Gender in Africa : the issues facts

Gender in Africa

The Is sue s

An ECA pocket reference publication

in collaboration with the World Bank

UNITED NATIONS

ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA

I

Foreword

TODAY, gender disparaties are prevalent almost everywhere in Africa. Closing the gender gap and enhancing African women's participation in development is essential not only for achieving social justice but also for reducing poverty.

This booklet sets out, in plain words, backed by research findings and experience from around the

world, the case for gender equality in Africa.

The case is expressed in the hard-headed terms of

payoffs from investment - what the economy and society gains from investing in women - and as such,

is a practical guide to those who make public policy or

allocate resources

Women may "hold up half the sky" as the Chinese saying goes. But it is what they do on the ground that makes them the key to economic and social

development.

Supporting a stronger role for African women will greatly enhance their own lives, contribute to economic growth, improve child survival and the health of all

members of the family, reduce fertility, and help slow

population growth But, while investing in women is central to sustainable development, African women face

many barriers in benefitting from development — and

contributing fully to it.

If long-term.change in the conditions of African women is to be achieved, the actions and attitudes of men must change, arwl it is important that men be brought along in the process of change. We are talking about equalizing men's responsibility, not only women's opportunity and access to resources

K.Y Amoako

Contents

Foreword 1

Gender Issues in Africa: An Overview 5 Gender Gaps in Education in Africa 9

Health and Nutrition of African

Women 13

African Women in Agriculture 17 Gender Disparities in Employment

in Africa 21

African Women's Need for Credit 27

Legal Issues and Gender in Africa 31 African Women and the Environment 35

African Women in Leadership 39

Strategies to Eliminate Gender Gaps

in Africa 43

References 49

Table 1: Primary Enrollment Rates

Gender in Selected African

Male

Burkina Faso 37

Ghana Lesotho Chad Rwanda

80 98 89 72 Source: World Bank, 1995b

— Percentage by Countries

Female 24 67 113 41 70

Table 2: Average Daily Working Hours in Economic

Activities by Gender

Burkina- Faso Kenya

Nigeria

Zambia

Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women

Agriculture

7.0 8.3 4.3 6.2 7.0 9.0 6.4 7.6

Non- Agriculture

1.7 6.0 3.8 6.1 1.5 5.0 0.8 4.6

Total

8.7 14.3

8.1 12.3

8.5 14.0

7.2- 12.2

Source: Saito el ai, 1994

Figure 1: Occupational Distribution of Economically Active Women in Ghana, 1984

Production

14%_ pProffessional

i 3%

Clerical 3%

X- Agriculture 56%

Gender Issues in Africa:

An Overview

Achieving sustainable economic growth in Africa de pends heavily on promoting the welfare and productiv ity of women. Hiey already play crucial roles in food production, household maintenance and reproduction But gender differentiated resource allocation and pre

vailing social norms prevent them from playing a full

Barriers to Women's Economic Participation

• Significant gender differences in education (Table 1);

• Legal restrictions against owning land and poor ac cess to quality agricultural inputs due to lack of funds;

• Obtaining credit is hampered by women's inability to provide collateral, and low levels of education;

• They are over-represented among the poor in Africa, and find it harder than men to escape the poverty trap, since their income generating opportunities are few;

• In many countries they work longer hours than men on agriculture and non-agricultural activities (Table

2);

• Child rearing and housekeeping take up a large part of women's time;

• With environmental degradation, it takes longer and longer for women to collect firewood and water;

• Women are mostly occupied in informal activities, where income generating opportunities are few. Their employment in the formal sector is low, because of

Figure 2: More Girls than Boys Die Young

a Boys

■Girls

50 100 150 200 250

Child Mortrfty-Ages 1-4

Source: Compiled from Demographic and Health Surveys cfD.jferent Countries

Figure 3: Infant and Maternal Mortality Fall

with Female Literacy

2BC

« tE

K

Mrecm Agria U$a Iriaa

• Food shortages, restricted access to health and wel fare services, insanitary conditions and low education levels manifest themselves in higher morbidity among African women than men. More girls than boys die young (Figure 2).

Benefits from Investing in Women

As women become healthier, more educated, gain access to land and credit, and as legal and social restrictions on their employment are removed - and existing equal opportunity laws properly enforced - they will become more productive in their numerous occupations. In fact the economy and society will be strengthened in many ways, in a positive, interactive spiral:

• Gender bias will be reduced in many areas;

• Food security will be increased;

• More women will move into formal employment, and out of the poverty trap;

• Educated women, tending to have higher expectations for their children, will strive to educate them;

• Education contributes to healthier women and chil dren (Figure 3). Healthy women give birth to healthy children; a healthier population is able to take better advantage of education and employment opportunities;

• Educated, employed women tend to have fewer chil

Table 1:

Mali Ivory Coast Uganda Malawi South Africa

Comparative Male-Female Literacy and Education Indicators for Selected African Countries

Enrollment Ratios:

Women as a % of Men, '86 - '92 Primary Secondary

59 44

72 50

82 50

83 60

96 N.a.

Source; UNICEF, 1995

Adult Literacy Rate:

Women as a % of Men, 1990

59 60 56 52 N.a.

Table 2: Calculations of Net Social Benefit From Increased Female Education in Kenya Cost of one additional year of primary schooling for 1,000 women

Benefits from an additional year of Schooling:

Reduced child mortality: % reduction Alternative cost per child death Value of averted child deaths Births averted: % reduction Alternative cost per birth averted Value of averted births

Maternal deaths averted:

Alternative cost of averted maternal death Value of averted maternal deaths

558,000

7.5%

$750

$36,000

7.5%

$300

$98,000 2

$1,500

$2,600

Gender Gaps in Education in Africa

Female education has been boosted over the past decade, but there are still significant gender differences in levels of education (Table I) More than half the women in Sub-Saharan Africa over 25 are illiterate If African countries are to achieve sustained development,

the gaps must be closed, and women integrated into

development There is strong evidence that there are high private returns and even higher social returns from female education

Why is There Less Female Education?

• Perceptions that education does little to help women in their traditional roles;

• Opportunity cost: educating girls means that parents forego their labour for child care and household chores;

• Higher direct costs: social norms dictate that girls be

"properly dressed" in public which means paying more for school clothes;

• Poor access: distance from the school, if a girl needs to be accompanied; and scarcity of single-sex schools where social customs require them;

• "Bride price" encourages parents to give their daughters in marriage at young ages;

• Parents feel they don't stand to gain from the invest ment. The belief is that, once married, a woman leaves to become part of the husband's family.

Benefits from Educating Girls

• Education has a strong, sustained impact on female productivity, which is especially important in agriculture. Simulations on data from Kenya indicate that if all women received just one year of primary schooling, womens" yields would increase by 24 per cent (Moock, 1976).

Figure 1: Africa's Fertility Rates Fall With Women's Schooling

Fertility Rate

7 fl S 4 3 2 1 0 -

7

1

B°-4Y"" 4-6 Y..r.

Source: United Nations, 198?

HlO var T y •■ ri

Figure 2: Africa's Child Mortality Rates

Decrease With Increased Education MortaJity rate of Children under 5 years

350 200 190 100 50 0

205

120

^0-4 Yr» 4-6 Y(» UB7* Yri Source: Summers, 1994

improved birth and mortality indicators from Kenyai

women receiving a marginal year of priman

education;

Lower fertility rates: the higher her level of educa tion, the fewer children a woman has (Figure 1);

Educated women have healthier babies (Figure 2) Education also induces nutritional awareness ant better health in general;

Educated women have better prospects for employ ment and higher wages;

Maternal education promotes the well-being of futun generations - educated mothers are more likely t<

educate their children.

': Prcnnanc\ Related Deaths in Africa Due to high fertility rates*and maternal

mortality rates, an African woman runs a 1 in

21 risk of dying from pregnancy related

causes during her lifetime.

This risk is highest among African

women, and is more than twice as high as the

risk Asian women face, and over three times as high as the risk for those in the Caribbean.

Source: Henry.J. Kaiser Foundation, 1993

Health and Nutrition of African Women

African women suffer a greater incidence of morbidity than African men (Tinker et al, 1994). A large propor tion of this death and disease is unnecessary, and is easily and cost-effectively preventable. Women are the health care agents of the family: improving women's health, important in itself, also enhances the health prospects of the family and of future generations, lowers fertility rates and increases women's pro ductivity and income.

Key Issues

• Extremely high rates of maternal mortality in many African nations (Figure 1, Box 1);

• High levels of malnutrition caused by food depriva tion and maternal malnutrition;

• Disease and death from infection, caused by Abortions and female circumcisions performed in unsterile conditions;

• Incidence of Sexually Transmitted Diseases:

HIV/AIDS is particularly widespread (Figure 2).

Women are at greater risk than men because they are more likely to become infected when they are exposed to HIV/AIDS (Tinker et al, 1994). In parts of Africa, HIV infection is spreading more rapidly among females - who may pass on the infection in childbirth.

Why Women's Health Problems Persist

• Unsanitary conditions in which births, abortions and circumcisions takes place cause easily preventable death and disease (Table 1);

• Low levels of education, and of health and nutrition;

• Scarcity of know-how and medical equipment: a study conducted in Lusaka, Zambia, found that of the 60 maternal deaths, 31 occurred through lack of adequate and appropriate medical care (World Bank

1992d),

• Shortage of food, the chief cause of malnutrition (Tinker etal, 1994);

Table 1: Coverage of Deliveries by Trained Attendants in Selected African Countries

Figure2:TheLargestIncidencesofHIVInfected WomenbyRegion 400000 1000000200000030000004000000 Source:WHO,1994

• Long distances to facilities and the unavailability of health care providers keep women from using existing health services;

• Scarcity of potable water; a significant proportion of African people do not have access to safe water. In Mali only 11 per cent, and in Ethiopia only 18 per cent of the people had access to clean water in 1990 (World Bank, 1994d). In Cote d'lvoire, where 69 per cent of the people do have access to potable water, 80 per cent of sickness and death is attributable to the lack of clean water (World Bank, 1992d);

Benefits from Improving Women's Health

• Improved family welfare: since women are largely responsible for the health care of their families, improving their health and providing them with health and nutrition education will enhance family health (Leslie et ai. 1988). A woman's death has a negative effect on her children's education, according to a study in Tanzania (Tinker et al, 1994);

• Healthy people will be able to lead more productive lives. Studies have indicated that when combined with education and access to jobs, improved women's health can accelerate economic development (Tinker etal, 1994);

• As* productivity increases and participation in productive activity rises, poverty levels will begin to fell (Tinkeretal, 1994);

• Infant and child mortality rates will fell as healthy mothers give birth to healthy infants;

• Increased use of contraceptives will help bring fertil ity rates under control.

Table 1: Ownership of Tools and Implements by

Gambian Farmers, 1987

Percent Owning Tool Plow

Seeder Weeder Multipurpose Implement

Men 8.2 26.9

12.4 18.1

Women 0.0 0.6 0.2 0.4 Source: von Braun et ai, 1989

Figure 1: Distance to Firewood Supply in Southern Division of Malawi

Uwondt Blantyrt

21 km

0-1 km

0-2 km: up to one hour return trip * 2-8 km: up to three hour return trip 8+ km: minimum three hour return trip Source: World Bank, 1991b

African Women in Agriculture

African women play a crucial role in agriculture: they produce approximately 75 per cent of the continent's food. The number of female formers in Africa continues

to grow as men migrate to urban areas in search of paid employment. However, significant barriers keep women from achieving their potential productivity levels. Freeing women formers of these constraints is vital for African countries striving to meet the demands

of an expanding population. The resulting income gen

erating opportunities for women are essential for both

economic development and female empowerment.

Barriers to Higher Productivity

of Women Farmers

• Overall imbalance in the division of labour, with women bearing the greater burden. They are unpaid

labour, with no control over the disposal of crops, or use of cash income;

• Inability to own or inherit land, and discriminatory distribution rights, causes low economic security, and inhibits access to credit. Uncertain land tenure

also prevents women from investing in land

improvements (Feder et al, 1988);

• Lack of access to credit prevents women formers from adopting better tools and technologies, improving the quality of their inputs and expanding

the icde of their operations (Table 1). A household

survey in three districts of Kenya found that on

average, the value of women formers' agricultural

tools and equipment amounted to only 18 per cent of

the value of those owned by men (Saito et al, 1994);

• Time constraints due to child rearing and household maintenance, particularly with respect to collecting firewood and water (Figure 1);

Table 2: Agricultural Extension Male and Female

Country, Year Kenya, 1989 Malawi. 1989 Nigeria. 1989 Tanzania. 1984 Zambia. 1986 Source: Suilo el a!., 1994

Headed Male 12 70 37 40 60

Agents Visits to households

Female 9 58 22 28 19

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• Low contact with extension agents denies women farmers a possible source of information and encouragement to adopt better technologies (Table 2);

• Women's low education levels hinder the adoption of technology and access to financial services. The high rate of illiteracy is also an issue because bureaucratic procedures tend to intimidate such women and discourage them from applying for credit.

Payoffs to Increasing Productivity of Women Farmers

• With a stronger bargaining position for women, household income will be better allocated toward the well-being of household members, since women are said to be generally more concerned for the welfare of their families than are men (World Bank, 1995a);

• Increasing women tanners' productivity will resujt in growth of the agriculture sector (Table 3);

• Better food security as agricultural yields rise;

• Removal of the chief cause of malnutrition - scarcity of food - will improve the health of Africans;

• Higher income generation as women start growing cash crops: they are unlikely to adopt cash crops at the cost of food crops, and until household subsistence needs are met (Quisumbing, 1994), but then, and with better access to credit, female farmers will be able to afford the necessary equipment and inputs required for many cash crop operations, such as tea and coffee.

Table 1: Share of Women in Total Non-Agricultural Formal Sector by Employment in Malawi, 1990 Employment Type % of Women Manufacturing

Electricity, gas, water Construction

Trade and catering Transport and Communication Finance and Business Community, Social Personal Services

9.7 8.6 0.9 9.8 8.6

10.3 19.2 Source: Green etaL, 1994

'Si ™ i- C c <u

.2 o

« P

.9- S

1- «

O £

Gender Disparities in Employment in Africa

Assuring employment for African women is essential for promoting economic growth, developing formal sector labour markets, and for raising their status While women are very active in the informal sectors of African economies, their participation in the formal labour force is low. According to some findings, the chief cause of gender differentials in employment is the difference in education levels between men and women (Appleton et al, 1993). But women also suffer limited opportunities, and discrimination in hiring

Key Issues

• Women are highly concentrated in the informal sec tors of African economies. In Cote d'lvoire, two- thirds of those active in the informal sector are female (World Bank, 1992a). This situation is worrying because the informal sector tends to be characterised by few income generating opportu nities, unsafe labour conditions, and absence of coverage by labour laws (Appleton et al, 1993);

• Female rates of employment in the formal sector are extremely poor (Table 1). Restricted access to income generating jobs denies African women the opportunity to lead more independent lives A stronger bargaining position for women within the household is associated with welfare benefits for members of their household (World Bank, 1995a);

• Labour force participation rates are much lower among women than men. Figure 1 shows the rates for some African countries;

• Women who do manage to secure employment in the formal sector do not receive adequate compensation especially in comparison to men's wages (Martin and Hashi, 1992). Tliis is not necessarily because of wage differentials for the same type of work - many coun tries do have equal opportunities and equal wages legislation. It is often because of job segregation by gender, with women in lower paid professions such as teaching and nursing, and men managerial posts.

Figure 2: Employment Status by Schooling (Percentage distributions, weighted estimates)

70 60

» 40 30 20 10 0

Rtray Sacoday Uiwraty

■ Employee

Source: Oleko and Shapiro, 1991

Box 1: Gender Segregation by Sector Studies in Kenya have demonstrated that the allocation of labor among different sectors of the economy indicates that women are concentrated in a few sectors, while men are more evenly dispersed between sectors.

Women dominate the food sector and the small farm export agriculture sectors. Men were dominant in the tradables and non-food sectors. The sectors which women dominate typically have low earnings.

Source: World Bank, 1990

Reasons for Gender Disparities

• Lower education levels hamper women's ability to obtain formal employment. A study in Kinshasa.

Zaire demonstrates the significance of education in obtaining formal employment (Figure 2). Part, though not all of the wage differential which can be observed in many African economies can be attributed to the difference in education levels between men and women;

• Time constraints stemming from child bearing and rearing and household management limit women's ability to secure regular employment. Evidence from Kenya, Nigeria, Burkina Faso and Zambia indicates that African women work much longer hours than men (Saito et al, 1994);

• Women's traditional responsibilities and social taboos prevent them from travelling or migrating in search of employment, as men are able to;

• There is evidence in many African countries of occupational segregation by gender (Box 1). Such restrictions reduce women's potential employment opportunities;

• Women have little access to vocational training and apprenticeships, except in "traditional" stereotyped spheres, such as secretarial work, hairdressing, and tailoring;

• African women have low access to credit, which sti fles entrepreneurship and productivity of women farmers;

• Legal restrictions on women's employment promote the perception that women's labour is more costly than men's For example, in some countries, women are barred from working at night (Martin and Hashi,1992). Lifting such restrictions, however, may also remove protections for women workers, such as maternity leave and labour conventions like those for workers with family responsibilities, and could subject women to greater exploitation.

Benefits of Eliminating Gender Disparities

• Better employment prospects for women will encour age equality as women become more independent;

• Increased employment opportunities in the formal sector will enable women to escape the unstable, low-wage conditious they face in the informal sector;

• There is considerable evidence that higher earnings and status leads to lower levels of fertility as em ployed women have fewer children Evidence from a study in Kinshasa, Zaire indicates that employed women are more likely to use modern methods of contraception (Oleko and Shapiro, 1991).

Table1:MeanSizeofLoanbyGenderinKenyaandNigeria BankLoans Cooperative Loans MoneyLender Loans RelativeLoans CreditSavings Society

Kenya(Ksh) Household Heads M 5900 4407 167 497 540

F 2625 2935 998 460 250

Household Members M 8161 4285 751 569 7135

F 2063 2461 803 294 2525'

Nigeria(Naira) Household Heads M 2897 726 858 1108 998

F 2010 425 398 1108 299

Household Members M 3033 751 828 1137 976

F 2056 344 345 367 585 Source:WAl'lASurvey

African Women's Need for Credit

African women are in serious need of financial services Table 1 illustrates the gender disparities in obtaining credit in Kenya and Nigeria. Credit is particularly im portant to women farmers. Ensuring all women have adequate access to credit is necessary in order to encourage productivity and the economic empowerment of women, so that they may enjoy a better status in African societies

Barriers to Obtaining Credit

• The barriers which prevent women from owning land also restrict women's access to credit because land is a principal form of collateral;

• The distance to credit institutions is a factor in wom en's ability to obtain loans. In Kenya, for example, the distance to a bank was found to be a significant determinant of women's probability of obtaining credit, but not of men's (Saito et al, 1994);

• In some African countries, legal stipulations forbid women from applying for credit or restrict their access to credit in other ways;

• Bureaucratic procedures and form filling arc intimi dating to illiterate people. This is a significant barrier in view of the feet that a large proportion of

African women are illiterate. More than half the

women in Svib-Sahanm Africa over 25 ate illiterate (Saito ctal 1994);

• The uncertainty of women's legal and financial status reduces their potential creditworthiness (World Bank, 1992b). Further, women's rote as primary canegivcrs and health risks associated with chiMhmriqg lead to intermittent employment, which make women risky clients from the viewpoint of formal credit institutions (Rashid and Townseod, 1992).

Table 2: Social benefits associated with increased access to financial services through

theGrameenBankinBangladesh Increaseingirls'schooling Reductioninrecentfertility Reductioninmoderatepoverty Reductioninextremepoverty Increaseinnetworth Increaseinagriculturalproduction Increaseinnon-agriculturalproductions

4.7% 7.4% 13.2% 7.1% 46.1% 15.5% 22.0% Source:PittandKhandker,1994,KhandkerandChawdhury,1994).

Benefits From Making Credit More Accessible to Women

• Credit will enable women fanners to increase their productivity through investment in better inputs, technology and land improvements. Increased productivity in agriculture will in turn lead to economic growth at the national level;

• In other parts of the world, improved access to credit for women results in multiple social benefits, such as better educated children, poverty alleviation and in creased productivity (Table 2). It is likely that better access to credit by African women could also result in similar social benefits through a stronger bargaining position within the household;

• Increases in real income controlled by women leads to more nutritional improvement within the household than do similar increases in real income controlled by men (Thillairajah, 1994). Evidence was this was seen in recent studies from Kenya and Gambia (Kennedy and Cogill, 1987);

• Credit is also important in smoothing consumption throughout the year, especially since food preservation methods are not abundant, and in the event of drought or crop failure. This helps to raise productivity,and increase rood security;

• Credit is also important to assist women to take ad vantage of opportunities for self-employment. Their informal sector enterprises may develop to become part of the formal sector.

Box 1: Inheritance Rights in Kenya

Customary laws in parts of Kenya dictate that sons have exclusive rights to inherit from their fathers. Wives and unmarried daughters have the right to be maintained and married daughters have no rights to the fathers property. A widow's maintenance right is lost if she marries a relative of the deceased husband or returns to her home (Martin and Hashi, 1992).

Box 2: Laws Restricting Access to Credit in Lesotho In Lesotho, only widows and females who are legally determined to be household heads may apply for credit in their name. Wives, even if they are defacto heads of households, are barred from applying for credit (Martin and Hashi, 1992).

Legal Issues and Gender in Africa

The subordinate position of women in African societies stems largely from cultural biases but these are rein forced by the legal framework in many countries The removal of such discriminatory laws is imperative to encourage female participation in economic activity as well as to foster equal opportunities for all Further, the absence of laws covering the informal sector which is dominated by women leaves them at a tremendous disadvantage.

Areas of Law in Which Gender Issues Exist

• Land and property law

Women in some African countries are not entitled to own, inherit or dispose of land (Box 1) Skewed land allocations adversely affect women*s economic security and productivity. The ownership of land is crucial as a form of collateral in applying for credit Since women do not own the land on which they farm, they are not likely to invest in improvements which could lead to increased productivity.

• Family law

The social biases against African women are apparent in family laws in many countries. Revisions are needed in family laws to ensure that women have more control over their lives, and to enhance women's bargaining position within and outside the household. A woman's bargaining position has a considerable impact on the well-being of household members, especially children (World Bank, 1995a).

Through reforms in family law, women's economic and social opportunities can be enhanced

• Laws governing the Financial sector

There is serious concern about the low access women have to credit. Credit has been shown to benefit women through economic empowerment within the household, ability to manage fluctuations in expected income, and investment (World Bank 1995a). hi some countries there are explicit laws which prevent women from receiving credit (Box 2). In others, legal

Box 3; Vain Efforts to End Discrimination In Nigeria, laws which attempt to prohibit discrimination in access to jobs are weakened through references to "adequate means of livelihood" and "suitable employment". The wording of the law is sufficiently vague to allow discrimination.

Such laws could be used to maintain the status quo, a situation of gender inequality (Martin and Hashi, 1992).

Box 4: Indications ofWage Discrimination in Malawi

In 1983 and 1984 a dramatic rise in female employment levels in the manufacturing sector in Malawi was accompanied by a sharp fall in female wages. It is likely that employers recognized that they could benefit from wage discrimination and purposely substituted women for men.

Employment figures from 1985 to 1990 indicate that men were resubstituted as employment in the manufacturing sector fell. Ihis suggests that women's jobs are expendable in the lace of male unemployment.

Source: Green etai, 1994

barriers to obtaining credit are indirect, such as restrictions in owning land.

• Labour and employment law

The integration of women into the fonnal sectors of African economies is crucial. In some cases, where governments have sought to promote female employ ment, the wording of the law leaves it open to interpretation (Box 3). Wage discrimination in practice is apparent in many African countries. While the different levels of education are believed to account for some of the differential, a significant portion of it is attributed to gender discrimination (Box 4).

Effectiveness of Existing Laws

• Illiteracy and tack of education hinder women's abil ity to understand and interpret laws while lack of fi nances prevents them from taking action when their rights are violated In addition to amending the laws themselves, women must be educated in their rights and the judiciary system made accessible to them;

• In some instances, even when laws are in place, there is little alleviation of women's situation because they are not enforced.

Benefits of Improving Women's Legal Standing

• Increased productivity stemming from better access to credit, economic security and investment;

• Cultural and social empowerment, enhanced self-re spect and self-confidence;

• Economic empowerment and a stronger bargaining position within the household;

• Gender-biased legal codes sanction and perpetuate gender based discrimination - legal reform to elevate women's status will allow policymakers to seek change throughout the economy (World Bank,

1995a).

Box 1; Deforestation in Africa

Each year, vast areas of African forests and woodlands are cleared for fanning and logged for fiielwood, logs and pulp wood.

Recent estimates suggest that almost 3.8 million hectares of tropical African forests were cleared each year during the 1980s.

Reforestation amounted only to about 6% of the area lost to deforestation each year, 229,000 hectares per year.

Source: Cleaver and Schreiber, 1992

Figure 1: Per Capita Arable Land for Selected African Countries

Angola Cameroon Gambia Nigeria Zambia Source: FAO, World Bank, 1991b

Table 1: Distance to Firewood Supply: Percentage of Households by Agricultural Division in Malawi Division 0-2 km 2-8 km Over 8 km Northern

Mzuzu 89% 10% less than 1%

Karonga 69% 31% less than 1%

Central

Kasungu 84% 13% 3%

Salima 63% 36% 2%

Lilongwe 68% 26% 6%

Southern

Liwonde 56% 33% 11%

Blantyre 63% 30% 8%

Ngabu 52% 38% 10%

0-2 km: up to one hour return trip 2-8 km: up to three hour return trip

Over 8 km: minimum three hour return trip

Source: Green et ai, 1994

African Women and the Environment

Environmental degradation is fast becoming a major concern in Africa. With rapid population growth, the need for more farmland and wood has increased signifi cantly. Large areas of forest, wetlands and grassland savannah have been converted to farmland (Box 1). But areas of arable land per head, are continuously shrink ing (Figure 1). Women are both severely affected by and contribute to the steady deforestation and resulting water resource depletion through their extensive use of fuelwood, water and farming activities. A vicious cycle with respect to agricultural production, home manage ment, soil fertility and land degradation has come into play, with women bearing the brunt.

Implications for Women

• As deforestation spreads, women are forced to walk further to collect fuelwood. In some regions they al ready spend significant amounts of time - for example, in rural Malawi, some women must walk more than 8 km a day to gather firewood (Figure 2).

And this will get worse, as the rate of deforestation is rising (Cleaver and Schreiber, 1992);

• Unfavourable environmental conditions manifest themselves in adverse climates and depleting water resources. As water becomes scarcer, women have to walk further to reach it (Cleaver and Schreiber.

1992);

Figure2:AccesstoSafeWaterinSelectedAfricanCountries-1990 70% BeninMaliCongoKenyaUgandaEgyptAlgeriaZambiaTogo Source:WorldBank,1994c

• Access to safe water is very limited in many African nations (Figure 2). As the distance to safe water in creases for environmental reasons, there is increased pressure to use unsafe water closer by, and to adopt unsafe water practices (World bank, 1992c). This makes families more vulnerable to disease;

• Soil erosion has also become a serious problem in Africa. And soil fertility is diminished through continuous cropping and insufficient fallow periods, as farmers attempt to meet the needs of an expanding population (Cleaver and Schreiber, 1992);

• As collecting firewood becomes more arduous, women have begun to substitute crop residue and manure as fuel - but both these are better used to retain soil fertility.

Benefits to Women from Improved Environment

• Women can be part of the solution to environmental degradation. Investing in them, to increase their pro ductivity and improve their health and sanitation will contribute significantly to their environmental aware ness (World Bank, 1994b). In particular, establishing women's land and property rights will encourage them to invest in and conserve the land;

• Better environmental conditions will ease women's labour burden. They already work longer hours than men due to their multiple responsibilities (Saito et al,

1994);

• Less time spent on gathering firewood and collecting water would allow more time for agriculture and other income generating activities (World Bank 1992c);

• Increased focus on productive activity should help in crease food security and alleviate malnutrition;

• Improved access to quality water would help reduce morbidity from consuming unclean water, and from unsafe water practices. More fertile soil and better climatic conditions should increase productivity.

Table#1AfricanWomenRepresentationinTopPoliticalLeadershipasofJanuary,1994 Country Algeria Angola Benin Botswana BurkinaFaso Burundi Cameroon Cent.Afri.Rep. Chad Comoros Congo Cdted'lvoire Djibouti Egypt Eritrea Ethiopia

As%of Parliament 7 10 6 5 6 10 12 4 16 2 1 5 0 2 16 1

As%of Ministerial Officials 4 14 6 11 7 3 5 5 0 6 8 0 0 7 10

Country Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Kenya Lesotho Liberia Libya Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Morocco Mozambique

As%of Parliament 6 8 8 - 13 3 2 6 4 6

As%of Ministerial Officials 7 0 12 4 4

Country Namibia Niger

As%of Parliament 7 6 Nigeria. Rwanda|17 SierraLeone 3,Seneoal 6 5 0 0 14 20 00 3 1 16

3 0 4

Somalia Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Tunisia Uganda Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe

12 5 8 11 1

As%of Ministerial Officials 10 5 0 9 0 3 0 3 0 9 5 74 17 4 7 12 Source:PopulationReferenceBureau,PRBMediaGuidetoWomen'sIssues,1995,Washington,D.C.

10 5 6 3

African Women in Leadership

African women are under-represented in key decision- making posts in education (vice-chancellors, rectors, principals); in mangerial echelons of the economy, such as ministries of finance and foreign trade, and banks;

and in legislative and top executive posts (presidents, vice-presidents, prime ministers), (Table 1). Women are marginalised from the political apex where laws allo cating resources and safeguarding human rights are usu ally formulated and adopted.

• Most African countries, especially the francophone ones, have not had a woman as top administrator of the university or other higher education institutions

(Assie-Lumumba, 1994); m

• In many countries the proportion of women is negligible among top administrative and managerial groups making economic decisions;

• Women are under-represented in legislatures and in judicial systems, where laws are passed, and applied, with profound implications for gender inequality. In 1993, in Morocco, Egypt, Mali, Nigeria, Kenya and Lesotho, 95 per cent of members of parliament were males, hi Djibouti and Mauritania there were no women MPs. And in some countries there was a regression: for example in Gabon and Cape Verde in 1993 there were lower proportions of women in parliament than in 1987 (Unicef, The Progress of Nations, page 34).

Barriers to Women's Access to Leadership Positions

• Cultural belief in male superiority and greater ability to lead, socialises females to accept subordinate posi tions;

• Public and private sector employees prefer to hire and promote men to top decision-making posts.

Women in demanding senior posts are expected to juggle their professional and social responsibilities;

• With less women graduates, the pool of female can didates for top posts is small to start with;

Box 1: Exceptional Cases

As of 1995, only Uganda has appointed a woman Vice- president.

The two ephemeral cases of women Prime Ministers appointed in Burundi and Rwanda occurred amidst the human tragedy that has shaken these two countries.

South African women, given the special historical experience of struggle and learning from other

countries, especially in Africa, have been pushing hard for equal rights. They have not achieved gender parity, and the country still has its own gender problems, but they have achieved the highest representation in parliament of any country in Africa.

• African governments' limited commitment and lack of consistent affirmative action has led to the creation of downgraded, under-funded and marginalised ministerial departments which deal with womens' affairs;

• Lack of organised, strong womens' groups clearly ar ticulating the issues, strategies and agenda for change.

Figure 1; Predicted IMR, 1985 for Different Levels of Female Secondary Enrollment,

1985

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Femaie Secondary Enrollment,

1975 Source: Subbarao and Raney, 1993

Box 1; Attendance at Religious Schools

In some rural areas of Gambia, many parents opt to educate their children at nearby Islamic schools. In such cases, the gender difference in enrollment is not as significant as in other parts of the country.

Increased access to religious schools, particularly in rural areas, should serve to reduce the gender gap in education.

Strategies to Eliminate Gender Gaps in Africa

Gender gaps are prevalent in most sections of African society They stem from the subordinate position of African women, despite their crucial roles in reproduc tion and family care, food production and household management. It has been well established that economic empowerment of women and their uninhibited participation in economic activity are essential to achieve sustainable growth in African nations.

Improvements in several key areas will help to accomplish this goal:

• Female education

• Women's health and nutrition

• Women fanners' productivity

• Women's participation in formal labour markets

• Women's access to credit and financial services Promoting female education. Women's education is known to yield high private returns and even higher social returns. Possible strategies to encourage female education include:

• Awareness campaigns to educate parents about the value of educating girls (Subbarao and Raney, 1993);

• hi societies where male-female mingling is pro scribed, establishing single-sex schools and recruiting female teachers to encourage parents to enrol girls in schools (World Bank, 1994b):

• Establishing more schools in areas where distance is keeping enrolment down;

• Introducing flexible school hours so that girls forced to work at household chores during the day. for example, can attend afternoon and evening classes;

• Providing child care facilities so that older girls and young mothers can attend school.

• Developing religious schools, in cases where parents prefer to educate their children in them;

• Revising vocational training policies, encouraging women to take up vocational training and become skilled workers.

Figure 2: Value of Tools and Implements

Owned by Women Farmers as a Percentage of

Male Farmers' in Kenya, 1989

□ Men D VWbman

140 120 100 80 - 60 - 40-- 20 -

Kakamega Muranga Klllfi Overall

Source: Satto etal, 1994

Improving women's health and nutrition. Women's health is essential in ensuring the health of future gen erations and in increasing women's productivity.

Strategies to improve women's health include:

• Boosting formal education - which is known to im prove women's and family health (Figure 1);

• Hygiene and nutrition education (Tinker et al, 1994);

• Integrating health services, to encourage women's use of health facilities (World Bank, 1994b);

• Hiring women physicians and health care staff to draw more women into existing health centres (World Bank, 1994b);

• Promoting the use of contraception and providing ac cess to safe abortions to reduce fertility and maternal mortality;

• Improving food security through agricultural devel opment, and distributing essential nutrients such as iron and iodine, to help ease malnutrition;

• Increasing access to water and sanitation, to reduce death and disease significantly. Poor access to safe water is the cause of 80 per cent of morbidity in Cote d'lvoire (World Bank, 1992a).

Increasing women farmers' productivity. Although women are heavily involved in farming in Afiica - of ten more directly and for longer hours than men - their productivity is seen as lagging behind that of male farmers because they have less access to resources, in formation and education. Underlying this "lower pro ductivity" is the fact that women concentrate on subsis tence production. This will continue as long as "women farmers" are the unpaid workers for their husbands.

Strategies to improve women's productivity include:

• Revising legal codes so that women are eligible to own and inherit land;

• Increasing their access to credit so they can invest in tools and inputs;

• Improving their education, which encourages their adoption oftechnology and access to credit;

• Aiming agricultural extension and research at wom en's concerns, and at their crops;

• Developing rural infrastructures to improve sanitation, and increase access to water and electricity for women.

Increasing women's participation in formal labour markets. The informal sector yields few opportunities for steady income generation. The barriers to women securing formal employment may be reduced through:

• Raising the level of female education: educational differences account for a significant portion of wage differences between men and women in Africa;

• Comprehensive legal reform and strict enforcement, to eliminate gender discrimination in hiring practices and wage rates. Implementing labour laws to protect all workers in the informal sector;

• Improving child care facilities so that women are free to look for paid employment;

• Promoting self-employment opportunities for

women, which can be found in the formal sector;

• Promoting vocational training and skilled work op

portunities for women.

Improving women's access to credit and other financial facilities. Credit is essential in managing income fluctuations and increasing the productivity of

women farmers. Better access to credit may be provided by:

• Improving education and literacy levels, to make ap plication procedures less intimidating;

• Removing barriers to women's ownership of land, and establishing flexible collateral requirements so that women are more eligible for credit;

• Developing rural financial markets and improving ac

cess to financial institutions

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TODAY, gender disparaties are prevalent almost everywhere in Africa...

If long-term change in the conditions of African women is to be achieved, the actions and attitudes of men must change,

and it is important that men be brought along in the process of change. We are

talking about equalizing men's responsibility, not only women's opportunity and access to resources.

K. Y. Amoako Executive Secretary

Economic Commission for Africa