• Aucun résultat trouvé

Climate change and agriculture : the issues for the environment and food security

N/A
N/A
Protected

Academic year: 2021

Partager "Climate change and agriculture : the issues for the environment and food security"

Copied!
46
0
0

Texte intégral

(1)

Climate change

and agriculture

THE ISSUES FOR THE ENVIRONMENT

AND FOOD SECURITY

(2)

Theissuesfortheenvironmentandfoodsecurity

CIRAD,

December

2009

C

ONTENTS









I

NTRODUCTION

...3

A

DAPTATIONOFCULTIVATEDPLANTSTOCLIMATECHANGE

.....



7

P

LANTGENETICIMPROVEMENTANDAGROBIODIVERSITYMANAGEMENT

...9

C

HARACTERIZATIONOFENVIRONMENTALSERVICESANDINDICATORS



OFECOSYSTEMFUNCTIONING

...11

G

LOBALENVIRONMENTALASSESSMENTOFAGRICULTURALANDFOODPRODUCTS



OFTROPICALORIGIN

...15

C

LIMATECHANGEANDEMERGINGANIMALDISEASES

...17

C

LIMATECHANGEANDPLANTHEALTH

...19

A

DAPTINGIRRIGATEDCROPPINGSYSTEMS

...21

A

DAPTINGAGRICULTURE

Ͳ

ANIMALPRODUCTIONSYSTEMS

...23

A

NIMALPRODUCTIONANDCLIMATECHANGE

...27

B

IOMASSENERGY

...31

C

LIMATECHANGEANDFOODSECURITY

...35

C

LIMATECHANGEANDPAYMENTSFORENVIRONMENTALSERVICES

...37

C

LIMATECHANGEANDNATIONALANDLOCALCAPACITYBUILDING

...39

I

NTERNATIONALTALKSANDNATIONALCLIMATEPOLICIES

...41



Cirad–Climatechange–December2009–1

(3)

                                      Thisreportwascompiledbyaworkinggroupcomprising PatrickCaron(EnvironmentandSocietiesDepartment); MichaelDingkuhn(AgroͲecologicalAdaptationandVarietalInnovationResearchUnit); SylvieLewickiDhainaut(AgroͲecologicalAdaptationandVarietalInnovationResearchUnit); BrunoLocatelli(TropicalForestGoodsandEcosystemServicesResearchUnit); ChristineNouaille(CommunicationService); HubertOmont(OfficeoftheDirectorofResearchandStrategy). Translation:HelenBurford. ©CIRAD,2009,OfficeoftheDirectorofResearchandStrategy  Cirad–Climatechange–December2009–2

(4)

Climate change is a global process, of recent origin in its current form, and largely manmade. In the near future,thedynamicofwhichitisapartissettocauselongͲlastingchangesinglobalagriculture.Atthesame time, agriculture is recognized to be one of the main manmade causes of the process. The expected exhaustion of fossil fuel resources, population growth, and the rapid development of certain countries in which demand for energy is high (China, Brazil, India, etc) have triggered behaviour that has only made matters worse. The emergence of bioenergies as a major new agricultural outlet and the land grabbing phenomenon are both signs of and exacerbating factors in the shortages affecting food security and the environmentņandtheverystabilityofsocietiesandthemajorglobalequilibriaņandcompoundthethreats linked to climate change. This is why climate change calls for unprecedented efforts on the part of the internationalscientificcommunity.

Themainchallengeisensuringthefoodsecurityoftheworld’spoorestpeople.However,itisimportantnotto restrict the debate to the issues traditionally addressed by research for development, or to be content with merelyproposingmoreefficientproductiontechnologies,suchasthoseofthegreenrevolution,orthedoubly green one, in order to ensure ecological intensification. Technology transfers and economic support from “North”to“South”willbenotonlyinadequate,butsimplylargelyirrelevant.Ineffect,theexpectedchanges will be truly global, radical and structural, and will force a fundamental rethink of the paradigms that guide researchfordevelopment.CIRAD,withitsglobalnetworkofpartnersinmorethan90countries,istakingup thischallenge.

>CIRADandtheclimatechangeissue

CIRADisaFrenchresearchcentreworkingwithdevelopingcountriestotackleinternationalagriculturaland development issues. With those countries, it works to generate new knowledge, support agricultural development,andcontributetothedebateonthemainglobalissuesconcerningagriculture,foodandrural territories.Theissueslinkedtoclimatechangearethusattheheartofitsmandate.

Its research structure incorporates various disciplines and expertise, in support of its scientific strategy: biotechnologies, genetic improvement and ecophysiology of cultivated plants; agronomy and agroͲecology of production systems; ecology and functioning of forestry, agropastoral and animal production systems; plant and animal pathology; human and social sciences and the sciences of complexity. This experience enables it to address a rangeofissuesontherelevantlevel,frommoleculeto agriculturalpolicy.

Ciradinanutshell

- 800researchers,including200expatriatesand 200 fullͲtime post equivalents of missions in morethan90countries;

- researchcentresinMontpellier,Guadeloupe, FrenchGuiana,Martinique,Mayotte,Réunion andNewCaledonia;

- six priority lines of research: Ecological intensification; Biomass energy and societies intheSouth;Accessible,qualityfood;Animal health and emerging diseases; Public policy, poverty and inequality; and Agriculture, the environment,natureandsociety;

- 25researchplatformsinpartnershipoverseas; - anannualbudgetof203millioneuros. Asaresultofitshistoryanditsinternationalmandate,

CIRAD has developed a unique philosophy of partnerships with public and private organizations: a large proportion of its staffis assigned toits partners, creating a research infrastructure that is very close to the reality in the field, backed up by advanced laboratoriesinFrance.

CIRADisplayinganactiveroleinbuildingtheFrenchandEuropeanagriculturalresearcharea.Inparticular,it is a driving force in the emergence of networks between research and training establishments and universities. It has built scientific partnerships with international organizations specializing in agricultural researchandwithregionalandnationalorganizationswithin25researchplatformsinpartnershipoverseas, andhassevenscientificcentreswitharegionalvocationintheFrenchoverseasregions.Asaresult,itisa major player in the dialogue between Europe and developing countries. It is involved in largeͲscale multiͲ partnerprojectsrelatingtoclimatechangeissues,inparticularfundedbytheEuropeanUnion;withinthese

(5)

ThispartnerͲbasedinfrastructureandmultidisciplinaryexpertisearetheidealconditionsinwhichtodevelop andimplementinnovativeapproaches.CIRADisusingtheseassetstotacklethechallengeofclimatechange. CIRAD’s operations as regards climate change are presented in the sheets in this report. In particular, they cover:

- assessmentoftheimpactofclimatechangeonagriculture,theenvironmentandruralsocieties;

- genetic improvement of cultivated plants, to ensure better adaptation to environmental constraints, notablyintermsoftemperatureandwater,associatedwithclimatechange;operationsarebackedup by inͲdepth genetic and agroͲecological studies, and by inͲdepth analyses of in situ and ex situ agrobiodiversity;

- adaptationofproductionsystems,withtheaimofreducingthevulnerabilityofthesesystemstoclimate change;

- development and assessment of possibly radical technical and institutional innovations aimed at alleviating the impact of climate change on production system performance, and notably at better anticipatingtherisksandmanagingthemmoreeffectively;

- thenegativeandpositiveeffectsoffarmingpracticesonclimatechange;

- development and assessment of agroͲenvironmental innovations (such as agroͲecological techniques thatfostercarbonsequestration)andinstitutionalandpoliticalinstruments,soastoreducetheadverse effectsoffarmingpracticesonclimatechange;

- support of the implementation of such approaches so as to assess and structure the supply, maintenanceandfundingofenvironmentalservices,andassessmentoftheimpactofthatsupporton thestateoftheenvironmentandondevelopment,followinginthefootstepsoftheCleanDevelopment Mechanismsrelatingtocarbon.

This is a constantly changing field. Operations will be adapted to the new research for development paradigms that will emerge from the debate under way at CIRAD and its partners, taking account of and integrating the discussions at the main international conferences, particularly in Copenhagen, and also contributingtothem.

>Rethinkingtargetedresearchstrategiesinlinewithforecastedchanges

Rethinking targeted research strategies and objectives in line with the constraints (and opportunities!) linked to thenext major transition inglobal agricultureis no easy task. To begin with, it means a detailed diagnosis of the state of thinking, the received or generally accepted ideas sometimes prompted by a conservativeinstinct,andthefactorsdrivingcurrentorfuturetransitions,ananalysisthatcannotaffordto restrictitselftothedirecteffectsofclimatechangeoncrops,productionsystemsandmarkets.Thefollowing factorsneedtobetakenintoaccount:retroactionsintheformoftacticalandstrategicadjustmentstothe systems concerned, and interactions with the other factors driving agricultural transitions (new supply chainssuchasbiofuels,landgrabbing,etc),whichaffectmarketsandproductionconditions.Eachofthese factors is associated with uncertainty and a degree of variability, both of which are often difficult to quantify. However, each and every stakeholder will base their decisions on their perception of that uncertaintyandtheiranalysisoftheirenvironment. Infact,climatechangedoesnotonlyaffectaveragebiophysicalconditions(temperature,rainfall),butalso intraͲandinterͲannualvariabilityandtheoccurrenceandfrequencyofextremeevents.Theincreaseinthe risksassociatedwithanydecision,whetherbyaproducer,aninsurerorapolicyͲmaker,isanargumentin favourofimplementingneweconomicandbiophysicalresiliencemechanisms. Anintegrative,systemicapproachistheonlywayofdrawingupeffectivedevelopmentstrategiesinthelight of climate change and the factors associated with it. Targeted scientific research will have to be more relevant if its operations and outputs are to contribute to changes on the part of decisionͲmakers and producers.Itwillsystematicallyhavetotakeaccountoftheuncertaintyofandthemethodstobeusedfor forecasting, simulating and conducting foresight studies of complex systems. Strategies, objectives and methodswillhavetochangeifwearetoensurefoodsecurityandsustainableagroͲecosystems.

(6)

The targeted research prospects for CIRAD hinge on an analysis of the issues, projects and operations by other stakeholders in relation to this issue, and the investments already made (scientific projects, partnerships, human and material resources). Even though the distinction between mitigation and adaptationisrelevantasregardsthebiologicalandecologicalprocessesatplay,andisthususefulfroman analytical point of view, although it involves distinct scales, it is not always relevant in determining the futuretopicsinwhichtoinvest.Infact,itisnotalwaysthekeytosupportingorevendesigninginnovation processes.Conversely,itisimportanttotakeaccountofthecomplexityoftheproblemandmakeuseofa rangeofheterogeneousknowledgeandinformation. Thisdebateisbeingtackledfromfourangles,ondifferentscales(supplychains,regions,ecosystems,etc),and alsothroughtransverseapproaches: - understandingtheprocessesatplay,particularlythebiologicalandecologicalprocessesinvolvedinthe relation between agricultural change and climate change; this will also concern economic and social mechanisms;

- rethinking technical action, and its technical and organizational aspects, on different scales, by developing the capacity to assess the performance of and the effects generated by actions aimed at managingthelivingworld(criteria,indicators);

- supporting the organization of environmental supply chains by producing or testing standards, certification procedures, stakeholder coordination mechanisms, political frameworks, and mechanisms enablingpaymentforenvironmentalgoodsandservices,takingaccountoftherelationsbetweenfood supplychainsandenvironmentalsupplychains;

- coveringtheinteractionsgeneratedwithotherconcerns,andthewayinwhichtheclimateͲagriculture pairingcontributestothem,inparticularinthefieldsofhealthandenergy.

(7)
(8)

Adaptation of cultivated plants

to climate change



The ability of plants to adapt to climate change has long been exploited by farmers. However, in the light of current risks and increasinglyfrequentextremeevents,thoughtisbeinggiventonew approaches.         I      TerracedricefieldsinBali ©G.Trebuil/CIRAD         Contact MichaelDingkuhn: michael.dingkuhn@cirad.fr  

The origin of the adaptation may be genetic (used in breeding), agronomic (management), geographical (zoning) or temporal (cropping calendars, ideally backed up by climate forecasts decision support tools). CIRAD’s research aims to boost our knowledge of the relations between plants and their environment on a plant, crop and, by extrapolation, regional level. Modelling,backedupbyfieldandcontrolledexperiments,servestointegrate thevariousscalesandprocessesandexpressthemintermsofimpactinthe field.

Thefactorswiththegreatestimpactarewaterstress(primarilydrought,but alsoexcesswater)andtemperaturestress(heat,cold).Waterstressdisrupts phenology (leaf formation, flowering, etc), growth and filling. Temperature affects phenology (cycle length, etc) and potential yields (number of fertile flowersorears,fruitorgrainsize,quality,etc).Researchisfocusedonrice, sorghumandoilpalm.Adaptationtodroughtisalsobeingstudiedindetailin rubber,citrusfruits,etc.

Research on the effect of atmospheric CO2on plants implies the use of

specificexperimentalstructures,establishedincollaboration. Someworkisalsogearedtowardsclimatechangemitigation:theSweetFuel project(“FFF”[FoodͲFeedͲFuel]multiͲuseplants),forinstance,islookingat thepotentialofenergycrops(asalternativestofossilfuels)thataretolerant ofbothheatanddrought.

>Activitiesandresults

- Detailed analysis of adaptation characters: functioning, genetic control,interactionswiththeenvironment;

- Phenotypingofthosecharacterstocharacterizethegeneticdiversity andidentifygenesandallelesofinterest,andusefulmarkers;

- Modellingthosecharactersontherelevantscales(plant,plot,etc)to measuretheiradaptiveandagronomicvalue;

- Comparing virtual plants (improved ideotypes) with regionalͲscale climatechangescenariosthroughmodelling;

- Practical applications: developing new varieties and introducing agriculturalforecastingtools. - Products: - operationalknowledgeofthebiologicalbasesofadaptationtoclimate change; - toolsforbreeding(molecularandphysiologicalmarkers); - newvarietiesbetteradaptedtoclimatechange.    CIRAD–Climatechange–December2009–7

(9)

Sorghumvarieties ©M.Dingkuhn/CIRAD  Publications KouressyM.etal.(2008). AdaptationtodiversesemiͲ aridenvironmentsof sorghumgenotypeshaving differentplanttypeand sensitivitytophotoperiod.  Agr.ForestMeteorol148: 357Ͳ371  BaronC.etal.(2005).From GCMgridcellto agriculturalplot:Scale issuesaffectingmodelling ofclimateimpact.Phil TransRSocLandBiolsc. 360:2095Ͳ2108  SultanBetal.Agricultural impactsoflargeͲscale variabilityoftheWest Africanmonsoon.Agr. ForestMeteorol128:93Ͳ 110   Seealso http://publications.cirad.fr

>Researchprojects

- Adaptationofagricultureandmanmadeecosystemstoclimatechange (ADAGE,Frenchproject,ANR); - DevelopmentofFFF(FoodͲFeedͲFuel)sorghumssuitedtodryenvironͲ ments(SweetFuel,EUFP7project);

- Multidisciplinary analysis of the African monsoon (AMMA, EU FP6 project);

- Analysis and modelling of rice and sorghum adaptation to climate changefactors(RISOCAS,GermanGTZͲBMZproject);

- Phenotyping and genetic analysis of rice adaptation characters to waterandtemperaturestress(ORYTAGE,CIRADthematicaction); - Phenotypingandgeneticanalysisofriceunderwaterstress(GenͲPhen

GCP,CGIARGenerationChallengeProgram).

>Partners

- Adaptationofplantsthroughgeneticimprovement,CGIARinstitutes: International Rice Research Institute (IRRI); International Crops Research Institute for the SemiͲArid Tropics (ICRISAT); Africa Rice Centre (WARDA), Centre International d’Agriculture Tropicale (CIAT); Institutd’EconomieRurale(IER,Mali);

- FFF plants adapted to drought: Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária (EMBRAPA, Brazil); Corporacion Colombiana de InvestigaciónAgropecuaria(CORPOICA,Colombia);Germany;Italy;India; Mexico;SouthAfrica;Mali;

- Modellingofplantadaptation:UniversitiesofHohenheim(Germany), Wageningen (Netherlands), Queensland (Australia), Tuskuba (Japan); Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO, Australia); China Agricultural University (CAU) and China Academy of Science (CAS); WARDA (Senegal); National Centre of Applied Research and Rural Development (FOFIFA, Madagascar); IER (Mali),etc;palmoilproducersinSoutheastAsia;

- Modellingonaregionalscale:AGHRYMET,aComitépermanentinterͲ EtatsdeluttecontrelasécheressedansleSahel(CILSS)centre.



>Prospects

x Improved knowledge of the genetic control of adaptation characters will make it possible to developmorerobust,productivevarieties.

x Radical new technologies, such as adapting entirely new plants for cultivation, are to be developed.

x Bymodellingtheeffectsofclimatechangeoncropsmoreprecisely,itwillbepossibletopropose new plant improvement strategies. It is also important to adapt decision support systems to currentissues.

x ThenewCGIARChallengeProgram,ClimateChange,AgricultureandFoodSecurity(CCAFS)isone oftheemergingnetworksinwhichCIRADisinvolved.

(10)



Plant genetic improvement and

agrobiodiversity management

It is by making intelligent use of plant genetic diversity that human societies have succeeded in adapting to the changes and unforeseeable variations in climatic conditions. Integrative biology, backedupbythegenomicsandinformaticsrevolution,shouldmake itpossibletocontinuethatadaptation.             Researchintodrought resistancemarkersinrice ©E.Guiderdoni/CIRAD  Contact NourollahAhmadi: nourollah.ahmadi@cirad.fr      

Making intelligent use of plant genetic diversity has always relied on at least two components: the intrinsic adaptive value of each plant, variety and crop species,whichislinkedtotheirgeneticheritage,andtheadaptivevalueoftheir spatiotemporalorganization,whichrelatestoagrobiodiversitymanagement. Improved knowledge of the biological and manmade processes that govern these adaptive values will make it possible to create varieties and develop agrobiodiversity management methods tailored to the effects of climate change, whether the effects be predictable (water stress, higher temperatures,etc)orlessso(pathogencycles,soilsalinity,etc).Theaimisto forecast the negative impacts of change, notably water and temperature constraints,onplantphenology,biomassproductionandharvestindex,and on product organoleptic and technological quality. There is a second objective:torationalizehowplantvarietiesandspeciesareorganizedintime andspace,soastoboosttheresilienceofagrariansystemsinthefaceofthe effectsofclimatechange.

>Activitiesandresults

AtCIRAD,adaptationtowaterandtemperatureconstraintsisbeingstudied forawiderangeofannualplants(groundnut,cotton,rice,sorghum,etc)and perennial plants (citrus fruits, banana, coffee, rubber, eucalyptus, etc) on various scales, from molecule to plant stand through cell, tissue, organ and individual.Thestudiesinvolve:



- phenotyping and genotyping of genetic resources (panel of accessions representative of the diversity of the species, cross progenies, mutants, etc) suitable for the genetic breakdown of adaptiveresponses(almostalltheplantsquotedabove);

- analyses of differential gene expression, in the absence and the presenceoftheconstraintunderstudy(citrus,coffee,rice,etc); - analysesofthegeneticandevolutionarybasesofadaptationlinked

totheheterogeneityofselectionpressure(spatial,temporal)within manmadeecosystems(rice,sorghumetc);

- studiesoftheevolutionofgenomesandcomparativegenomics; - bioinformatics research, which, through mass representations of

informationanddata,facilitatemultiͲscaleintegration:genome,cell, plant,populationandenvironment.

Genetic resources that carry adaptive characters and genomic regions involved in the expression of those characters have been identified, along with the underlying metabolic pathways and the ways in which they are regulated.

The knowledge acquired will be reused to speed up the creation of new, betteradaptedvarietiesundertheprogrammesCIRADisconductingwithits Africa,AsianandSouthAmericanpartners.

(11)

Publications CourtoisB.etal.(2008). Thericerootsystem:from QTLstogenestoalleles.In SerrajR.(ed.),Drought frontiersinrice:crop improvementforincreased rainfedproduction. Singapore:IRRI,World ScientificBooks:171Ͳ188.  BezançonG.etal.(2009). Changesinthediversityof cultivatedmilletand sorghumvarietiesinNiger between1976and2003. GRCE:223Ͳ236.  KhongN.G.etal. Modulatingricestress tolerancebytranscription factors.InHardingS.(ed.), BiotechnologyandGenetic EngineeringReviews. Volume25.Nottingham, UK:NottinghamUniversity Press:381Ͳ404.  JoëtT.etal.(2010). Influenceofenvironmental factors,wetprocessingand theirinteractionsonthe biochemicalcompositionof greenArabicacoffeebeans. FoodChem,118:693Ͳ701.     Seealso http://publications.cirad.fr

>Researchprojects

- Phenotypicplasticityandresponsetowaterstressofperennialcrops (CIRADPTA);

- PanͲgenomic association study for rice adaptation to water and temperaturestress(CIRADPTA);

- Improving rice productivity in lowland ecosystems of Burkina Faso, Mali and Nigeria through Marker Assisted Recurrent Selection for droughttoleranceandyieldpotential;

- (GCPͲRiceChallengeInitiative);

- ImprovementofsorghumproductivityforsemiͲaridenvironmentsin Mali,bymarkerͲassistedrecurrentselection(GCPͲSyngenta);

- Enhancing sorghum grain yield and quality for the SudanoͲSahelian zoneofWestAfricausingtheBackcrossNestedAssociationMapping (BCNAM)approach (GCPͲSorghumChallengeInitiative);

- Sustainable management of agricultural biodiversity in the farming systemsofMali(FFEM);

- Dissectionofthegeneticbasesofdroughttolerancewithinthegenus

Arachis. Construction and characterization of a population of

chromosomesegmentsubstitutionlines(GCPͲCIRAD);

- Crop adaptation to climate change: genetic and evolutionary processes involved in the phonological response of Medicago

truncatula,milletandrice(FondationAgropolisͲCIRAD);

- Developing droughtͲtolerant cereals to support efficient water management in the Mediterranean area (EU Cedrome project 015468);

- Genetic transformation of cotton for resistance to drought and salinity(Eureka“CottonStress”project,CIRADͲEvogène);

- QTL approach regarding the genetic determinism of growth, latex productionandquality(Genmap).

>Partners

- Varietal improvement: CGIAR centres (CIAT, Africa Rice Centre, ICRISAT);regionalresearchcentres(CATIE,CARBAP);nationalcentres (FOFIFA, Madagascar; IER, Mali; ISRA, Senegal; CENARGEN, Brazil; IRAD,Cameroon;INRAB,Benin;IAN,Paraguay;RRIT,Thailand;IBRIEC, Indonesia) agricultural interprofessional organizations (ITBANͲ UGPBAN, Guadeloupe; Domaines Kabbage, Morocco); private firms (Evogène,Israel;Ecom,MexicoandNicaragua);

- Geneticsandgenomics:Frenchpartners,Europeanuniversities(IVIA, Spain; CSIC, Spain; CRA, Italy), international research centres (IRRI, CIAT, ICRISAT); other universities and research centres (NIAs, Japan; BRI,China;INAT,Tunisia).

>Prospects

The extent of the current changes and future requirements, which are difficult to predict, mean that geneticimprovementneedstobemoreflexible,preciseandrapid.

Understandingtheadaptationdynamicsofcultivatedplantsduringthedomesticationprocesswillmakeit possibletosupportfutureadaptationoperationsmoreeffectively.

Integrating knowledge obtained through functional analyses of adaptive characters on various scales, throughouttheplantlifecycle,willservetospeeduptheidentificationofcharactersandgenesofusein adaptationtoenvironmentalconstraints.

Intraspecific diversity will probably not be sufficient to satisfy all the new requirements generated by climatechange.Thoughtshouldbegiventousinggenetictransformation.

(12)

Characterization of

environ-mental services and indicators

of ecosystem functioning



Howcan theservicesrenderedbytreecropplantationsandtropical natural forests be boosted sustainably? These ecosystems play a majorroleincarbonsequestrationandthewatercycle.             CoffeeunderIngadensiflora (legume),CostaRica ©JͲM.Harmand/CIRAD           Contact JeanͲPierreBouillet: jeanͲpierre.bouillet@cirad.fr  JeanͲMichelHarmand: jeanͲmichel.harmand@cirad.fr   

Tropical planted ecosystems, forest and rubber plantations, agroforestry systems and tropical natural forests can play a major role in mitigating climatechange.Furthermore,naturalforestsandagroforestsoftenharboura broad diversity of species, and are an important source of income for local people. Climate change and land use pressure risk causing the rapid degradationandfragmentationoftheseecosystemsand,inturn,thelossof thefunctionsandservicestheyensure.

The main issue for research is understanding the biological, physical and socioeconomic laws that ensure the sustainability of these ecosystems and theirfunctionalities.Thereisasecondchallenge:characterizingthechanges intheirfunctioningasaresultoftheglobalchangesņieclimateandlanduse changesņthat have affected them, or are likely to in future, on various temporalandspatialscales.

Knowingmoreabouttheecologyoftheplantspeciesthatformthebackbone of natural forests, and thus their susceptibility to global change, is a prerequisitefordevelopingadaptationstrategiesforforestareas.Asregards tree crop ecosystems, progress is expected from complex plantings, associating species or genotypes with complementary properties so as to boostwateruseefficiencyandmakesuchagrosystemsmoreresilient.

>Researchprojects

- CIRAD is leading one of the few African sites (Congo, eucalyptus) at which flux measurements and greenhouse gas balances are being recorded: Quantification, understanding and prediction of carbon cycle, and other GHG gases in SubͲSaharan Africa (Carboafrica, EU FP6Ͳ2005STREPproject);

- Replacementofcokewithcharcoalforsteelmills(caseofeucalyptus plantationsinCongoandBrazil)Ͳwater,carbonandmineralbalances, fromalocallevel(plot)toaregionallevel(millionsofha):UltraLow CO2Steelmaking(ULCOS,EUintegratedproject);

- Evaluation and indicators of the environmental services rendered by coffee agroforestry systems: Sustainability of Coffee Agroforestry SystemsinCentralAmerica:coffeequalityandenvironmentalimpacts (CASCA, EU INCOͲDev/2001 project). Coffee agroͲforestry in Central America, East Africa and India (CAFNET: followͲup to CASCA, EU EuropeAid/ENV/2006project);

- Impactofpastclimatechangeonthestructureandfunctioningofthe denseforestsoftheCongoBasin,theworld’ssecondlargesttropical rainforest (CoForChange, EU ERAͲNET Biodiversa project, Agence nationaledelarecherche); - CarbonsequestrationcapacityoftheforestsoftheCongoBasin.The workisbackedupbyalongͲtermresearchinstallationintheCentral AfricanRepublicandthesupportprojectforthepreparationofforest managementplans(PARPAF);  CIRAD–Climatechange–December2009–11

(13)

          NaturalforestinIndonesia (Kalimantan)©CIRAD

Ͳ Bilateral projects: Soil and carbon balance of rubber ecosystems (HubertCurienpartnership,Thailand);water,Candmineralbalances in eucalyptus plantations (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Brazil and Eucflux – Brazilian firms); evaluation and optimization of cocoa agroforestry systems (Grand Sud Cameroun research platform in partnership);developmentofenvironmentalimpactindicatorsforoil palm(plantationfirms).

>Activitiesandresults

A unique network of sites is being used for studies of the key processes involvedincarbon,waterandnutrientfluxesintreeͲbasedcroppingsystems (Congo – eucalyptus/acacia plantations compared to savannah grasslands; Brazil – eucalyptus/acacia plantations; Vanuatu – coconut plantations; Thailand–rubberplantations;Indonesia–oilpalmplantations;CostaRica– coffeeagroforestrysystems;Cameroon–cocoaagroforestrysystems):

- studiesofthebioticandabioticfactorsinfluencingwaterandcarbon cycles and GHG emissions (sensitivity of primary production and soil respiration to climate change, role of plant species, soil organisms, management and logging practices in stabilizing or degrading soil organicmatter,etc);

- study of the biotic and abiotic factors influencing nutrient cycling to ensure more efficient use of soil resources (role of plant species, mixed cropping systems and management in nutrient bioavailability andinchangesinmineralbalances,etc);

- optimization of cropping practices in tree crop ecosystems (eg fertilizationtobalancemineraloutputs);

- modelling of soilͲplant system functioning under the effect of global changeandmanagementpracticesandspatializationofC,waterand nutrientbalances.

Fornaturalforests,researchisaimedat:

- identifying the relations between plant communities, environmental factorsandpastdisruptions;

- explainingandpredictingthepossiblechangesinAfricantropicalforests; - studyingtherelationsbetweenenvironmentalfactors,disruptionsand

carbonsequestrationbyforests;

- developing decision support tools so as to mitigate the effects of globalchange. CIRAD’stropicalsitesarearare,highlysoughtͲafterresourceforcontinental andglobalanalysesandmodellingofGHGemissions,astheymakeitpossible toextendtheanalysisrangetocovertheworld’smostextremebiomes. Examplesofresults - Thewaterandnutritionalefficiencyofeucalyptusplantationscanbe increased:topreserveresources,itisbettertoplantonsmallerareas with sufficient fertilization than to maintain extensive plantations on largerareas.

- InBrazil,evapotranspirationineucalyptusplantationsaftertwoyears is equal to rainfall: as in natural forests, the quantity of water transferred to the atmosphere is significant, but water table replenishment has decreased in relation to the original vegetation (degradedpasture);thereforenonͲwoodedareasbetweenplantations needtobemaintainedinordertoreducethisadverseeffect.

- In the Sahel, African acacia species boost carbon and nitrogen sequestrationinthesoilandnitrogenbioavailability.

(14)

CIRAD–Climatechange–December2009–13 Publications  FisherJ.B.etal.(2009).The landͲatmospherewaterflux inthetropics.Global ChangeBiology,15: 26942714. Hergoualc'hK.etal.(2009). TheutilityofprocessͲbased modelsforsimulatingN2O emissionsfromsoils:acase studybasedonCostaRican coffeeplantations.Soil BiologyandBiochemistry, 41:2343–2355. LaclauJ.P.etal.(2009). Biogeochemicalcyclesof nutrientsintropical Eucalyptusplantations. Mainfeaturesshownby intensivemonitoringin CongoandBrazil.Forest EcologyandManagement, Sp."Productivityoftropical plantations”. MarsdenC.etal.(2008). Twoindependent estimationsofstandͲlevel rootrespirationonclonal EucalyptusstandsinCongo: Upscalingofdirect measurementsonroots versusthetrenchedͲplot technique.New Phytologist,177:676Ͳ687.  Seealso http://publications.cirad.fr

- Coffee agroforestry systems, which serve to buffer temperature variations at coffee plant level and to maintain soil fertility, are theoreticallymoreresilientthanpureplantations.

- Moreproductivecoffeevarietiessuitedtohighertemperatures,with goodcupquality,havebeenbred.

>Partners

- European research organizations: Max Planck Institute (Germany); University of Tuscia (Italy); Edinburgh Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, University of Leeds and University of Wales (United Kingdom); Ecole polytechnique fédérale, Zurich (ETH, Switzerland); University of Wageningen (Netherlands), Swedish Faculty of AgriculturalSciences,etc;

- Outside Europe: North Carolina State University, United States DepartmentofAgriculture;

- In developing countries: national research centres (CRDPIͲCongo, IRETͲ Gabon, RRITͲThailand, EMBRAPAͲBrazil, IRADͲCameroon), regional researchcentres(CATIE,CostaͲRica),internationalresearchcentre(TSBFͲ CIATͲKenya, ICRAFͲKenya), universities (São PauloͲBrazil, KasetsartͲ Thailand,BangaloreͲIndia,GadjahMadaͲIndonesia).Someareinvolvedin CIRAD research platforms in partnership (Hevea Research Platform in Partnership, Thailand; Agroforestry Systems with Perennial Crops, Costa Rica; Centre de recherche sur la durabilité et la productivité des plantationsindustrielles,Congo;PCPGrandͲSudCameroun);

- Development partners: Ministries of Water and Forests and forestry concession holders (Central African Republic and Congo); Eucalyptus fibre Congo; PTSM/IPEFͲBrazil, ORRAFͲThailand; PromecafeͲCentral America; CRFͲEast Africa, CBIͲIndia; plantation firms: Indonesia, Ivory Coast,Ghana,Nigeria,Cameroon,Brazil,EcuadorandColombia,etc; - TheCoForChangeprojecthas14partners:sevenEuropean(Universitiesof

Aberdeen and Oxford, Faculté des sciences universitaires de Gembloux, DGͲJRC ISPRA, IRD, CNRS, FRM), six African (Universities of Bangui, Yaounde I, Marien Ngouabi, DG Recherche Congo, CRDPI, Congo, IRET Gabon),andoneinternational(CIFOR).

- Nationalandinternationalnetworks:OreFͲOREͲT,exͲCIFORnetwork “Site management and productivity of tropical plantation forests”, Fluxnet,AsiaFlux,CarboAfrica,IRRDB,NGARA.  

>Prospects

- Evaluationofenvironmentalservices(hydrologicalandcarbonsequestration)onacatchmentarea level; - Developmentofanecologicalapproachofsoilfunctioningfocusingontheroleofsoilorganismsand plantsinthemainbiogeochemicalcycles; - Optimizationofmanagementpracticesintreecropecosystems,combiningproductivity,reductionof environmentalimpacts,andsocialacceptability; - Couplingofcarbon,waterandnutrientcyclinginfunctionalmodelsoftreecropecosystemsatplot scaleandupscalingtobroaderscales; - ExtensionofworkonforeststothenaturalforestsofWestAfrica:buildingbridgeswithprojectsin Amazonia (in particular with UMR ECOFOG, IRD and INRA on the history of the forests of French Guiana);

- Strengthening CIRAD’s involvement in continental and global networks (CarboAfrica, Fluxnet, etc) andmetaͲanalyses(comparisonofsitesonaregional,majorbiomeandglobalscale)concerningCO2 andH20flux.

(15)

CIRAD–Climatechange–December2009–14 

(16)

Global environmental

assessment of agricultural and

food products of tropical origin



Ofallthehumanactivitiesthataffecttheenvironmentņair,soiland waterņ,foodproductionisthemostimportant.Thatproductionwill have to grow by 57 to 100% between now and 2050. CIRAD has decided to invest massively in studying these impacts, using an internationalprocedure:lifecycleanalysis.          Mango©CIRAD            Contact ClaudineBassetͲMens: claudine.bassetͲmens@cirad.fr 

Understanding–and if possible quantifying–the effects of our food productionandconsumptionhabitsontheenvironment,intermsnotonly of the greenhouse effect but also of more local effects (ecotoxicity, eutrophication, water use, etc) is now vital if we are to change our food systems. France recently embarked upon an environmental labelling programme for all the products sold in supermarkets (Grenelle de l’environnement). Within this framework, environmental assessments of foods, whether produced in France or imported (tea, coffee, cocoa, fresh andtinnedfruitsandvegetables,cotton,meat,etc)havetobeconducted asconsistentlyaspossible.

The Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) method is now an international reference, coveredbyanISOstandard(14044,2006),whichservestomakeanoverall assessment of the functions necessary to man. This powerful conceptual frameworkencompassesthenotionsoffunction(andfunctionalunity),the lifecycleofafunction,andmulticriteriaanalysis,andmakesitpossibleto showpossiblepollutiontransfersbetweentwostagesinthelifecycleofa product, or between two environmental impacts (eg greenhouse effect – eutrophication).However,usingitforagriculturalandfoodsystems,which are particularly complex and variable, poses various scientific challenges that research has been tackling for over a decade now. Its application to tropicalsituationsismorerecentandevenmorecomplex,duetothelack of available data on these systems (shortage of publications on LCA of tropicalproducts),andalsotothelackoffundamentalknowledgeoftheir interactionswiththeenvironment.

CIRADhasdecidedtoinvestmassivelyinthisnewchallenge,inanattemptto answerthescientificquestionsposedbyapplyingLCAtotropicalagricultural andfoodproductsystems:



-

In view of the lack of data and the extreme variability of the systems concerned,howcanwedefine,designanddescribetypicalagricultural andfoodsystemsthatarerepresentativeonagivenscale?



- Howcanweconductreliableenvironmentalinventories?

- How can we adapt environmental impact characterization models to tropicalsituations?

- Whatindicatorsarethereforthepredominantimpactcategoriesthat are nevertheless not usually taken into account, such as biodiversity, wateruse,soilqualityandlandscapes?

- HowcanwetakeaccountofandquantifytheuncertaintylinkedtoLCA

results? 

(17)

Publications  BassetͲMensC.etal.,2009. UncertaintyofglobalwarͲ mingpotentialformilk productiononaNewZeaͲ landfarmandimplications fordecisionmaking.TheinͲ ternationaljournaloflife cycleassessment,14(7): 630Ͳ638. BassetͲMensC.etal.,2007. Methodsanddataforthe environmentalinventoryof contrastingpigproduction systems.Journalofcleaner production,15(15):1395Ͳ 1405.  Seealso http://publications.cirad.fr

>Activitiesandresults

CIRAD’s operations as regards global environmental assessment of foods, withthedevelopmentoflifecycleanalysismodels,havebegunwiththemain standardproducts(tomato,citrus,banana,palmoil,rice,coffee,cocoa,etc), identifyingthemethodologicalissuesspecifictothefieldsofapplication,and the establishment of projects in partnership. It is important to note the multidisciplinaryaspectoftheprojectscurrentlybeingoralreadyestablished. Moreover, cohesion and internal supervision are ensured by building transverse projects; a project is being established to acquire LCA data for eachmajorsupplychainanddevelopanLCAdatabasefortropicalproductsat CIRAD.

>Researchprojects

- Promotion of supply chains that fit in with sustainable development, usingadecisionsupporttoolthatcombinesthreekeyelementsofthe fruit and vegetable market: environmental sustainability, nutritional quality,socioeconomicaspects(FLONUDEP,ANRproject);

- African Food Tradition Revisited by Research (AFTER, EU FP7 project, 2009Ͳ2013);

- Environmental assessment by LCA of some of the major tropical products imported intoandconsumed inFrance(fruits, coffee, cocoa, Thai rice, palm oil) (AgriͲBALYSE project: within the framework of the environmental labelling project included in the Grenelle de l’environnementADEMEfunding).

>Partners

- Europe: Agroscope laboratory, Zürich (Switzerland), Swedish Institute for Food and Biotechnology (SIK), Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentaries(IRTA,Spain);

- Asia:AsianInstituteofTechnology(AIT),UniversityofKasetsart(ThaiͲ land);

- Latin America: partners in the EcoͲALCUEͲFOOD project: Instituto NaͲ cional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria (INTA, Argentina), Centro Agronomico Tropical de Investigaciones y Ensenanza (CATIE, Costa Rica); - ScientificCommitteeofaninternationalconference:LifeCycleAssessͲ mentintheAgriͲfoodSector,22Ͳ24September2010,Bari,Italy.  

>Prospects

Lifecycleanalysisisapowerfultoolforcomparingdifferenttypesofagriculturalpracticesandforthe ecoͲdesignorapriorianalysisofprospective,innovativesystems. Aharmonizedlifecycleanalysisdatabasefortropicalproductsiscurrentlybeingcompiled. Theeffectsoftoxicityincrops,notablyonhorticulturalproducts,aretobegivengreaterconsideration. Cirad–Climatechange–December2009–16

(18)



Climate change and emerging

animal diseases

Diseases transmitted by vectors (insects, ticks, molluscs, rodents, bats, etc) are highly susceptible to environmental change, as are those for which wildlife acts as a reservoir (avian influenza, bovine tuberculosis, African swine fever, etc). CIRAD’s role is to understand the epidemiological dynamics at play so as to offer ways of preventing,monitoringandcontrollingsuchdiseases.          Commercialcattleherdina temporarypondinFerlo,aseat ofRiftValleyfever transmission ©R.Lancelot/CIRAD      Contact DominiqueMartinez: dominique.martinez@cirad.fr FrançoisRoger: francois.roger@cirad.fr       Publications BouyerJ.etal.(2009). Populationsizesand dispersalpatternoftsetse flies:rollingontheriver? MolEcol,18:2787Ͳ2797; 

Climate change has a direct effect on the habitat and movements of man, animals,pathogensandtheirpossiblevectors.Atthesametime,today’sworld ismarkedbyunprecedentedpopulationgrowthandanimalproduction,andalso byhealthcriseslinkedtoemergingdiseases.Socialandenvironmentalchange andincreasedtravelandtrademeanamorerapidspreadofsuchdiseases,and areexacerbatingtheirsanitaryandeconomicimpact.Everycountryworldwide is concerned, but developing countries, with their limited health systems and economicresources,areparticularlyvulnerable.

In this context, CIRAD’s role is to understand the biological and ecological processes at play, and determine the corresponding climatic, environmental, economic and social factors. Understanding the interactions between hosts, vectors and pathogens, combined with analyses of epidemiological dynamics, servestoprovidesolutionsforpreventing,monitoringandcontrollingemerging diseases. Modelling those processes makes it possible to test environmental changescenariosandassessonacomputertheeffectofcontrolmeasures.The aimsaretoprovidepartnerswithbettercontrolandsanitarydecisionsupport tools and methods: vaccines, diagnostic tests, surveillance methods, health networksandongoingobservatoriesofemergencerisks.

Capacity building (teaching, training) has a fundamental role to play, as do technologytransfer(diagnostickits,vaccines,models,etc)andinternational expertise(referencelaboratoriesfordiagnosisandepidemiologyofemerging diseases,mobilisationofexpertiseintheeventofacrisis).

>Researchprojects

- Scientificandtechnicalsupportinanimalhealthagreementwiththe Directiongénéraledel’alimentation,2008Ͳ2011;

- Montpellier “vector and emerging disease” network (StateͲRegion projectcontract,2007Ͳ2013);

- EmergingvectorͲbornediseasesinachangingEuropeanenvironment (EDEN:24countriesinEurope,NorthAfricaandsubͲSaharanAfrica); - BiologyandcontrolofvectorͲborneinfectionsinEurope(EDENext:46

participantsinEurope,NorthAfricaandsubͲSaharanAfrica);

- Climate change and impact research: the Mediterranean environment (CIRCE):casestudyofbluetongueandAfricanhorsesickness;

- Epizooticdiseasediagnosisandcontrol(EPIZONE),Europeannetwork ofexcellenceonanimaldiseases;

- SurveillancenetworkofbluetongueandAfricanhorsesickness,inthe Mediterranean basin and Europe (MEDREONET, FP6), on diseases transmittedbyCulicoides;21countriesinEuropeandNorthAfrica; - Project on the ecology and epidemiology of avian influenza and

Newcastledisease(GRIPAVI,FrenchMinistryofForeignandEuropean Affairs),ninepartnersforsixobservatoriesinsubͲSaharanAfricaand SoutheastAsia;

- Ecology of influenza viruses and surveillance: RIVERS and ECOFLU projects,SoutheastAsia;

(19)

TheSahelianpartofAfricais particularlysusceptibleand exposedtoclimatechange ©R.Lancelot/CIRAD Publications DesvauxS.etal.(2009). Highlypathogenicavian influenzavirus(H5N1) outbreakincaptivewild birdsandcats,Cambodia. EmergInfectDis,15(3): 475Ͳ478. LancelotR.etal.(2009). Changements environnementauxet émergencesdemaladiesà transmissionvectorielleen Europe:commentaméliorer lasurveillanceetlagestion desrisques?BullAcadVet Fr,162:81Ͳ88. MinetC.etal.(2009). InfectionsàMorbillivirus chezlesruminants:lapeste bovineenvoied’éradication etlapestedespetits ruminantsenextensionvers lenord.Virologie,13(2): 103Ͳ113. Seealso http://publications.cirad.fr - EcologyofrodentͲbornediseasesinSoutheastAsia(CEROPATH,ANR project2008Ͳ2010); - EpidemiologyofRiftValleyFever(RIFTͲOI)inIndianOcean.

>Activitiesandresults

- EstablishmentandcoordinationofthenationalCulicoidessurveillance network,whichservestodeterminetheperiodsofvectorialinactivity for bluetongue and thus to authorize commercial live animal movements;

- Establishment and contribution to coordinating regional vector and emerging disease surveillance networks and observatories (Southern African, Caribbean, Indian Ocean, EuroͲMediterranean, Southeast Asiananimalhealthnetwork,etc);

- Establishmentandcoordinationofanetworkofobservatoriesofthe ecology and epidemiology of birdͲborne diseases (influenza, West Nile)insubͲSaharanAfricaandSoutheastAsia;

- Epidemiology and modelling, surveillance and risk analysis of Rift ValleyFever,WestNilevirusandanimaltrypanosomiases;

- Ecological and epidemiological studies on WildlifeͲLivestockͲHuman interfacesinSouthernAfricancountries;

- EcologyofrodentandbatͲbornediseasesinAsiaandAfrica(Gabon).

>Partners

- International: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), World HealthOrganization(WHO),nongovernmentalorganizations,etc; - Europe:nationalandinternationalinstitutionsin20countries;

- Africa:NorthAfrica(Tunisia,Algeria,Morocco)–EuroͲMediterranean animal health network; subͲSaharan Africa – Centre International de rechercheͲdéveloppementsurl'élevageenzonesubhumide(CIRDES), Ecole inter Etats des sciences et médécine vétérinaires de Dakar (EISMV, Senegal), Centre international de recherches médicales de Franceville (CIRMF, Gabon), research centres in Senegal, Mali, Ethiopia,Cameroon;southernAfrica–Zimbabwe,SouthAfrica;Indian Ocean–CentredeRechercheetdeVeillesurlesmaladiesémergentes dansl'OcéanIndien(CRVOI),Madagascar,ComorosandMayotte; - Asia:InstitutPasteurinCambodia,UniversityofKasetsart(Thailand);

GREASE, joint skills network on management of emerging risks in SoutheastAsia;

- Caribbean: CaribVet network and INRAͲCIRAD animal health and emergingdiseaseobservatory,basedinGuadeloupe. 

>Prospects

Buildingskills,methodsandgenerictoolstocopewithemergingandreͲemergingdiseases; StrengtheningsurveillanceandhealthnetworksinEuropeandtheSouth:EuroͲMediterraneananimal healthnetwork,EuropeanCentreforDiseasePreventionandControl(ECDC)VBorNetnetwork,regional animalhealthcentres(Africa,MiddleEast,SoutheastAsia)andinternationalnetworks(OIEͲFAOnetworkof expertiseonanimalinfluenza,OIEͲFAOͲWHOGlobalEarlyWarningandResponseSystem,etc); ConsolidatingallianceswiththemainEuropeanteams;

Strengthening national platforms, networks and alliances, since France is particularly well placed in this field,withtheMontpellier“vectorsandemergingdiseases”network;

Formalizing and coordinating a network of transdisciplinary observatories of climate change and environmentalservicesencompassing,amongotherthings,emerginganimalandzoonoticdiseases.

(20)



Climate change and plant

health

On a global level, the areas occupied by pests and diseases are expected to spread, or even to shift, leading to the colonization of new regions, or local modifications. CIRAD’s geographical structure enables it to monitor the spread of pests on a global level and developwaysofmanagingtheriskstheyrepresent.         Bactrocerainvadensfruitfly onmango ©JͲF.Vayssières/CIRAD        Contact JeanͲLouisSarah: jeanͲlouis.sarah@cirad.fr        Thelocalemergenceofnewcroppestsanddiseasescanhaverepercussions for human health, for instance due to increased pesticide use, out of ignorance. Furthermore, in view of the fragility of developing countries, we canexpecttherisksoffoodshortagestobecomemoreacuteintheeventof thearrivalofparticularlyaggressivepests.

CIRAD’s bases throughout the tropics make it a prime player in studying and developing tools and methods for diagnoses, modelling epidemics, integrated pestmanagement,etc,inarangeofsituations.Theaimistobuildsubstantial, appropriate capacity to anticipate (warningͲprevention), so as to respond rapidlytoproblemsassoonastheyemerge.Inthisrespect,theapproachesand partnerships favoured by CIRAD enable it to implement predictive and preventiveoperations.

>Mainactivitiesandresults

Researchcentresonunderstandinghowpestsanddiseasesadapttoclimate change and chemicalͲtype selective constraints within agrosystems. The approachesadoptedandthepartnershipsbuiltfavourpredictiveoperations (notablymodelling).

The main models of fungal pests on which CIRAD is working concern the dynamicsofMycospharellafijiensisonbananaandMagnaportaeoryzaeonrice. ThemodelsconcerningvectorinsectsarelookingatthespreadacrossAfricaand the Mediterranean of fruit flies of the genus Bactrocera, and the spread and diversityofBemisiatabacci,thetomatoyellowleafcurlvirus(TYLCV)vector. Thesestudiescallforthedevelopmentofdiagnostictoolsandapproachesfor modellingepidemicsandpopulationdynamics(evolutionarypotential),soas todevelopintegratedpestmanagementstrategiesforvarioussituations.This researchisenablingCIRADtobuildusefulwarningandpreventionskillsthat should allow it to find relevant, sustainable responses to pest problems as soonastheyemerge.

>Researchprojectsandpartnerships

- Diversifying crop protection (Endure, EU FP6 network of excellence, 2007Ͳ2010): Associated partners in the South: Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Science (ZAAS, China), Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria (INTA, Argentina), Institut national de la recherche agronomique(INRA,Morocco),CentreRégionalBananiersetPlantains (CRBP, Cameroon), Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária (EMBRAPA,Brazil);

- Analyses of phytosanitary risks: Enhancements of pest risk analysis techniques (PRATIQUE, EU SCP consortium). Twelve European countries+CRCNPB(Australia)andBioprotection(NewZealand); - Understanding the emergence of plant fungal diseases: towards an

estimateoftheriskslinkedtoglobalchange(Emerfundis,ANRproject, 2008Ͳ2010);

(21)

Publications Duyck,P.ͲF.,P.David,etal. (2006).Climaticniche partitioningfollowing successiveinvasionsby fruitfliesinlaRéunion.J AnimEcol,75:518Ͳ526; Reynaud,B.,H.Delatte,etal. (2009).Effectsof temperatureincreaseonthe epidemiologyofthreemajor vectorͲborneviruses.EurJ PlantPathol,123:269Ͳ280. Seealso http://publications.cirad.fr - Studiesofinferentialandsoftwaremethodsforevolution(EMILE,ANR project,2009Ͳ2012); - Phytosanitarycriseslinkedtobioinvasions:theemblematiccaseofthe BemisiavirusriskinshelteredcroppingsystemsintheMediterranean (Bemisiarisk,ANRproject,2007Ͳ2009);

- Better understanding the biological and molecular factors and mechanisms involved in the emergence of plant bacteria and viruses (on three models: Ralstonia, Xanthomonas and TYLCV) (Réunion regionalBioriskproject,ERDF,2008Ͳ2010);

- Diversity and evolutionary history of geminivirus populations in the islands of the southwestern Indian Ocean: a study model for the emergence of pathogens transmitted by vectors (EmerGe, CRVOI regionalfunding,2008Ͳ2011).



>Prospects

The Mediterranean is a particularly strategic zone for both Europe and France. An integrated Mediterranean protection network is currently being built with the International Centre for Agricultural ResearchintheDryAreas(ICARDA)andnationalresearchorganizationsinSyria,Lebanon,Tunisia,Algeria andMorocco;thisinitialhubistobeextendedtootherMediterraneanpartners(LaunchmeetinginAleppo, 1September2009).

Modelling and sanitary risks in the Mediterranean (animal health and plant health) (Emergences, CIRAD project,2010Ͳ2012)arebeingaddressedthroughapartnershipwithINRA,AFSSAandtheInstitutPasteur (France)andresearchorganizationsintheMediterranean. CIRADisinvolvedincontinuingtheactivitiesoftheENDUREnetworkbeyond2010:itishelpingtosetup regionalnetworks(includingtheMediterranean,butalsoChina,SouthAmerica,subͲSaharanAfrica,etc). Ithaslaunchedathinktankwithaviewtounderstandingtheeffectsofpathogenbiodiversityoncropsin thelightofclimatechange.Ithassubmittedaprojectaimedatstudyingtheimpactofagricultureonplant virus biodiversity in a wild ecosystem, Cape fynbos (South Africa), and understanding how the existing biodiversityshouldbetakenintoaccountindiseaseemergenceinneighbouringagrosystems(FYNBOS,FRB 2009callforproposals).ItspartnersaretheUniversityofSouthAfrica,theCNRS,theCEAandtheNoble Foundation(USA),thecurrentleadersinthisfield.



(22)

Adapting irrigated cropping

systems

Climate change evolution scenarios are much less precise when it comestowaterthantheyarefortemperatures.Generallyspeaking, however, the irrigated agriculture sector will have to adapt to conditionsinwhichwaterisincreasinglyscarce,withmorefrequent uncertainties (droughts, floods). CIRAD involves stakeholders in its researchinordertoexploreacceptablesolutions.  IrrigationcanalinNorthAfrica ©CIRAD          Contact JeanͲYvesJamin: jeanͲyves.jamin@cirad.fr       

Crop evapotranspiration and water requirements increase with temperature. Furthermore, extreme events, such as droughts and floods, are becoming increasingly frequent. However, there is still considerable uncertainty about futurerainfalllevelsinmanyregions,includingthemostfragileandvulnerable, such as the Sahel. Farmers are above all marked by extreme events (drought, flooding),whichvaryconsiderablyfromoneregionstoanother.

Inthiscontext,irrigationisonewayofmakingagriculturelessvulnerableto climatichazardsbysecuringaccesstowater.ThiswasshowninNorthAfrica, whererainfalllevelshavefallensteadilyoverthepasttwentyyears,whilein WestAfrica,thegreatdroughtsofthe1970sͲ80spromptedthedevelopment of smallͲscale irrigation. However, irrigation also implies intensification of agriculture, which means that extreme events may in some case be more harmfulthaninnonͲirrigatedareas.

Other changes are also under way, and are much more rapid than climate change; urbanization, industrialization, development of tourism or hydroelectricity all significantly reduce the amount of water available for agriculture.Thesesectorsoftentakepriorityinmostcountries,anditisthus agriculture that is expected to reduce its water requirements, while maintainingorevenincreasingthefoodproduction.

These modifications are prompting the use of “new” water resources: alongside surface water (rivers and reservoirs), it is underground water (natural or refilled water tables) and alternative water resources (reuse of wastewater,desalination)thatarenowbeingcalledupon.

Lastly, irrigated agriculture also plays a role in climate change, particularly irrigatedricepaddies,duetomethaneemissions.

CIRADisinvolvingstakeholdersinthesearchforsolutionsthatrespondboth to global and national issues (producing more with less water) and local objectives(improvedincome,employment,etc).

>Researchprojects

International: CIRAD is involved in the CGIAR Challenge Program on Water andFood,throughtwoprojects:

- Toolsforintegratedwaterresourcesmanagement:implementationin Limpopo,MekongandNigerbasins(Echel’Eau,CPWF,FrenchMinistry ofForeignAffairsprioritysolidarityfund[FSPMAE]);

- Paymentforenvironmentalservicesaimedatencouragingfarmersto adopt more environmentally friendly practices in the Mekong region (PESMekong)(CPWF).

IntheMediterranean:

- Water demand management knowledgebase for the Mediterranean (WADEMED,EUproject,2003Ͳ2006);

 

(23)

 ©CIRAD,M.Kuper       Publications Supplement:IrrigationMaͲ nagementinNorthAfrica. Irrigationanddrainage,Vol 58IssueS3,PagesS231 ͲS369(July2009); BurteJ.etal.(2009). Simulationsof multipurposewater availabilityinasemiͲarid catchmentareaunder differentmanagement strategies.Agricultural WaterManagement,96: 1181Ͳ1190; HammeckerC.etal.(2009). Simulatingtheevolutionof soilsolutionsinirrigated ricesoilsintheSahel. Geoderma,150:129Ͳ140. Seealso http://publications.cirad.fr 

- Mitigation of water stress problems through new approaches to integrating management, technical, economic and institutional instruments(Aquastress;EUproject,2004 2008);

- WatereconomyinirrigationsystemsinNorthAfrica(SIRMA;FSPMAE bilateralproject,2004Ͳ2009);

- Participatorydesignofadaptivegroundwatermanagementstrategies and instruments in Mediterranean coastal water scarce areas as a responsetoclimatechange(Aquimed;ERAͲNETproject).

InIndonesia:

Ͳ Organization of a platform for industrialistͲfarmer consultations on watermanagement(DanoneIndonesia).

Participationinother,moregeneralprojects:

- ADAGE (Foresight workshop on the adaptation of agriculture and manmadeecosystemstoclimatechange);

- AMMA(multidisciplinaryanalysisoftheAfricanmonsoon).

>Mainactivitiesandresults

Waterresourcegovernance:mechanismsforresourcesharingandnegotiation between different sectors of activity (agriculture, industry, drinking water, tourism,mining)competingforwater(egSouthAfrica,Indonesia).

Irrigation techniques that save water (for instance conversion to drip irrigationinNorthAfrica).

Support of technical change by facilitating the creation and training of agricultural cooperatives and irrigation associations; dissemination of innovations(egNorthAfrica,Mali,Réunion).

Useofgroundwaterresources(egNorthAfrica,Brazil).

Results:significantimprovementsinirrigationperformancearepossible,butthey meanconsidering the whole of the irrigationsystem, andnot just the technical aspects of water consumption. It is crucial to involve farmers and other stakeholdersintheseprocessesinordertoensurethatinnovationsareadopted anddisseminated.Groundwaterresourcegovernancerequiresspecifictools,since thoseresourcesareinvisibleandfarmersknowlittleabouthowtheyfunction.

>Partners

International centres (IWMI, IRRI, ADRAO) and international educational establishments(2iE,IWEGA,AIT,IAVHassanII).ChallengeProgramonWater andFood(CPWF)network.

National centres and universities in the South (Brazil, South Africa, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Mali, Mozambique, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Vietnam, Thailand,Indonesia).UniversitiesintheNorth(Wageningen,Leuven).

>Prospects

Oneofthemainchallengesintheearlyyearsofthiscenturyisimprovingwaterresourceavailabilityanduse and fostering the development of additional resources (UNͲWater, 2009). CIRAD’s work is devoted to achievingtheseaimsinMediterraneanandtropicalcountries,notablybyworkingon: Ͳanalysingthechangesinwaterresourcesanduseinthelightofglobalchange; Ͳstakeholderbehaviourandvulnerabilityinthefaceofrisks; ͲmultiͲcriteriaandmultiͲscaleanalysesofirrigatedsystemperformance; Ͳanalysesofphysicalprocesseswithaviewtodesigningirrigationequipmentthatsaveswater; Ͳoperationalmanagementofirrigationschemes; Ͳsupportoftechnicalandinstitutionalinnovationsinirrigatedareas; Ͳdebateonpublicaction,regulationandgovernanceoneverylevel. Cirad–Climatechange–December2009–22

(24)

Adapting agriculture-animal

production systems

Pressure on the resources available to agropastoral and agroͲ silvopastoralecosystemsincreasestheirvulnerability.Furthermore, such ecosystems contribute to climate change, due to their high greenhousegasemissions.Workisunderwaytofindconservatory methodssoastoreducelosses  Draughtanimalsinacotton planting.©CIRAD,M.Berger          Contact FlorentMaraux: florent.maraux@cirad.fr      Publications Sissoko(2009).Analysedes fluxd'eaudanslessystèmes deculturesouscouverture végétaleenzoneSoudano sahélienne:casducoton seméaprèsuneculturede sorgho/Brachiariaausuddu Mali.Montpellier.PhD thesis:Soilsciences. Agronomy.

A large proportion of rural inhabitants in poor countriesņ80% in Africaņdepend on rainfed agriculture. In such systems, carbon losses as a result of deforestation, erosion and leaching, along with fragility and soil fertility,areamajorproblem.Organicmatterdecompositiongenerateslarge quantitiesofgreenhousegases(CO2,methane,nitrogenprotoxide).

Agricultural research is helping to identify biophysical and socioeconomic indicatorsofthevulnerabilityofsuchecosystemsandtheruralsocietiesthat liveinthem.Croppingandanimalproductionsystemsvaryaccordingtotheir performance,resilienceandeffectsonthewater,carbonandgreenhousegas balance. It is therefore important to understand how crop and animal farmersperceiveclimatevariabilityandchange,makedecisions,andmanage natural resources, on an individual farm level (soil fertility management, tillage, animal feeding, fertilization) and a community level (grassland and communalforestmanagement,socialnetworks).

Tomitigatetheeffectsofsuchsystems,carbonsequestrationandstorageinthe soil is a priority. Some techniques have already proved their worth in specific situations(conservationagriculture).Itisnowvitaltoadaptthesetechniquesto a range of situations and to assess them, in collaboration with stakeholders (farmersandnaturalresourceandservicemanagers).Themethodsusedleave ample room for observation, surveys, process analyses and modelling, with a viewtointegratingvariousqualityandquantityaspects,scalesandplayers. Itisapparentlyessentialtodesignaneconomylinkedtocarbonmanagement, but this is a difficult undertaking. It assumes the existence of technical and institutionalcapacity,knowledgeofthereality,andanabilitytorepresentthat realityusingreliabletools(maps,indicators,etc).Researchhastocomeupwith suchtoolssoastosupportpublicpolicyandgovernancestructures.

>Researchprojects

- Perception, adaptation and support of populations faced with climate, environmental and social change (PAAPCES, AIRD project, RIPIESCA prioritysolidarityfund,MAE);

- NoͲtillsystems,Brazil,Madagascar(PEPITES,ANR);

- Smallholder Conservation Agriculture Promotion in Western andCentral Africa(SCAP,AFDͲMAEmultiͲpartnerproject);

- Information system on pastoralism in the Sahel (SIPSA, MAE project, Chad,Niger,BurkinaFaso,Mali,Senegal,Mauritania);

- Assessment of the impact of mulchͲbased planting systems on farm performance. MultiͲcountry support programme for agroͲecology (PAMPA,AFDͲMAE,Madagascar,Cameroon,Brazil);

- Modelling polycultureͲanimal production farm functioning in cottonͲ growingregions(CORUSbilateralproject,MAEͲBurkinaFaso);

- Foresight workshop on the adaptation of agriculture and manmade

ecosystemstoclimatechange(ADAGE,ANR,2009); 



Références

Documents relatifs

The Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change was established by the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) with support from

There are many pathways through which climate related factors may impact food safety including: changes in temperature and precipitation patterns, increased frequency

It finally propose an analytical framework to address policy process of agriculture, CC, FSN from a gender perspective in the context of Latin America and Caribbean (LAC).

The Executive Board, in its consideration of health, environment and climate change at its 142nd session, adopted decision EB142(5) in which it requested the

Cet arrêt a été prononcé dans le cadre d’un «  grand classique  » de la responsabilité des dirigeants, à savoir qu’après la faillite d’une société à

Ø The  administrative  burden  of  monitoring  and  control  should  be  alleviated  both  for  beneficiaries  and  for  payment  agencies,  and  be 

Pledges, but seven countries are currently not on track to meet 2020 NDC commitments, and for a further three, it is not possible to say. ‒ EU 28 & India believed to be

➌ Change in the number of potentially favourable river basins for different species of European migratory fi sh. Blue indicates the number of river basins that will remain