroad before returning to acquire the necessary experience in his department.
Can this process be reversed? Are there circumstances when the local academic would be better of earning his higher qualifications locally and gathering the necessary and relevant experience? It must here be added that a university which wishes to use this approach to training will need to select its expatriate staff carefully. It will have to look for expatriate who not only can carry out the job, but, more importantly, the one who can work with local academics and lead them to greater heights.
23. The problem of what experience a university should expect at the time of appointment or promotion is crucial to the success of localization and staff development. It is agonizing to have local candidates with the requisite qualifications but cannot be appointed or promoted because of lack of experience. What decisions
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universities make in regard to types of experience for each job, determines the pace and success of the localization programme. The basic question is whether periods of experience should vary from person to person and whether there is any way of speeding up and enriching the quality of experience required by each individual. In each case, it is necessary to ask, 'Where is the experience to be acquired'? Would a shorter period of experience necessarily lead to lowering the standards? It is suggested here that the planning authorities of a staff development programme need to answer these questions. They cannot hope for uniform answers to the length of experience required in all professions or academic departments. But they can probe for rational answers within each and comparable departments. This can then form the basis of planning for qualitative acquisition of such experience.
24. If the organizational structures and processes of any university are the critical elements which determine whether, and how far, it can react positively to changing circumstances, they should be integrated into a single and coherent management system That should be a truism, but unfortunately it is seldom the case.
25. In most universities, there is no certain relationship between the structure of academic sub-units and the structure of the fiscal planning process, or between the admission control process and process which allocates resources for teaching8. For instance, a decision to change the curriculum for a particular course may reside within the authority of a faculty board although the normal resources required for teaching (faculty manpower, materials costs, etc.) may well be allocated by the senate direct to the departmental level. In this example, the authority for academic decisions and the authority for decisions about the usage and mix of resources lie in different places.
26. Thus although it may appear to be a common sense that a faculty board cannot alter the curriculum without having some effect on the resource pattern of the departments and the central service unit, the organizational structure of the institution does not recognize that interdependence. The traditional constitutional division, in many universities, of financial and academic authority between the board of governors and the senate is the split which has prevented common-sense integration of the total management systems of
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universities. As it runs down through the system as a deep fissure, it has led to inefficient divisions between the professional managers responsible for finance and business and the academic administrators responsible for admission and teaching. The key to the creation of an integrated unitary system lies in a recognition that the president or vice-chancellor is de facto r managing director of the institution, fully responsible for all of its activities.
27. In briefly outlining the need for organizational development programmes as one of the ways of improving an institution's ability to plan and implement change effectively and efficiently, we should point out here that the degree of flexibility in the structures and processes concerned with decision implementation is a major factor in the institution's ability to change and to change in time. The nature and the structural relationship of academic units can either inhibit or encourage change.
Assessment of the Impact of Organization Development and Change in Organizational Performance
28. The rapid growth in popularity of Organization Development (OD) approaches to planned organizational change has increased the need for assessing their impact. Given the importance of change in the literature on organizations and the prevelent OD in management circles, there is a surprising lack of systematic evidence regarding its efficacy particularly in terms of its impact on organizational performance. Many believe that virtually no research exists and that whatever does exist is not of sufficiently high quality do deserve the title "scientific". Further ambiguity manifests itself in a wide variety of generally unsubstantiated beliefs about the efficacy of OD: some believe that OD makes only people happier and more satisfied; others note that OD may result in changed individual behaviour but will not improve organization's performance.; others contend that OD's main effect are felt only on groups, its typical focus.
29. It is necessary to make distinction between assessment of the performance of a staff member and evaluating the total performance
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of the staff. The reputation of the department will be established in part by the contributions of individual staff member, but the means of evaluation employed may be different.
30. There are several ways to measure staff member's performance and contribution. These are based on varioyus factors: the staff members performance, economic impact on the organization, and internal and external reputation. Position descriptions should contain accountabilities as well as standards of effective performance. The total of all accountabilities should be the umbrella under which specific responsibilities of the role fall.
When responsibilities are grouped under a common accountability and standards are identified for satisfactory performance, the measurement of performance becomes simplified. Thus measurement of performance against accountability becomes the first means of assessing the staff member.
31. Ideally, staff development programmes should be managed under some version of Management by Objectives (MBO) . If it is, staff member and superiors set objectives against which performance is measured. Objectives should include the standards of acceptable accomplishment. By reviewing performance throughout the time frame of the objectives and appraising performance at the end, a very objective assessment of the staff member's contribution can be
made.
32. How effective the department/faculty uses its resources is a third basis for evaluating (i.e., assessing) organizational development programmes for the university staff. One method of measuring this is to have a system for establishing priorities of departmental activities.
33. Taking the view that the purpose of ogranizational development programmes for university staff is to assist the institution in solving performance-deficiency problems, what problems and factors should be included? At this point, it would be well to identify some of the organizational factors against which guidelines for selection, staffing, development, and measurement of the staff should be matched.
(a) Size of the Organization/Institution. Is it getting
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larger, and at what pace? What is the five-or ten-year plann for growth, expansion, and diversification?
(b) Economics of the Organization/Institution. Is the profit margin small? Does the organization operate each department on a budget? Does the organization have short-range operating plans?
Analysis of some of these factors provide a framework for the role of organizational development programmes, its needs for staff, and
*its priorities.
The Need for Assessing Staff Member Activities
34. The fundamental task of organization development, whether one considers a business or a university, is to deal rationally with continuous change. Its purpose is to minimize the disrupting effects of unforseen developments and to maximize the opportunities for interaction between members of say, an institution, to achieve its objectives and programmes as effectively as possible.
Institution managers must be able to adjust the balance between the forces of change and resistance continuously, select and evaluate the specific options for change, and to determine the rate and speed at which change occurs9.
35. The role of organizational development is to achieve these ends, through the collective exercise of reason and foresight, without creating or increasing stress within the institution to an
intolerable level. OD must therefore be concerned with the institution as an entity and must consider the totality of its
enterprise and creativity.
36. The recent spread of the assessment exercise thoughout business and governmental organizations/institutions has been phenomenal.
The purpose of the assessment exercise is to elicit behaviour so that the staff member can latter be judged on a variety of characteristics. In other words, the assessment exercise determines whether or not the objectives are being accomplished and to determine as to whether there is a better way of doing it. Also,
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the purpose of assessment is not to render a final judgement of the staffs' promotability to management levels, but rather to identify those who have promise for the future (i.e., evaluation of developed abilities, potentials, strengths, weaknesses, and motivation).
37. Assessment of university staff, which is not universal, is none the less a tradition in most countries. Formal university staff assessment is also indisputably an instrument for promotion policy, disciplinary procedures and salary determination. International reviews have described the systems used in developed and developing countries alike, giving particulars, inter alia, of who carries out the evaluation or assessment, what kind of criteria and procedures are used and whether appeals are possible.
38. University staff (i.e., teachers) disagree over the value and desirability of formal systems of assessment or appraisal because perceptions that such systems are often superficial, non-objective and more of a management disciplinary tool than an aid to professional improvement, a viewpoint supported by some independent analysts. Their reticence is unlikely to change unless there is a willingness on the part of the authority responsible for education to recognize that classical systems of assessemnt no longer correspond to the demands of an educational system in all cases.
There is some evidence that this message has been understood, for performance appraisal at the universities is increasingly tending towards a forward-looking strategy which emphasizes current and potential performance, taking into account individual and institutional needs. The status of such assessment varies, some being confidential, others open, and they differ in content and procedures, and in the extent of the involvement of the staff members and their institutions; the degree of this openness and involvement of the persons who are being appraised is often a crucial determinant of the acceptability and success of the
assessment.
The Need for National and Regional Approaches to University Staff
Development
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39. The foregoing analysis suggests that what is needed more than
ever to enhance university staff and career development in order tomeet the challenges of the twenty-first century may be found only in a comprehensive human resources policy for the teaching profession. Such a policy needs to be well-planned, carefully implemented, forward-looking and backed by the resources which will
ensure its success10.
40. Every nation faces the problem of creating an adequate cadre of highly skilled specialists in many branches of professional work, technological advancement and research. The establishment of staff
development programmes therefore fulfils this national strategy.41. As we have pointed out earlier on, universities have a problem in handling the development, assessment and promotion of staff in their services. These problems are more common to universities as such than they are to other institutions of a nation. Consequently, there is a case for closer co-operation between universities in the same country or in the same region in such areas as the training of junior academic staff, exchange of staff and the development of their expertise. Indeed, universities should forge links towards closer working relationships within their regions to their mutual advantage. As a start, they may feel that special areas of difficulty such as university curriculum development and teaching methodology, evaluation techniques in university, selection and promotion procedures, opportunities and facilities for in-service and on-the-job training, etc. could be made the focus of special
regional workshop.
42. Against the aforementioned background, the University of Zimbabwe has been in the forefront in giving practical expression to its commitment to (a) the establishment of its own Teaching Learning (Professional) Center and (b) committee for managing Staff/Oganizational development programme (S/ODP)". There would appear to be a need for many such centers in different universities
in the African region. The question remains whether such a move will receive the political and economic support to become areality.
43. Indeed, regional co-operation should yield other advantages.
The apparent isolation of the one-country-one university
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institutions can be broken, giving such institutions an opportunity to share their experience with others in similar or related circumstances. Thus creating professional excellence of its
academic staff.
44. The tasks and problems of African universities go beyond the
resources of one institution. National and regional co-operation cannot but lend new weight to the urgency of these problems. It is in this spirit that the work of the Association of African
Universities (AAU) in fostering regional co-operation must be commended and encouraged.12Implications for Future Organization Development
45. The forecast of the nature and future of OD programmes raises urgent questions concerning the effects such programmes will have on organizational life. Although past OD programmes were intended
to improve organizational performance ultimately, they often were preoccupied with social aspects of the organization and with humane values such as creating a more benign work environment.Consequently, most OD programmes were rarely justified, or even evaluated, on an economic basis13.
46. OD is clearly a multipurpose behavioural technology and can be
applied to many present and future situations. Ordinarily, we think of OD as applied to prosperity and not to times of economic depression or recession; we think of OD as applying mainly to employees rather than retirees and terminees. However, if OD is multipurpose, its use in the future should reflect this
versatility.
47. In the future OD will be incresingly viewed as an "effort" and not a "programme". It will be aimed at developing an organization's and/or institution's internal resources for effective change in the future. Its thrust will be to draw out and develop the resources of
people to sovle their own problems at work. It will do this by
helping them perceive an increase in the range of behavioural options open to individuals and teams. It will be a trulycollaborative process of managing the culture of an organization
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and/or institution. It will not be something that is done to.
somebody but instead a transactional process of people working
together to improve their mutual effectiveness in attaining their
mutual objectives14.
48. Needless to say, as these future trends unfold we will find
increasing professionalism in OD. As professionalization increases, research will also increase and confirm or refute much of the OD work that is underway. To date OD terminology has tended toprolifirate much more rapidly than the theory base and there is a
lag that needs to be addressed through empirical research.
49. Regardless of which changes are occuring today, OD as a field
is still in the process of "growing up." Like most, if not all, disciplines or professions, Organization Development has developedin the "unplanned path" of most social, business/industial, economic, or technologial developments. Some key developments or modifications have occured over the past two decades or so.
50. However, future OD programmes will probably focus on economic
goals because of the severe financial impact that is likely to result from behavioural problems within organizations, and because the development of more sophisticated OD systems will provide the capacity to evaluate its impact economically.19 Notes:
1. See Heyneman (1983) and World Bank (1988:81-90).
2. See Koontz and O'Donnell (1976:790) and, Thomas (1981).
3. See Beckhard (1969), Bennis (1969) and, French and Bell (1973) 4. See ECA (1982), ECA (1988a) and ECA (1988b).
5. See Wandira (1977), Hofstede (1980:42-62) and Dove (1986).
6. See Heyneman (1983), ECA (1987) and World Bank (1988).
7. See Yesufu (1973:42).
8. See Rourke and Brooks (1966) and New Africa (1991).
9. See Williams (1966), ECA (1990) ECA (1991a) and ECA (1991b).
10. See World Bank (1979), Kiggundu (1989) and ILO (1991:36).
11. See ECA (1988a) and ILO (1991).
12. See Wandira, op.cit. p. 127.
13. See Robey and Altman (1982:455).
14. See Thomas (1981:256-263).
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