Use of water in the Mediterranean: sectorial distribution and prospects Hamdy A., Lacirignola C. in

in

Dupuy B. (ed.).

Aspects économiques de la gestion de l' eau dans le bassin méditerranéen Bari : CIHEAM

Options Méditerranéennes : Série A. Séminaires Méditerranéens; n. 31 1997

pages 17-49

Article available on lin e / Article dispon ible en lign e à l’adresse :

--- http://om.ciheam.org/article.php?ID PD F=CI971529

--- To cite th is article / Pou r citer cet article

--- Hamdy A., Lacirignola C. U se of water in th e Mediterran ean : sectorial distribu tion an d prospects. In : D upuy B. (ed.). Aspects économiques de la gestion de l'eau dans le bassin méditerranéen . Bari : CIHEAM, 1997. p. 17-49 (Options Méditerranéennes : Série A. Séminaires Méditerranéens; n. 31)

---

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http://om.ciheam.org/

A. Ham&, C.

-

SUMMARY

-

In the arid and semi-arid regions of the Mediterranean, for all the practical purposes, fresh water resources are finite and most of the economically viable development of these resources has already been implemented. In addition, in those regions we are confronted with an increasing population and the associated expansion of urbanization and economic activities, all of which require more water and thus impose a tremendous strain on this already limited and fragile

resource. Such prevailing conditions will automatically have their negative impacts on the sectorial water distribution and use creating a structural imbalance between the constantly increasing water demand to meet needs and the limited available water supply that normally will result in severe conflicts and competitions among the users. Nowadays the dilemma that the major developing countries of the region are facing is to balance demand and supply of water to ensure self-sufficiency in meeting agricultural, industrial and domestic water needs. Following the traditional technique of increasing the supply is questionable; most of the available water resources have been mobilized and very little can be done with the supplying side of water equation. The option we have is to manipulate the demand side for all the water use sectors, particularly the agricultural one which accounts for up to 80% of water consumption. Irrigated agriculture has a particular responsibility and high potential for water saving. In the Mediterranean region there is no question on the crucial importance of demand management aiming at efficiency, equity and long- term water security making use of the tools that the legal and economic policy, the scientific and technological advancement have made available. It is fully realized that the economic tools alone will not be sufficient to tackle the sectorial water use imbalance. Technological solutions are of primary importance. To implement technological and economic tools and solutions, we need the institutional and human resource capacity and thus capacity building emerges as one of the key components. The interrelationship of all these components indicate the vital need to elaborate the concept of integrated demand management into implementable policies, programmes and actions. We have the chance to achieve our goals and we should not miss it.

Options Méditerranéennes, S& A /na31, 1997 Séminaires Méditerranéens

18 A. Hamdy, Lacirignola

RESUME

-

Dans les régions arides et semi-arides de la Méditerranée, les ressources en eau sont rares. Tout ce qui pouvait être exploité d'une manière économiquement viable a été déjà exploité. Dans ces régions, se pose aussi le .problème d'une population croissante et d'une

expansion énorme de l'urbanisation et des activités économiques qui requièrent de plus en plus d'eau et qui exercent une pression de plus en plus forte sur les ressources en eau déjà si

fragiles et limitées. De telles conditions vont nécessairement influencer négativement la

répattition et l'utilisation sectorielle de l'eau en donnant lieu à un déséquilibre structurel entre, d'une part, la demande en eau croissante pour satisfaire les besoins et, de l'autre, la disponibilité disponibilité en eau limitée qui aboutit généralement à des conflits graves entre les différents usagers. Aujourd'hui, la plupart des pays en développement se trouvent face au problème

d'équilibrer la demande et l'offre de l'eau pour assurer l'auto-suffisance nécessaire pour

satisfaire les besoins agricoles, industriels et ménagers. L 'approche traditionnelle consistant à augmenter l'offre est discutable; la plupart des ressources en eau disponibles ont été

mobilisées et il ne reste pas grande chose à faire du côté de l'offre. L'option possible consiste à manipuler la demande pour tous les secteurs qui utilisent l'eau, en particulier pour l'agriculture qui absorbe 80% de la consommation. L'agriculture irriguée a une grande responsabilité et une haute potentialité d'épargne d'eau. Dans la région méditerranéenne, l'importance d'une gestion de la demande visant à l'efficience, l'équité et la sécurité à long terme à travers les instruments rendus disponibles par la politique économique et la législation ainsi que par les progrès

scientifiques, est hors de doute. II est évident que les instruments économiques seulement ne suffisent pas pour résoudre le déséquilibre dans l'utilisation sectorielle de l'eau. Les solutions

technologiques ont une importance primaire mais pour appliquer les instruments et les solutions technologiques et économiques, on a besoin d'une composante clé: des ressources humaines

et des compétences institutionnelles. Les interrelations entre toutes ces composantes font

ressortir la nécessité vitale de réaliser une gestion intégrée de la demande à travers des

politiques, des programmes et des actions faisables. On a la possibilité d'atteindre notre objectif et il ne faut pas la manquer.

is essential life -- and a mass of

is also the hy-

giene and health. No

this: in many uses, is no substitute

of pose a

to sustainable development and of

food development and the

ecosystems on which they depend,. at effectively in the

they have been in the past.

of the live in

se often those with the of

likely to be acute.

The of potable

tation is, a basic development is- sue. A society which fails to meet such basic needs,

fails in one of its in

in the still lacks the-

health and dignity.

The

pment, adopted at the conclusion of the United Na- on 13

Use of water in 19

of

a heal- life

- in

the

-

1.7 billions have inadequate sanitation facilities;

- is implicated in the deaths of than 3 million people and causes about 900 mil- lion episodes of illness each

This calls

assessment, development and management of the highest levels of the smal- lest communities. Commitment will need to be backed by substantial and immediate investments, tutional changes, technology development and ca-

Competition is

the due

sumption. To cope will have to be The

in the 1990s is that while the physical availa- bility of a is fixed, its demand in

all to

steadily in

is how to balance demand and supply of difficult conditions, since, unlike

a

a a

combination of economic, political

The of that

the

population with safe envi

of is needed including technical, insti- The

sanitation depends on local involvement, local so- lutions and local knowledge within the

of an

The that we must go beyond the symptoms to the causes of the

in mind.

the

sing and competing uses. The most effective mecha-

nism in developing an-

the quality and quantity of

in a in so-

The in the

sin is in (Fig. l).

At the level, is a

The in functions and uses implies the possibility of conflicts, both bet- ween the

and in situ use) and between these and the the situation of the basis of uses) in

in the middle of the 1980s. The stage consists in quantifying

2 and 3).

but including spontaneous outflows the exploitation of

such as fossil most

as the of the desalina-

tion of sea etc. (the total excludes duplica- tion due to spontaneous exchanges between neigh- in the basin, in the of

28,000 all of

20 A. Hamdy, C. Lacirignola

I I

⁶⁸⁵ (635)

I

1-1

. .

1 - Qe

578 20

+

Op = 492

h

F T ’ > > I

Conventic ^~~~~~

1857 ^W

mal

‘- ⁺

_out

SEA

Unit: billion m3/annum

Q: (= effective rainfall)

-

^Qe: loss via evaporation Q sont: Underground input

-

Q surf: Outgoing surface runoff +sea Q sout: Outgoing underground runoff+sea

-

Water balance in The chart gives the current mean flow: figures brackets correspond to previous flow-rates

Use of water in 21

Y

m

3

N

b N Zl

m m

3

":

X

_m

b

3

N

r2

3

% 3

m N

3

m l1

m.

2

m

b W 3

2

m

X O O 3

b b

l1

N

8

m N

8

m N

8

8

m

m

O

3

m

3

N

W

2

'?

3

'?

3 3

b b

N l1

.r(

2

m

*

O O W

m N N

m

3

F

3

2

a

O

l1

":

N 21

X l4

N

3

m N

b O '?

3 3

09 m

N

4

22 ^A. Hamdy, C. Lacirignola

The most available the of

flood-flows lated by existing

is some un- all uses

'

so unstable flows of the volume

of of

is of the

the net volume of

med (column 5). it possible to

i. the of the --

(4) (2);

ii. the of the stable flows

--

(4) (3).

is the

i. the of

at least 55 cent cent the Nile development alone);

ii. out of the 154,000 m.

about 72 cent (l 10,000 m. m3) is used 10 cent the

tion of to

domestic use), and 16

cent the

iii. a of into the

of

minus net volumes consumed -- column (2)

--

column (5), i.e. 486,000 m.

wage, the quality of its

value exploitation

in of fu-

(20 cent Egypt, ins- tance), even nil in

and

100

information on water resources

A in the is

inadequate knowledge both of the

tential of

The of

ces is defined by a set of stochastic it is thus essential

in space and time.

about the state of in this day of satellite

systems, and

sion of must be intensified to data,

usable and accessible and disseminate them

to all data collection and

is of the mana-

gement of data

must be

no allocations,

planning can be

tions, such as those the of the Uni- ted Nations scientific associations, have a

to play in the collecting and open of

is a main issue and an essential

one making of supplies to

Lack of emphasis in budget allocations on adequate

data base the

dimension of the psychoses of con-

develop, the focus

ble

Water scarcity

is not a new phenomenon in the

is new, is

that it is in

it and long-

lasting. The most in the of

a

highlighted the of

in the

on capita

of

The is endemic in some

but it has now even towns and villages in Spain,

Use of water in 23

2 - overlaps: water resources and other national sectors

The in quantity has been com- in quality due to contamina- tion of

in most of

of the (i)

the physical limits of

of

ciencies due to low cost of in

the deployment of

and (iv) loss of of

dless of

not amenable to cope with the in

ting pollution.

Water policy overlaps

is a in all developed and of

fact, is typically

of

This means that the exclusive

domain of but

in Fig. 2.

the of

and many poli-

24 A. Hamdy, C. Lacirignola

established by this agency.

of of

of health cies establish policies

vation of

agencies often involved in

policies on finance, budgets and can have im- on

At the national level, it is needed to analyze the

links of economy,

including those the

of

such as potable and c) policies

that af- fect

of water quality

the the wa-

is sensitive and development is leading to

ploitation of the of

the lack of of the de-

of the of develo-

pment and technology adopted have complex and effects on the quality. All the coastal of the of the

nean in of being polluted by

the

singly unsuitable use.

of additional supplies would be expected to

at the

highest level in the

in of the

base. of pollution of tion of the

nicipal and

solid waste disposal sites; (iv) salt

in coastal

of

use planning and municipal wastes and accele-

siltation of

and of the in

the use of huge amounts of and pesticides without a

use, the of the of

Since

in all developing of the

of the status of the extent

is simply not possible

on the basis of limited

tion available; it may be said that the is al- especially lakes and

Even in of the

gion, despite all the is available

focused mostly on

of is seldom out.

state of knowledge on this subject is limited. We simply do not know the extent of con- unusable without expensive

of is not a consi-

will be cause of

in some of the the to-

tal economic and health costs to the due The growing gap between water supply and demand

The existing imbalance between the nal conflicts and competition among the

in of the

the

cipitate in the can be catego-

as follows:

Use of water the sectorial distribution and “osuects 25

-

flow - - -

-

use of

living -

- impacts of

-

-

agement; and

-

of

The demand side On

the

The the

of of

in population bet- ween 1960 and 1980. Available data suggest that

lation between 1980 of

in po- pulation in

The of the basin,

of

the total in 2025,

i.e. five times

in 1950 (Fig. 3).

is always linked with fast zation (Fig. 4).

The size of

2025 in the South and the East, i.e. as much as the total popula-

tion in The

ban population of in

fact 380 and 440 millions, compa- little

of

fixed, it is easy to see just how the on the

The supply side

On the supply side, the of non-

the limited po-

tential of the

of

of calculated

it is expected that by the 2025, the available

50% of the

The question of the amount of people living in

the concept of index, level of

1200 is

value falls below 1.000

fall below 500

level of has called it the

an adequate quality of life in loped

The level

the

that of

must be used we have

of al-

the 500 level

the

in the gion

3).

this one question must be asked: in those 80% of the

ply is allocated

70-80% of the population

can this ratio of water allocation to agriculture continue as popu- lation grows, along with rapid urbanization and with the water resource potential remaining the

same? That is the is no-

facing.

26 A. Hamdv. C. Lacirimola

Y

Yugoslavia

Tunisia

Spain

Libya Lebanon

Egypt

Albania

Use water in 21

l '

...

...

Z A W ...

<!+<*<<*<:*<:*<:;::

... ...

.~ ...

...

...

... _....j.. ".".. _... .. ' ...i

.." ...

...

...

... ...

...

...

...

,. ..

E;;

@;

&:

>.*F

T

V

I I I h

28 A. Hamdy, C. Lucirignola

Table 2 - Annual renewable fresh water available per person selected countries.

1955 1990 2025

Egypt 2.561 1.123 630

Tunisia 1.127 540 324

2.763 1.117 590

1.770 689 332

Libya 4.105 1.417 359

8.509 3.626 2.186

6.500 2.087 732

Lebanon 3.088 1.816 1.113

906 327 121

1.229 46 1 264

96 85 69

Albania 15.120 6.462 4.71 1

1.698 1.282 996

10.161

3.845 3.243 3.325

3 .O44

Spain 3.801 2.844 2.733

7.665 6.688 6.519

Selected

United States 14.934 9.913 7.695

China 4.597 2.427 1.818

7.444 6.942

(1993)

Use of 29 Table 3 - countries experiencing water scarcity in 1955, 1990 and 2025projected based

on avaìlabìlitìty less than 1000 cubic meter renewable waterperperson

in

1990 by 2025 all UN

. . Libya

Taking into account the exploitation index which the of the sum of all

offs to the total volume of

the in the be

classified in the i. the

is even a in-

This

quality;

ii.

in although

be able to continue to meet that

sigufïcant

in the the coun-

in the call solu-

iii.

is

As the the exploitation indexes 100 include counties

is

nisia), high (Egypt, Libya).

in the

sin, out of

Sectorial water use

the a whole, 72% of l

is used 10%

16%

uses in the

the (Fig. 5 , 6 ) .

The is

on the can double and

to situation. The of

of

the is

The development of the basin means that the

30 A. Hamdy, C. Lncirignola

Domestic use

Sectorial water use in Mediterranean Countries

Domestic use

Sectorial water use in the Developed Countries

Domestic use

79%

Sectorial water use in the Mediterranean Developing Countries

5

-

Sectorial water use

100

, 90

l

⁸⁰

70

60 50

40 30

20 10 O

70 T

% use % %

!

Libya Albania

use in the

use % % use %

use

Spain

6

-

Sectorial water use

32 A. Hamdy, C. Lcrcirignola

The supply of is

of tion of the

in the of the

by 40% to 60%, but in the south and east of the basin it would be multiplied by

the supply

of will be one of the

in

The main question is is a si-

gnificant cause of the

in

on the quantitative data the studies the it seems possible

to in the

is

sumption will in 2025 to 6.800 m. m3 of the basin, and to 3.100 m. m3 and 3.700 m. m3 the

Even if

consumption added, this gives modest of total consumption, of the of 5-

7 the

Egypt, Libya, Tunisia), may constitute development.

Although this is to

ces, the situation is taking into

. account the availability of facilities, and especially the

cities. This is the case, ins- tance, in

to the city of 1967 the 80 m m3 of

(65 m m of of

the city. 1983 needs estimated at 150 m.

the in supplies the

led to the planning of the vast twin

of Amane, in

ficient to meet needs at the end of the 1 9 8 0 ~ ~ esti-

mated to some 250 m m3 The

needs of the in

been estimated at some 540 m m3

will call solutions, especially since the

existing wili

could there be other dams on the wadis of the hin-

terland, recycling of waste water, desalination of

sea water? it may be, the example of

the the competition between

needs, and the of

to the of the explo-

sive in on the limited

it is needed to find

of towns. This

whose although still slight could be developed in would have a beneficial induced effect on the

the into which it is dis- the con-

flicts of uses.

Tourism consuntption

peak demand which is concomitant with the

demand and adds to the of

local communities. As of its

is subject to in the the low inflows that

a of the

fy the impact of the of waste-

into the that de-

mand is at its peak.

Estimates, of in

the be

596.0 m. m3 in the 1984

1986). Using the consump-

tion could amount to 854.7 up to 1.334 m. m3 by

the 2000 coefficient of a mi-

nimum value of 1.7 and a maximum one of 2.3, ta- king 1984 as the

Following the same the annual

sumption by the is estimated to be of two and times than those

The on the of

of land an in-

in the in that is

the local

Use of water ìn 33

addition to the fact that conflicts the use of the off by the build-up in demand be-

a the

without being offset by the of

in since this is into the

sea. The

consume a of the

lose of One of the effects of

is of level

pumping leading to the abandoning of cultivated

be the of

use

in of

south and east of the

of The

trans-

is the

of fifth of total

is allocated to the development in

in the consumption in

37% of the whole

that of the is as low as 8% (Fig. 6).

since quantities of is used

cooling; of

the two

go to just five

domestic uses has to compete with that

is difficult to

put a at the As

of fact, while demand, which should not be confu-

sed with actual "consumption", is well known

in the case of the

significantly, depending on the the age of the plant being used.

the medium - long

-

^{demand is}

still the

whole, since the

into those that connected will the

USE

the 70% of the

the of the

is devoted to

the is

allocated the it

50% of the whole available

Limiting in the East and South of

the of the main

limiting

in the 2000 - 2025 The is

the land suitable is

to find.

At the

16 in 15

3 the

seems to stabilize

This implies the use of a in

the of 2 billion m3 of

This cause some difficul-

ties the of

likely that the use

of wastewa-

in of

those of the of the

und'eiimgahon could possible b e - 3.8 to 4

of 38.000 to 40.000 million m3

34 ^{A. Hanzdy, C.} Lncirignola

To the East and South of the basin - which has. a potential to to

the extension of

about 7 million to 70.000

is intensive. takes

about 1000 tons of of

and 2000 of the

of the total

the in-

vested in the the

of public systems has fal- of expectation in developing and developed

of the

in

less less

nably achieved. addition, the mismanaged

the of

some of

of

the in

the coastal zone. Salt affected soils in the 15% of the lands.

the given the of new irri-

gation development, the of

land and the emphasis in the

will be efficient use of

expansion of the

the many social, political, in

actually exist. The

i. inefficient

in logging, soil tion of

ii. incentives in

few

iii. is developing than the

leading to of

iv. the outlook developing to

is questionable, given limited financial escalating

tion costs, and oppositions.

losses in (Fig. 7) sug-

gest that only about 45% of ex-

the

those in the conveyance system

taking the the site

ween 5 and 50

the of the

efficient use of in all

activities, in the

is of to sus-

tainable management of the

use of it

to pump amounts of

but it tion with such

zation and pollution, and in health

in, example, the incidence

diseases.

the developing of the bility of food

sound and efficient use

of development and

management. Achieving food is the top in

only food population but also sa-

five

quantities of be

to and households in the of

70 of the additional

food grain

of the This will not be possible without deve- of

bution and impacts of an of

viation, financial

Use water 35

3

+l

s

m W m 8

36 A. Hnmdy, C. Lacirignola

USE The dominant fact

the next few decades is the imba- lance between the constantly demand

to meet the needs and the available the imbalance the

the the

demand will fast the limit of

and the of a

of the nineties. The-

se will be facing

that could be outlined as follows La-

i. declining inhabitant both in

of

als. is expected that the

capita will be 50% of the

sent one;

ii. high

with the of

iii. excessive in

capita, which will impose its significant effect

on the use,

in the

in the in

be given to satisfy the the expenses of the

available the

with the consequence of less land

iv. in the quality of avail-

of

load into the at-

'

in the

the sup- The

extend

in the

most the development of

implemented and in many places it is

of feasible a of

addition, the cost of developing less ac- be high and the is time

consuming. The of

be

This evidently expanding the supply

in is unlikely to effect in the

As a consequence, development should be shifted supply

One of the fundamental changes is a shift of

i. allocation of an essentially fixed supply of ing demands;

ii. that involve-

policies and activities to unit-of-activity use eas

iii. technologies and institutional

enable of demand man- agement to be to the allocation and management of

iv. economic and financial legal

The activities involved in influencing demand mand management, as is stated in con-

to the on "Legislative

nagement", is the most

ment that have to deve-

lop and use the coming decade.

The has put it: the

of demand management is its focus on in-

fluencing in-

can involve many mutually

such mecha-

Use of water in 31

nisms and financial

The management of the

economically efficient supply and use of in

the of wastage, is a vital issue in

of

all that wa-

by them as a medium waste

disposal, and it has a cost that must be met if the is to be sustainable continued use. The

1989) is

of demand policies being used to close

The

all local) should

i. the of

ii. of

iii. the of

the of

iv.

vi. the of

The aim of demand management is:

i. to limit

ii. to the of access to fu-

iii. to

the

v. to maximize the socio-economic output of a unit volume of

the efficiency of

include

ty building), legal law, fines),

political be

the physi-

cal the

the

Adopting demand management as an

of involve the following:

i.

substitutes

ii. using as a tool demand management, of

the basis of disposal costs,

iii. using efficient technical means to

use and conveyances losses in the supply system. This includes changes in plumbing codes to

of leak sus-

tained maintenance;

to

v. using technical means use, including

tion, land levelling and canal lining, along with institutional

efficient use;

vi. use of Such a use of

the installation of dual

why demand management of irrigated agriculture?

is in the of

gion that will

be

if The

comes to the conclusion that in the

38 A. Hamdy, C. Lacirignola

light of the of the

lack of to supply

on a

of the

the long of the

vings to meet the in the

municipal and be made in

the This is not only because

gation takes the highest of

also because it effi-

schemes, as little as 30 of may be used

examples of this within the

can of about 65

80% of

t@al use is a 10 in-

in the efficiency of would

50% use.

This is a good of the potential

savings in the it.

die if it less has

been shown that instance can

save about 30 to 50% ^of the and to- vith

it can at the same time,

unit of can stimu-

late

of

of this activity oc-

in

the which often has access to and technology.

Agriculture water demand management issues:

guiding principles

The is defi-

ned as the management of

efficient use of in

the of

wastage.

in the the establishment of incentives,

help, the

the efficient use of in The

have the

11.

f .

...

iv

.

V.

vi.

between quantity, quality and bio- logical aspects of both

face

sustainability of

saving in

losses;

sustainability;

of economic

capacity building: institutional

the execution of man- agement tasks;

vii. implementation aspects, including financing,

viii. social and

The implementation of an de-

mand management to achieve the goals of efficiency and equity deve-

in the following:

Water and cost recovev

Economic incentives based upon cost of in

centives to save the

supply is less than the

full cost of

being subsidized in due to the

and the

such subsidies in

to enough

maintenance of the the

of the budget; and at the same

time incentives

invest in saving technologies and

to shift out of high

Use of 39

The of is

to good management of tion demand because it is noticed that despite the

of in

is the

This is due mainly to the fai-

in the of

the of

it is now widely believed that managing

is tool

of States, it is difficult the concept of

economic good with the idea of of the

of is

a long way

which should be to the people.

Some

of the costs of

in in

the full

costs of 40%

of

in of the ma-

nagement of the in

financial autonomy.

fixed

on the the amount of

of

tion of the actual costs of

is of the

the application of ap- into ac- of on this issue.

is a sensitive issue, but could be an if

N. 4 of the

in all its com- peting uses and should be

nomic good".

What is the economic value of that talking about?

of of two components, namely, the

value of the per se, input to

the cost of of

development and supply. These components should

be taken into in

the that may be set, to be paid by the may not include the full cost, depending on social, political

The fundamental of is to help de- of

and equity objectives.

seldom set

be it flat

the ability to

tions allocative efficiency, equity and in

The that

an issue of in

management in the of

it could af-

fect 1991):

i. uses;

iii. ^' of

all of investment costs;

..

v. income vi. efficiency of vii.

40 A. Hamdy, C. Lacirignola

The concept of be ex-

tended to the of

the end of the intended use. This is of

tance because all its quality

and this implies that of be

needed to quality in to the

"poisoning of the cycle".

the

so slight that of the

is

difficult the acute state of pollution,

of of the clea-

ning pays

cost

tionably be the in the

twenty the on

is still

be effectively implemented. this should the beneficiaries pay the operation and mainte- nance costs of the water system? or are they expec- ted to pay total investment costs as well? should such pricing include external costs such as the en- vironment and social damages? so, how should these costs be calculated? Those difficult issues will have to be solved.

Local

to implement cost

exist between in

the

opposite to that of an effi-

the

vations of the human components of the system taking the decision.

The selection of mechanisms suitable

individual of the is in-

of such as the secto- use, the level of subsidies, the

the ability to pay and the social The dual objectives of income signing innovative

irrigation efficiencies and water conservation

of the

vation and efficient use of have not been gi- ven the

Since is by the

efficient management will undoubtedly

be in the

it is common to find that

than half the amount of the

even the fields being ted. only about 25-30% of the

into canal systems actually becomes available to the leading to an efficiency of less than 40%.

The of the effi-

ciencies due to such as: leakage,

fac-

linked with the of the

of lack of adequate maintenance; in

the most feasible technical and economic of

give sufficient attention to adequate maintenance of the facilities.

the management of los- ses, changing

tion scheduling, and adopting efficient technologies.

is needed to find

efficiency and equity in systems.

levels of with

amounts of of the

logging

is

it also points to the need technological,

Use of water in 41

and policies that by end-

be needed if the in

to be achieved.

of is essential

food se-

the To achieve the-

efficient methods

needed. Effective tion management

tal to be

Water saving The way to

its is still the

point of possible,

if one thinks

as well as equipments, instance 75% to

25% about, one the

the value means to the

its 10

the the fact that quite often the

one hand, and the

levels of

that the solu- is a complex one.

To achieve a sound use

i.

is still

to ii.

iii. of the

the involve-

ment of in the implementation of the in the im- of the modes of use of

Zeid, 1992). A is

evaluating the needs of

be

of irrigation water supply to lower water consuming and high value crops

is a significant scope

in in the

is one of the essential to be setting

of

high value

ve the goal most of the

heavily influenced by national policies seeking to achieve food self-sufficiency.

As a the

to the consumption of amounts of the economizing the use in to avoid the

in allocated 25 to 30% of the

in

is in the

it accounts 35% of the in

lead to the use of

in of economic cost of to

be

the an efficient

saving in

it is needed to set changing

to suite with tion based on the availability of justments including

lifting

42 ^{A. Hamdy, C.} Lacirignola

Use Water

Limited supplies of

demand competing uses and the need to

use in

is of

all it can be defined as

that

have the potential to cause it is used is a

cause of its high salinity municipal waste-

is a of the as-

the viewpoint of of

planning,

is used (FAO, 1992).

Waste water recycling and use One way of using

ficiently is such

towns, ci- ties and

of the of

have impact on of

of the technological solutions avai- lable

in special cases, be used even be made available mu- nicipal use.

in can also be

beneficial in that it supplies much of

and by

A the

of

is

cents/" which can save the about

$ in costs; this

can be incentive the use of

of the

of

planning. in the

is used in thus

Some example Egypt,

Tunisia, have a national policy to

use all effluents

is likely to

the use of was- The water resource potential wastewater recycling

is the of additio-

nal

potable use that actually in quantity as the is de- manded by the

that the total eventually then it is

in that

ween 65-80% of the

Thus example, a city with a population of one million would a supply of 125 million cubic

and undes optimal conditions some 80% of that amount could be collected in the

in adjacent this case some 100

of

the city.

That amount of sufficient to

between 10 to 20

the technology used and the type of

achieved, such and of

can add significant amounts of to

the it could be

used

still value,

is that in

is justified be

To

de use of in se-

of the a of

issues still need to be

technologies will have to be developed and tested.

Use of and prospects 43

emphasis should be given to the following:

i. to find out simple efficient and economical of low cost systems;

ii. to modify the design, techniques and management to cope with the

istics of the effluents; and

of effluent quality as well as that of Saline water use

Saline a of

of the nean.

The is that most of full utilization of

that the quantity of

is diminishing. What is left

is of saline one; and

situation.

Saline

of suc- cessful use

on plant selection, soil

mote the use of

of the

The in is by the

of saline

in is

issue in the is

this the

Undoubtedly in the in the

the

supply the in

food full utili-

zation of the

in is

of

i. lack of this

ii. inadequate

sub-optimal due to ad hoc planning and management

iv. is in doubt

v. the objectives to be

achieved

exist of lack of ade- quate funds

lack of

The but given

a

Conjunctive use of surface and groundwater resources

The use of in conjunction with

is of

it

The conjunctive use can be defined as the develo- pment and management of

in a such that the total yield of

the system a of

of the yields of the individual components of the The objective of conjunctive use implies not only

the combined use of of

one

cient management in by

taking advantage of the and the impact of one on the

Conjunctive use planning must include involved in the two systems independently, but

must also include the optimal

development of the of the two

systems.

44 A. Hamdv. C. Lacirimola

To

in

ly those of the of

conjunctive

of the is needed vis-a-

vis in the

Such an ideally be focused on the following i. definition and delineation of

climatic

and planning of spect to the use of

ii. assessment of the quantum of in

iii. estimation of the the

basis of

iv. assessment of the of

the magnitude of its

and in zones as in (i) above;

v. of of

ping, of

that available is optimally used to main- tain level within safe limits and to

keep the in

is of potential new

of uses.'

is a technological option all deve- loping in the but only an economic one if

the cost of plants.

the in the

of the desalination science is the

of than the

1500 million of total dissolved solids (tds), which usable on but not con- ventionally

5000

municipal and use than sea 35000

and with limited eco- nomic options, looking closely at the

tion of

Strengthening the capacity building in irrigation sector

of management in the

the implementation of a set of technical actions such as the

of technologies; sche-

duling techniques; of economic and fiscal incentives. These options indeed necessa-

cannot achieve the expected goals without the capacity building of the

the efficiency of national institu-

tions in of the scien-

tific and technical knowledge of the technical staff

in of the

To utilize it is

to find and

educational of knowledge to developing should be always that

in

not be effective in finding solutions to in the developing

and UNESCO (1991) stated

tant aspect of capacity buildings is the ability of a collect,

on include

which is essential a sustainable demand management.

is fully the economic tools alone will be not sufficient to tackle the the

of To implement technological and economic tools and solutions, we need the institutio-

one of the key components.

Training activities

in the field of in the

developing of the

be be

the develo-

Use of water in and prospects

pment of sustainable utilization of the land and The

in the development of national capacities in the long-

of in the

cost-effective solutions the benefit of in the field.

The of

one of the of

taken as an example. The activities and its in the field of

its

the and

the it

this

of the activities is i. facilitating the of

of in

ii.

iii.

institutions in

in the the assessment of the of

in the Strong and effective extension service

is a

is and the

of the

feel that its to extension.

The implication of

should be The

of

the the

To achieve its beneficial goals the implementation of demand

fective the fol-

farm family;

ii.

-

knowledge base

iii. to have adequate financial iv.

tives

promotion water users' associations (WUAS)

of in managing of

all of the

the of

schemes is still the of

public of

of

and maintenance of addition,

of

tion of the collection of

the of such

public institutions.

the of the

in is

the management of the saving of

in the the following actions should

46 A. Harndy, C. Lncirignola

i. a of the in managing

the the of

associations (WUAS);

ii. actual the

ices of the

public institutions to the in the management of

in the management of the

iü. of

scheme to local WUAS, including the of

fi-

Some in the

ly of ope-

the in help

the management of many

sociations (WUASs) ly in

have so been limited to the O & of

to in the management of the

system.

General und Conclusions

the the

all

the one side, we know that all finite and that most of the economically viable develo- pment of

mented. Thus, the potential to

base is in

dation pollution is the

usable volume of the side, we

fast banization and the associated expansion of econo- mic activities, all of

ting on the

the demand cally, especially in the This imbalance between the and the

of quality in all

of the The in the

faced with a dilemma: what is the solu- tion? we doomed to fail,

The is a of the

followed in

of new management ap- the conflicts

and attain a sustainable use? The

easily be the

existing in the developing

of the Those not

is misallocated; low-value uses consume a

significant of the high value

(ii) quality is not moni-

leading to use

quality; (iiij sewage especially

the inadequate; and (iv) costs of new mounting.

These issues cannot by the

What the alternative up- yroaclz? The dilemma to in a sustai-

the need the ways

in is used and the

lable levels

of use. of and

efficient essential a

sonable fi-

nite the focus of

the supply side.

this is yielding to the

that demand management is a key element in

The

zation of consumption, elimination of

misuse and loss full use

of installed capacity,

of efficiency in

luation and assessment.

As it that little can be

done with the supply side of the

Yet, we have to balance the equation, which at the moment, is heavily unbalanced, and the option we have is to manipulate the demand side (Fig S>. The-

no question on the of de-

mand management aiming at efficiency, equity and

to the con-

cept of demand management into implementable This i s

the task of the in the

Use of water in 47

L

I ^{the of the Equation} I

Side Supply Side

- of

- of

- Economic incentives.

-

' of

- - Saline

- of

- Conductive use of

o

o

o

o

the Supply is have been developed.

king.

Cost of less will

be and is time

consuming.

The costs of

little can be done.

8

-

Water resources dilemma in arid and semi-arid regions

48 A. Hamdy, C. Lacirignola

Achieving the goals needs the use of tools that legal and economic policy, scientific and technological advancement have given to us.

the use, the

is the should be

talces the (90%)

of the of

in the municipal

and be made in

is the

management of is the

the of

tenance of

efficient cation and (iii)

(iv) adopting adequate steps to en- adopting

with

ties in innova-

tive technologies, institutional tion policies; including changes in of

in in the

a fixed likely to

on the Such impact is not neces-

it will stimulate competiti-

veness of allo-

that

use (cotton, bananas, alfalfa

....)

based on ex-

tensive using cheap of

subsidies to specific subsi- dies to well pumps, engines

will have to be changed.

The high

efficiencies

of in

Such adjustments have social and econo- mic implications; they would be expected to impact

employment, income, of .

have

the is the adop-

tion of the of allocative efficiency which leads to the utilization of in the econo-

the best to -

that is

and secondly, within each

activities which sound economic

example the of get a

high than those -such

as wheat and which

have access to

Such does not but it

tice in the utilization of the

The possibility of the existing

systems to supplies additional in economic and social exist, will be an

gy but it the policies of national

of the developing the Following the analysis of

the place of in the economies and

of the difficult to

that new is

blems of the ap-

of is not yet a option.

On the hand,

ving the of as many effective

as possible is the issue, the of

will be of

policies. What is obviously needed is initiative and of the solutions being put this

sue is

and the use it makes of it. This depends, to some of economic development of an individual The economically advanced a society becomes the it needs to

question its policy.

This is the sec-

use in the of the

60% of available ces allocated to

with that of the ones

80% of allocated

Use water t?ze 49

on simplest solution is

it is still possible to ties of usage.

take an optimistic view of This most of

which is

of fact, such

think of new ways in

which they might be solved. cases, by the of

cost in developing on

in 3-9

(1992). The application of optimization techniques to

development and management in 3 -

(1991). sustainable development in the 21st a global tional, 16, 219-224.

detailed tin,

FAO in 47

in to the

,

(1992). The the

1 1992,

(1989).

The Blue Plan. (1989). the basin. (eds)

(1992). the on

vol.

(1988). The of the

2025. Executive and suggestions action. pp. 96.

World Bank. (1992).