Laboratory Investigation of the Fracture Behaviour of Polycrystalline Ice - Phase lll

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Laboratory Investigation of the Fracture Behaviour of Polycrystalline Ice - Phase lll

Wells, Jennifer; Jordaan, Ian; Derradji, Ahmed; Bugden, Austin

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DOCUMENTATION PAGE REPORT NUMBER

TR-2010-13

NRC REPORT NUMBER DATE

July 2010 REPORT SECURITY CLASSIFICATION

Unclassified

DISTRIBUTION Unlimited TITLE

LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF THE FRACTURE BEHAVIOR OF POLYCRYSTALLINE ICE – PHASE III

AUTHOR(S)

Jennifer Wells, Ian Jordaan, Ahmed Derradji, and Austin Bugden CORPORATE AUTHOR(S)/PERFORMING AGENCY(S)

C-CORE, St. John’s, NL

Memorial University of Newfoundland

Institute for Ocean Technology, National Research Council, St. John’s, NL PUBLICATION

SPONSORING AGENCY(S) NSERC/PRAC

IOT PROJECT NUMBER 42_2118_26

NRC FILE NUMBER

KEY WORDS

Polycrystalline, ice, monocrystals, flaws, fracture

PAGES iii, 89, App. 1-7 FIGS. 161 TABLES 1 SUMMARY

This data report describes a set of laboratory indentation tests that were performed using iceberg ice. The tests were performed as collaboration between Memorial University of Newfoundland and The Institute of Ocean Technology (NRC-IOT). These test represent an extension to a test program that explored the role of flaws on the fracture of polycrystalline ice (Wells et al., 2007 and Wells et al., 2009). In those tests, polycrystalline ice with an average grain size of 4mm was prepared in the lab. The prepared samples included 2 cm cubed monocrystals placed at specific positions within the specimens to represent flaws in the ice. Indentation tests were performed to study the effect that the included flaws had on the ice fracture behavior. In the present tests, iceberg ice is used to bring the tests one step closer to the diversity of flaws that would be found in natural ice.

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National Research Council Conseil national de recherches Canada Canada Institute for Ocean Institut des technologies Technology océaniques

LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF THE FRACTURE BEHAVIOR OF

POLYCRYSTALLINE ICE – PHASE III

TR-2010-13

Jennifer Wells, Ian Jordaan, Ahmed Derradji, and Austin Bugden July 2010

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TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ... iv LIST OF TABLES... ix ...1 INSTRUMENTATION...2 AL RESULTS ...5 ND SAMPLE PREPARATION...7 ...14 ...41 ...74 1.0 INTRODUCTION ...1 2.0 SAMPLE PREPARATION ... 3.0 TEST PARAMETERS / TEST MATRIX ...2

4.0 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND 5.0 POST-TEST THIN SECTIONS ...4

6.0 PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENT 7.0 REFERENCES ...6

APPENDIX 1: TEST PARAMETERS A APPENDIX 2: THIN-SECTIONS...8

APPENDIX 3: LVDT ... APPENDIX 4: PRE- AND POST-TEST PHOTOGRAPHS ...30

APPENDIX 5: FORCE PLOTS... APPENDIX 6: STRESS ...57 APPENDIX 7: PRESSURE...

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Thin-section from I09_IB_V10_C_003 (a) Section view under polarized lighting and

(b) using reflected lighting...8

Figure 2: Thin-section from I09_IB_V10_I_011 (a) Section view under polarized lighting and Figu ...10

0_E_025 (a) Section view under polarized lighting and 0_E_025 taken perpendicular to the section in figure 5 tion of time for _I09_IB_V10_C_001. ...14

tion of time for I09_IB_V10_C_003. ...15

ction of time for I09_IB_V2_C_005. ...16

ction of time for I09_IB_V0P2_C_007. ...17

ction of time for I09_IB_V0P2_C_009. ...18

ction of time for I09_IB_V10_I_011. ...19

ction of time for I09_IB_V0P2_I_017. ...22

ction of time for I09_IB_V0P2_I_019. ...23

ction of time for I09_IB_V0P2_E_021. ...24

ction of time for I09_IB_V2_E_023. ...25

ction of time for I09_IB_V2P0_E_025. ...26

ction of time for I09_IB_V10_E_027. ...27

(b) using reflected lighting...9

re 3: Thin-section from I09_IB_V2_I_016 (a) Section view under polarized lighting and (b) using reflected lighting. ... Figure 4: Thin-section from I09_IB_V0P2_I_018 (a) Section view under polarized lighting and (b) using reflected lighting...11

Figure 5: Thin-section from I09_IB_V2P (b) using reflected lighting...12

Figure 6: Thin-section from I09_IB_V2P (a) Section view under polarized lighting and (b) using reflected lighting. ...13

Figure 7: Indenter displacement as a func Figure 8: Indenter displacement as a function of time for I09_IB_V10_C_002. ...14

Figure 9: Indenter displacement as a func Figure 10: Indenter displacement as a function of time for I09_IB_V2_C_004. ...15

Figure 11: Indenter displacement as a fun Figure 12: Indenter displacement as a function of time for I09_IB_V2_C_006. ...16

Figure 13: Indenter displacement as a fun Figure 14: Indenter displacement as a function of time for I09_IB_V0P2_C_008...17

Figure 15: Indenter displacement as a fun Figure 16: Indenter displacement as a function of time for I09_IB_V10_I_010. ...18

Figure 23: Indenter displacement as a fun Figure 24: Indenter displacement as a function of time for I09_IB_V0P2_I_018. ...22

Figure 25: Indenter displacement as a fun Figure 26: Indenter displacement as a function of time for I09_IB_V0P2_E_020. ...23

Figure 31: Indenter displacement as a fun Figure 32: Indenter displacement as a function of time for I09_IB_V10_E_026. ...26 Figure 33: Indenter displacement as a fun

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LIST OF FIGURES(Cont'd.)

0_C_003 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test. ...30

_C_005 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test. ...31

P2_C_007 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test. ...32

0_I_011 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test...33

_IB_V10_I_013...34

_I_015 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test...35

Figu P2_I_018 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test. ...36

...36

P2_E_021 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test. ...37

_E_023 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test. ...38

_E_025 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test. ...38

0_E_027 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test. ...39

_IB_V0P006_C_031...40 e for I09_V10_C_IB_002...41 e for I09_IB_V2_C_004...42 e for I09_IB_V2_C_006...43 e for I09_IB_V0p2_C_008 ...44 e for I09_IB_V10_i_010 ...45

Figure 39: Photographs from I09_IB_V1 Figure 40: Photographs from I09_IB_V2_C_004 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test. ...31

Figure 41: Photographs from I09_IB_V2 Figure 42: Photographs from I09_IB_V2_C_006 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test. ...32

Figure 43: Photographs from I09_IB_V0 Figure 44: Photographs from I09_IB_V0P2_C_008 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test. ...32

Figure 45: Photographs from I09_IB_V0 Figure 46: Photographs from I09_IB_V10_I_010 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test...33

Figure 49: Post-test photograph from I09 Figure 50: Photographs from I09_IB_V2_I_014 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test...34

re 53: Photographs from I09_IB_V0P2_I_017 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test. ...35

Figure 54: Photographs from I09_IB_V0 Figure 55: Photographs from I09_IB_V0P2_I_019 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test (c) Post-test alternate view... Figure 56: Photographs from I09_IB_V0P2_E_020 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test. ...37

Figure 57: Photographs from I09_IB_V0 Figure 58: Photographs from I09_IB_V0P2_E_022 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test. ...37

Figure 59: Photographs from I09_IB_V2 Figure 60: Photographs from I09_IB_V2_E_024 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test. ...38

Figure 65: Photographs from I09_IB_V0 Figure 66: Post-test photograph from I09_IB_V0P006_C_030. ...40

Figure 67: Post-test photographs from I09 Figure 68: Total force as a function of time for I09_V10_C_IB_001. ...41

Figure 69: Total force as a function of tim Figure 70: Total force as a funtion of time for I09_IB_V10_C_003...42

Figure 71: Total force as a function of tim Figure 72: Total force as a function of time for I09_IB_V2_C_005...43

Figure 73: Total force as a function of tim Figure 74: Total force as a funtion of time for I09_IB_V0p2_C_007...44

Figure 75: Total force as a function of tim Figure 76: Total force as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p2_C_009 ...45 Figure 77: Total force as a function of tim

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Figure 82: Total force as a function of time for I09_IB_V2_i_015 ...48

Figure 83: Total force as a function of time for I09_IB_V2_i_016 ...48

e for I09_IB_V0p2_i_018 ...49 e for I09_IB_V0p2_e_020...50 e for I09_IB_V0p2_e_022...51 e for I09_IB_V2_e_024...52 e for I09_IB_V10_e_026...53 e for I09_IB_V10_e_028...54 ....55 Figu ...55 Figu ion of the nominal / projected area of the spherical of the indenter. ...57

ction of time for I09_V10_C_IB_002 ...58

ction of time for I09_IB_V2_C_004 ...59

ction of time for I09_IB_V2_C_006 ...60

ction of time for I09_IB_V0p2_C_008 ...61

ction of time for I09_IB_V10_i_010 ...62

ction of time for I09_IB_V0p2_i_018 ...66

Figure 84: Total force as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p2_i_017 ...49

Figure 85: Total force as a function of tim Figure 86: Total force as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p2_i_019 ...50

Figure 87: Total force as a function of tim Figure 88: Total force as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p2_e_021...51

Figure 89: Total force as a function of tim Figure 90: Total force as a function of time for I09_IB_V2_e_023...52

Figure 91: Total force as a funtion of tim Figure 92: Total force as a function of time for I09_IB_V2_e_025...53

Figure 93: Total force as a function of tim Figure 94: Total force as a function of time for I09_IB_V10_e_027...54

Figure 95: Total force as a function of tim Figure 96: Total force as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p006_c_029... re 97: Total force as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p006_c_030... re 98: Total force as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p006_c_031...56

Figure 99: Diagram showing the calculat indenter.. The nominal area represents the area of a circle that has a radius that changes according to the depth of penetration Figure 100: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_V10_C_IB_001 ...58

Figure 101: Mean nominal stress as a fun Figure 102: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V10_C_003 ...59

Figure 103: Mean nominal stress as a fun Figure 104: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V2_C_005 ...60

Figure 105: Mean nominal stress as a fun Figure 106: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p2_C_007 ...61

Figure 107: Mean nominal stress as a fun Figure 108: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p2_C_009 ...62

Figure 109: Mean nominal stress as a fun Figure 110: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V10_i_011 ...63

Figure 115: Mean nominal stress as a fun Figure 116: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p2_i_017 ...66

Figure 117: Mean nominal stress as a fun Figure 118: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p2_i_019 ...67

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Figure 124: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V2_e_025 ...70

Figure 125: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V10_e_026 ...70

ction of time for I09_IB_V10_e_028 ...71

...72

Figu ction of time for I09_IB_V0p006_c_031 ...73

um pressure as a function of time for test ...74

Figu ...75

Figu ...76

Figu ...78

Figu ...79

igure 143: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test I09_IB_V10_i_013 ...80

igure 144: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test ...80

Figu ...81

um pressure as a function of time for test Figure 126: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V10_e_027 ...71

Figure 127: Mean nominal stress as a fun Figure 128: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p006_c_029 .. re 129: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p006_c_030 ...72

Figure 130: Mean nominal stress as a fun Figure 131: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test I09_V10_C_IB_001...74

Figure 132: Average pressure and maxim I09_V10_C_IB_002... re 133: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test I09_IB_V10_C_003... Figure 134: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test I09_IB_V2_C_004...75

Figure 135: Average pressure and maxim I09_IB_V2_C_005... re 136: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test I09_IB_V2_C_006... Figure 137: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test I09_IB_V0p2_C_007...77

Figure 138: Average pressure and maxim I09_IB_V0p2_C_008... re 139: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test I09_IB_V0p2_C_009... Figure 140: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test I09_IB_V10_i_010 ...78

Figure 141: Average pressure and maxim I09_IB_V10_i_011 ... re 142: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test I09_IB_V10_i_012 ... F F I09_IB_V2_i_014 ... re 145: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test I09_IB_V2_i_015 ... Figure 146: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test I09_IB_V2_i_016 ...81 Figure 147: Average pressure and maxim

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um pressure as a function of time for test

...83 Figu

...83

um pressure as a function of time for test

...84 Figu

I09_IB_V2_e_023...85 igure 154: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test

I09_IB_V2_e_024...85 Figure 155: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test

I09_IB_V0p006_c_029...88 Figure 160: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test

I09_IB_V0p006_c_030...88 Figure 161: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test

I09_IB_V0p006_c_031...89 Figure 149: Average pressure and maxim

I09_IB_V0p2_i_019 ... re 150: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test

I09_IB_V0p2_e_020...

Figure 151: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test

I09_IB_V0p2_e_021...84 Figure 152: Average pressure and maxim

I09_IB_V0p2_e_022... re 153: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test F

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LIST OF TABLES

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

This data report describes a set of laboratory indentation tests that were performed using iceberg ice. The tests were performed as collaboration between Memorial University of

Newfoundland and The Institute of Ocean Technology (NRC-IOT). These test represent an extension to a test program that explored the role of flaws on the fracture of polycrystalline ice (Wells et al., 2007 and Wells et al., 2009). In those tests, polycrystalline ice with an average grain size of 4mm was prepared in the lab. The prepared samples included 2 cm cubed monocrystals placed at specific positions within the specimens to represent flaws in the ice. Indentation tests were performed to study the effect that the included flaws had on the ice fracture behavior. In the present tests, iceberg ice is used to bring the tests one step closer to the diversity of flaws that would be found in natural ice.

2.0 SAMPLE PREPARATION

The specimens used in these tests consisted of iceberg ice that was collected during July 2008. The ice was purchased from a local supplier, who harvests ice on a professional basis. The specimens were cut from large iceberg pieces and the outside of the original ice was discarded. The collected specimens were as intact as possible (ie, no large holes or cracks). Each specimen was individually bagged at the collection site and then transported to the NRC-IOT’s coldroom facilities. The ice was then rough-cut to dimensions of approximately 30 x 30 x 20 cm, enclosed in airtight plastic bags and stored at approximately – 18 oC until testing took place in July 2009. Three weeks prior to testing, a milling machine was used to machine the

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Varying degrees of air bubbles and pre-existing cracks were observed in the test specimens along with the occasional occurrence of melt lines. Pre-test photographs of the specimens are given in figures 38-67, Appendix 4. Thin-sectioning of the ice showed that the specimens consisted of polycrystalline ice (figures 1-6, Appendix 2). Specimens were assigned at random during testing to help ensure a random distribution of flaws.

3.0 TEST PARAMETERS / TEST MATRIX

A total of 31 tests were performed using a combination of differing indenter speeds and locations. The tests were completed using the same 20 mm rigid indenter with a radius of curvature of 25.6 mm that was used in previous test series (Wells et al., 2007 and Wells et al., 2009). Multiple indenter speeds were used varying from 0.006 mm/s to 10 mm/s depending on the test (Table 1). Plots of the indenter displacement as a function of time are given in figures 7-37, Appendix 3. The distance between the indentation location and the edge of the test specimen was also varied. Three indentation locations were used having distances of 2.5 cm, 5 cm and 10 cm away from the edge of the specimen.

4.0 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND INSTRUMENTATION

The tests were conducted following the procedure outlined in Wells et al., 2007. The room in which the tests were completed was held at -10 0C. The test setup involved placing an ice specimen on the test platform so that the indenter would make contact at the desired distance from the edge of the specimen. The indenter was than manually lowered such that it made contact with the sample, while applying negligible load to the sample. The samples were under

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the specimen was photographed, each piece of the fractured specimen was labeled and packaged separately in an airtight plastic bag. A straw was used to remove as much air as possible from each bag prior to sealing. All the pieces from each specimen were then packaged together in another larger, airtight plastic bag. The specimens were then stored in coolers with additional padding and sacrificial ice. The coolers were stored at a temperature of approximately –15oC until thin-sectioning could begin.

The tests were controlled and recorded using the MTS controller and recording

equipment (model number 448.85). A 250 kN MTS load cell (model number 661.233-01, serial number 2133) was used with a sampling frequency of 20 kHz. The load cell was deemed appropriate based on the expected loads and noise levels. This was then filtered using a 3dB cutoff frequency of 3 kHz. In addition, a piezoelectric load cell was included in the experimental setup to replicate the test setup from Phase I (Wells et al., 2007). However, data from the

piezoelectric load cell was not recorded during this test phase. During each test, the MTS was used to record both the total force from the load cell and the LVDT displacement. These traces were synchronized using a one shot synchronizing electrical pulse that was generated at the start of each test.

The tests were videotaped using 3 video cameras. Two regular speed video cameras were used - a black and white camera that recorded at 30 frames per second (fps) and a color camera that recorded at 30 fps. Also, a high-speed black and white camera that recorded at 500 and 1500 fps depending on the length of the test in question was also used. The videos recorded by all three cameras are available through CISTI. Synchronization between the data collected by

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electrical pulse that was generated at the beginning of each test. This pulse simultaneously triggered both the initiation of the indenter and the initiation of the high-speed video. In addition, the experimental set up included a Pressure sensor. The Tekscan I-Scan system (http://www.tekscan.com/industrial/iscan_specs.html) was used to record pressure and force during the tests (Figure 1 (b), Appendix 1). The system consists of a thin, flexible, resistance based sensor that was connected to an external PC. The sensor consisted of an array of 44 x 44 ‘sensels’. These sensels represent the intersection of lines of semi-conductive ink that are drawn onto the sensors in a grid pattern. The sensor had a thickness of 0.004” where there is ink present and a thickness of 0.002” where there is no ink. Measurements were taken by recording the changes in current flow at each sensel giving the applied force distribution. Using the I-Scan system, it is possible to record the force distribution at a rate of up to 100 frames per second. The pressure distribution is then calculated using the applied force and total contact area for each time. The pressure sensitive film used in these tests had a pressure rating of 25,000 PSI. During these tests, the pressure sensor was placed between the indenter and the surface of the ice. The calibration of the sensor is described in Wells et al., 2007 and Wells et al., 2009.

5.0 POST-TEST THIN SECTIONS

Thin-sectioning of the tested specimens was performed approximately 3 weeks after testing. Thin sectioning was performed for the purpose of characterizing the undamaged ice and as such the sections were not taken from the indentation sites. Whenever possible, sectioning sites were chosen to be equidistant from the indentation site and edges of the specimen. The thin-sectioning was done using the “Double Microtome” technique introduced by Sinha (1977).

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“shave” samples of ice from the free surface until a desired thickness was reached. A second glass slide was then welded to the free surface and the first slide was removed using a small blade. The new free surface was again microtomed, this time to 0.5 - 1.0 mm in thickness, thus allowing the crystal structure of the ice to be examined. Finally, the thin sections were

photographed under cross-polarized light to facilitate easy viewing of the various crystals. The thin sections were also photographed under plain transmitted light with a side light oriented at approx 45 degrees to the sample. This side lighting was reflected by the crack surfaces highlighting any micro cracking that was present in the thin section. Photographs of the thin-sections, under both lighting conditions are included in figures 1-6, appendix 2.

6.0 PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Time histories of the total force recorded during the tests using the strain gauge load cell are given in figures 68-98, Appendix 5. This data was then used to plot the mean nominal stress as a function of time during the tests (figures 100-130, Appendix 6). These plots also show the corresponding force traces and nominal area for comparison. In order to calculate the mean nominal stress, the total force at each point in time was divided by the corresponding nominal area of the indenter. The method by which the area was calculated is shown in figure 99, Appendix 6.

Next, the pressure data that was acquired from the pressure sensor was converted to ascii format and exported to Matlab for analysis. Figures 131-161, Appendix 7 gives plots of this data. These plots represent the peak pressures and average pressures that were recorded for each

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7.0 REFERENCES

Sinha, N. K., (1977). Technique for studying the structure of sea ice. Journal of Glaciology, vol. 18, 315-323.

Wells, J., Jordaan, I., Derradji-Aouat, A., and Budgen, A. 2007. Laboratory investigation of the fracture behavior of polycrystalline ice with embedded monocrystals – Phase I, NRC technical report, January 2007.

Wells, J., Jordaan, I., Derradji-Aouat, A., and Budgen, A. 2009. Laboratory investigation of the fracture behavior of polycrystalline ice with embedded monocrystals – Phase II, NRC technical report, (submitted).

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APPENDIX 1: TEST PARAMETERS AND SAMPLE PREPARATION

Name Location Speed mm/s Penetr -ation (mm) Frame rate of HSV Resolution of HSV Max Load (kN) I09_V10_C_IB_001 center 10 10 1500 1024x1024 5.445 I09_V10_C_IB_002 center 10 10 1500 1024x1024 4.4289 I09_IB_V10_C_003 center 10 10 1500 1024x1024 3.3118 I09_IB_V2_C_004 center 2 10 1500 768x784 5.1058 I09_IB_V2_C_005 center 2 10 1500 768x784 6.917 I09_IB_V2_C_006 center 2 10 1500 768x784 4.856 I09_IB_V0p2_C_007 center 0.2 10 500 512x272 4.656 I09_IB_V0p2_C_008 center 0.2 10 500 512x272 3.567 I09_IB_V0p2_C_009 center 0.2 10 500 512x272 2.919 I09_IB_V10_i_010 Intermediate 10 10 1500 768x480 1.75 I09_IB_V10_i_011 intermediate 10 10 1500 768x480 3.115 I09_IB_V10_i_012 intermediate 10 10 1500 768x480 4.471 I09_IB_V10_i_013 intermediate 10 10 1500 768x480 5.411 I09_IB_V2_i_014 intermediate 2 10 1500 512x272 4.846 I09_IB_V2_i_015 intermediate 2 10 1500 512x272 3.16 I09_IB_V2_i_016 intermediate 2 10 1500 512x272 2.765 I09_IB_V0p2_i_017 intermediate 0.2 10 1500 512x272 3.14 I09_IB_V0p2_i_018 intermediate 0.2 10 500 512x272 1.835 I09_IB_V0p2_i_019 intermediate 0.2 10 1500 512x272 4.849 I09_IB_V0p2_e_020 edge 0.2 10 1500 512x272 1.9 I09_IB_V0p2_e_021 edge 0.2 10 1500 512x272 1.54 I09_IB_V0p2_e_022 edge 0.2 10 1500 512x272 2.088 I09_IB_V2_e_023 edge 2 10 1500 512x272 2.142 I09_IB_V2_e_024 edge 2 10 1500 512x272 2.413 I09_IB_V2_e_025 edge 2 10 1500 512x272 2.17 I09_IB_V10_e_026 edge 10 10 1500 512x272 2.246 I09_IB_V10_e_027 edge 10 10 1500 512x272 1.187 I09_IB_V10_e_028 edge 10 10 1500 512x272 1.283 I09_IB_V0p006_c_029 center 0.006 2.0 1500 512x272 3.274 I09_IB_V0p006_c_030 center 0.006 1.5 1500 512x272 3.742 I09_IB_V0p006_c_031 center 0.006 1.0 1500 512x272 3.1

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Figure 2: Thin-section from I09_IB_V10_I_011 (a) Section view under polarized lighting and (b) using reflected lighting.

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Figure 4: Thin-section from I09_IB_V0P2_I_018 (a) Section view under polarized lighting and (b) using reflected lighting.

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APPENDIX 3: LVDT

Figure 7: Indenter displacement as a function of time for _I09_IB_V10_C_001.

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Figure 9: Indenter displacement as a function of time for I09_IB_V10_C_003.

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Figure 11: Indenter displacement as a function of time for I09_IB_V2_C_005.

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Figure 13: Indenter displacement as a function of time for I09_IB_V0P2_C_007.

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Figure 15: Indenter displacement as a function of time for I09_IB_V0P2_C_009.

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Figure 17: Indenter displacement as a function of time for I09_IB_V10_I_011.

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Figure 23: Indenter displacement as a function of time for I09_IB_V0P2_I_017.

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Figure 25: Indenter displacement as a function of time for I09_IB_V0P2_I_019.

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Figure 27: Indenter displacement as a function of time for I09_IB_V0P2_E_021.

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Figure 29: Indenter displacement as a function of time for I09_IB_V2_E_023.

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Figure 31: Indenter displacement as a function of time for I09_IB_V2P0_E_025.

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Figure 33: Indenter displacement as a function of time for I09_IB_V10_E_027.

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Figure 35: Indenter displacement as a function of time for I09_IB_V0P006_C_029

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APPENDIX 4: PRE- AND POST-TEST PHOTOGRAPHS

Figure 38: Photographs from I09_IB_V10_C_002 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test.

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Figure 45: Photographs from I09_IB_V0P2_C_009 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test.

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Figure 48: Photographs from I09_IB_V10_I_012 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test.

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Figure 51: Photographs from I09_IB_V2_I_015 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test.

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Figure 54: Photographs from I09_IB_V0P2_I_018 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test.

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Figure 56: Photographs from I09_IB_V0P2_E_020 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test.

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Figure 59: Photographs from I09_IB_V2_E_023 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test.

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Figure 62: Photographs from I09_IB_V10_E_026 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test.

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Figure 65: Photographs from I09_IB_V0P006_C_029 (a) Pre-test (b) Post-test.

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APPENDIX 5: FORCE PLOTS

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Figure 70: Total force as a funtion of time for I09_IB_V10_C_003

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Figure 72: Total force as a function of time for I09_IB_V2_C_005

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Figure 74: Total force as a funtion of time for I09_IB_V0p2_C_007

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Figure 76: Total force as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p2_C_009

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Figure 78: Total force as a function of time for I09_IB_V10_i_011

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Figure 84: Total force as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p2_i_017

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Figure 86: Total force as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p2_i_019

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Figure 88: Total force as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p2_e_021

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Figure 90: Total force as a function of time for I09_IB_V2_e_023

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Figure 96: Total force as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p006_c_029

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APPENDIX 6: STRESS

Figure 99: Diagram showing the calculation of the nominal / projected area of the spherical indenter.. The nominal area represents the area of a circle that has a radius that changes according to the depth of penetration of the indenter.

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Figure 100: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_V10_C_IB_001

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Figure 102: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V10_C_003

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Figure 104: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V2_C_005

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Figure 106: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p2_C_007

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Figure 108: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p2_C_009

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Figure 110: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V10_i_011

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Figure 116: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p2_i_017

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Figure 118: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p2_i_019

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Figure 120: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p2_e_021

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Figure 122: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V2_e_023

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Figure 128: Mean nominal stress as a function of time for I09_IB_V0p006_c_029

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APPENDIX 7: PRESSURE

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Figure 133: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test I09_IB_V10_C_003

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Figure 135: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test I09_IB_V2_C_005

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Figure 137: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test I09_IB_V0p2_C_007

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Figure 139: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test I09_IB_V0p2_C_009

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Figure 141: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test I09_IB_V10_i_011

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Figure 147: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test I09_IB_V0p2_i_017

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Figure 149: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test I09_IB_V0p2_i_019

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Figure 151: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test I09_IB_V0p2_e_021

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Figure 153: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test I09_IB_V2_e_023

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Figure 159: Average pressure and maximum pressure as a function of time for test I09_IB_V0p006_c_029

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