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St.John's
BetweenLifeand Death:
womenFish HarvestersinNewfoundlandandLabrador
by Brenda Grzetic Athesis submittedtothe SchoolofGraduateStudies
inpartialfulfihnentofthe requirementsforthe degreeof
Mas!erofWomen'sStudes
FacuhyofArts Memorial UniversityofNewfoundland
June2002
Newfoundland
ACKNOWLEDGM ENTS
Manypeopleneedtobeacknowledgedandthanked fortheirsupportandfaithin meduringmygraduatework and especially,during theresearchandwritingofthis thesis.
FU'SIandforemostthanks10myfamily whoare alwaysthereformeandgive mestrength andgrounding.Also,thanks tomythesissupervisors,RosannaTiteandBarbaraNeis, whohave beenapleasuretoworkwith.Ihaveknownandworked withBarbarafora numberofyearsandhavebenefinedimmenselyfromher knowledge,intelligenceand fiicn<hhip.
rcould nothavedone this researchwithoutsupportfromthewomenfish harvesterswhoparticipatedinthis study.A special thankstoaUofyoufor laking thelime totalkwith me,teachmeaboutfishing,andalsoforreviewingsectionsofthedraftreport.
ThankyoualsototheBaySt.GeorgeStatusofWomenCOWlCiiinStephenville who providedassistance and gave meaplacetostaywhiledo ingtheintervie ws.Thanksto the ProfessionalFISh HarvestersCert ificationBoardandstaffforlakingthetime tomet1with meandforgivingmeaccesstodataonfishharvesters.Alsohelpfulwithstatisticaldata collection weretheDepartmen tof FisheriesandOceans, the MarineInstitute,andthe Newfoundland and LabradorStatisticsAgency.
Manythanksalsoto the facuhy,staffandstudents intheWo men'sStudies programatMemorialUniversitywhohelped tremendo usly duringmygraduatework, especiallyElizabeth Yeomanwhoorganizedanarrativestudygroupwhich I attendand
iv
PhyllisArtisswhohas beenasolidsourceof supportovertheyears. Aspecialthanks to Laura,LynnandStephanie,membersofourthesissupportgroup.whoweregreat supporters,advisors,andfriends.
Iwouldalso liketothanktheSocialSciencesandHumanitiesResearch Councilof Canada (SSHRC)and theNatural SciencesandEngineeringresearchCouncilofCanada (NSERC)whohave providedthemajorfundsforthe"Coasts UnderStress"Project throughtheSSHRCMajorCollaborativeInitiatives(MCRI)program.Ftmdinghasalso beenprovidedbyMemorialUniversityof NewfolIDdland.
TABLEOFCONT ENTS
ChapterI:Introduction 1
1.1Tbesis~...•....•...3
1.2 FISheries Restructuring S
1.2.1Women 'sWorkintheRestructured Fisheries 7 1.2.2The Healt hofWomenFishHarvesters 14 1.3SignificanceandSocialRelevanceof the Research IS
1.4Conclusions 19
Chapter 2:1beoryandMethods 20
2.1The SocialDeterminantsofHealth 21
2.1.1 TheHealthEffeds o fResl ructuring 23
2.1.2Restructuring,Gender,and Health 24
2.1.3TheWorkandHealth of WomenFishHarvesters ...27 2.1.4Occupatio nal HealthandWomenFish Harvesters, 32
2.1.5FisheriesProfess ionalizat ion 39
2.2Develop ingalbeoreticalFramework 42
2.2. 1FetninistPo st-Struct uralist1beory 48
2.3Met hodo logy 54
2.3.1DescriptionofMet hods 57
2.3.2 Data Collectio n S9
2.3.3Ethica1Considerat ions 61
2.3.4 DataAnalysis 67
2.4Conclusions 68
Cbepter3:Women FishHarvesters'WorkEnvironment, Responsibilities
andRelat ions 70
3.1Int rod uction 70
3.2WomenintheStudy 71
3.3 Women'sWo rk asFish Harvesters 74
3.3.1Women'sEntry intoFishing:Stra teg iesand Negotiat ions 76
3.3.2Women'sIdent ity asFish Harvest ers 82
3.3 .3A TypicalWorkdayDuring theFishingSeason 88
3.3.4 JobSatisfaction 92
3.3.5Work Dynamics Between WomenandTheirHus bands 97 3.4Work Environmentsin the RestructuringFishery and
Women'sHealth 108
3.4.1Women' sParticipat ion in the Fish Harvester Workforce 109 3.4.2The Increasing CostsAssociaiedwithFishing. I17
3.4.3 CodAllocationsandSeasonalOvnbps 119
vi
3.4 .4 WorkIntensity 122 3.4.5 EIPoliciesandWomenFish Harvest ers 123 3.5Work RelationsandSupport NetworksOuts ide the Household.. 125 3.5.1 Women'sRelationswithExtended FamilyandCo-wor kers..125 3.5.2Women 'sInteract ionwithOtherFishHarvesters. 127 3.5.3SupportfromOthersinthe Community ...•...131 3.5.4Women'sInteractionwithFisheryand
GovernnrntInstitutions ...•132
3.6Conclusions 140
Chapter4:Restructuring, Safety, and Health ..145
4.1 Introd uction ..145
4.2Women'sHealth Status . 146
4.2.1InjuriesandDiagnosedConditions 147
4.3ConceptualizingWo men'sHeahh 152
4.3.1Connecting FisheriesRestructuring andHealth 153
4.3.2 WorkOverload 162
4.3.3HealthoflheFishStocks 164
4.3.4Loss ofContro l and Increas ingPressurestoTakeRisks•...169
4.3.5 Safety Practices onthe Water . 173
4.3.6 ViolenceAgainstWomen 180
4.3.7PersonalHealthPractices 185
4.3.8HealthServices . 187
4.4Conclusions 192
Chapter 5:Training.Professionalization,and
me
Fishery oftheFuture 1945.1Introduct ion . . 194
5.2Women'sInfonnalLeaming atWork ..195
5.2.1Women Describe TheirSkillsinthe Fishery 200
5.2.2Skill Gaps 202
5.3Women 's Fonnal EducationandTraining 208
5.3.1AccessingFonnalTrainingin
me
Fishery 2095.3 .2Barrinsto Training forWo men 212
5.4Professionalization 218
5.4.1EnforcingProfessionalization 230
5.4.2Professionali2ationTraining . 232
5.4.3 PFHCBInitiatives 241
5.5TheFishery of the Future 249
5.6Conclusions 259
Chapter6: Conclusions . 6.1Restru cturingandWomen'sHealth 6.2RelJections onTheoryand Methods 6.3Rccommerdatiomfor Change
6.4 PersonalV~ _ _
6.5Future:Research __••••
.262 ...263 ...270
...276
_..__._.281 282
Bibliogra phy Appendices
... ... ...284 ..294
LIST
or
APPEN DICES ApperxIixA: Interview ScheduleAppendixB: Consent Forms
...••••... ... 294 312 Appe ndixC: OverviewofSkill Requirements for Apprentice.Levell and
Level IlFish Harvesters 316
ix
LIST OFT ABL.ES
Table #1: Boil!Sizesand Maximum DistancesTraveled-Women Interviewees .72 Table#2: Fish Harvesters inNewfound land and Labrador.Nova Scotia,
PrinceEdward Island and NewBrunswick(198 1and1990) 114 Table#3: LicenseDistribution AnxmgFemale and Male FishHarvesters
(NorH:ompany)bySpecies Typefor2001-Newfo und landand Labrador . . .••.•.•..••.. • ••..•. .•..• •.• . .••.••• 116 Table#4: ProfessionalFish HarvestersCertificationBoard(PFHCB)-Regular
Certifcano nofFemaleand MaleFishHarvestersfor2000 224 Table#5: Fish Harvesters Given TemporaryCe rtificat ion- 2000 .•... . 226 Table #6: Number ofTraining Seatsby Zone,Sex and Yearforthe Marine
Institute'sCommunity-BasedFisheriesProgram... 238 Teb le#7: PriorlearningAssessmentandRecognition Outreach Initiatives
bythePfllCB(2000and2001 Summaries). 244
Table#8: AgeAnalysisofFIShHarvesters (2000) 255
Table #9: DetailedAge Analysis of Fish Harvest ersbyGender.NAFOZone andCertificationLevel-NewfoundlandandLabrador 256
LISTOF FIG URES
Figure #1: FisblIarvesters,Newfoundland andLabrador,1971-1996 . 113 Figure #2: Wo menand MenFIShHarvest ersinNewfo undland andLabrador:
1981-2000 _. .. .. . .. 115
Figure#3: Map of NAFOZones for Newfoundland and Labrador 225
LISTOF ACRONY MS
ACES-WG: Atlantic Children' ,Evaluatio nSub-committee-WorkingGroup CBC: CanadianBroadcastin g Corpo ratio n
CONA: Co llege oftheNorth Atlantic DFO: Departmentof Fisheriesand Oceans Canada
EI: EmploymentInsurance
FFAW: Fish FoodandAlliedWork ers Union
FH: FtshHarvester
FRCC: Fisheries Resource Conservation CoWlCii HRDC: Human Reso urcesDevelopmentCanada
Interviewer
NAFO: Northwest Atlantic FisheriesOrgenizer icn NCARP: NorthernCod Adjustment and RecoveryProgram DOC: Oil DevelopmentCouncilof Unions
PFHCB: ProfessionalFish HarvestersCertificatio nBoard(theBoard) PLAR: PriorLearningAssessmentand Reco gnit ion SAR: Search andRescue:
SOC: Standard Occupational Classificat ion TAGS: TheAtlanticGroundfish Strategy U1: UnemploymentInsurance
WHSCC: Workplace Health,SafetyandCompensa t ionCommissio n
CHAPTER I:
INTRODUCfION
'Whileattendingaworkshop aOO an international conference in thespringof2000.
Ihadthe opportunitytolistento womenfishharvesters fromAtlantic Canadatalkabout theirworkexperiencesandheahhconcerns.Theyspoke abouttheeffectsthatthe simultaneousrestnlcturingoftheIishingindustryandsocialprograms suchas Employment Insurancewerehavingon theirlivesandtheirhealth.Theyalsotalked about theneedformoreresearch011,support for,andattentionto issuessuchas professionalizationandoccupationalhealth,as wellastheirimplicationsforwomen's healthandweU-being(NeisandGrzetic,2000;femaya.August.2000).
Thisthesisisa responsetothose concerns.Itexplores theworkandlearning experiencesandheahhconcernsof womenfishharvesterswithinthecontextofthe recent resuucturingof thefishingindustryinNewfoundlaOOand l...abrador.Iassess women's participationandprofessionalstatusinthe fishingindustry,aOOidentifyoccupationaland generalbeahh concerns associatedwith theirwork.I also investigateways in which individualand organizationalprocesses are genderedanddetmninants ofbothwomen's placeinthefisheryand theiroverallhcahh andweu-being.Thesocial determinants of healthprovideabroadanalytical framework,while morespecific analysesandinsightsinto gender dynamicsincorporate a feministanalysis.
This thesiscombinesboth qualitativeandquantitativeanalysis.Qualitativeanalysis focuses ontheworkenvironmentintherestructuredfishery,women'sworkandlearning
experiences onfishingboats.their conditionsat work,the institutionalsupportavailableto them, andtheimplicationsofthcsefortheir health andsafetyasworkersin thefishing industry.Primarydataare taken fromsixteen in-depthinterviewswithwomenfish harvesters on thesouthandwestcoastsoftheIslandandone key informantinterviewwith a representativeoftheProfessionalFishHarvesters CertificationBoard(PA-ICB).
Quanlitativeanalysisfocusesontrendsinthenumbers of womenfishharvesters sincethe 1970s,licensingandprofessionalization statusoffishharvesters,women'sparticipationin traininginitiatives,andlinksbetweentheseand healthriskstowomen fishharvesters.
Thisresearchextends previous work onthedynamicsof women'sheahhrelated to industrialrestructuringwithintheNewfoundland fisherywhichIbeganwithDr.Barbara Neisin1998. Our recent report"FromFishplanrto NickelSmelter: HealthDeterminants andtheHealthof Newfoundland'sWomen Fi41andShellfishProcessorsin an Envirorunent ofRestructuring"dealtprimarily with fishprocessing workers, thefisheries sectorhardesthitbyfisheriesandEIrestructuring.One aim of the workassociatedwith this report was toincreasepublicinvo~inagcnder.analysisofimpactsandpolicies related toindustrialand social restructuringinruralNewfoundlandandLabrador (Neis andGr.retic.2000).Th.isthesis extendsthatworkto womenfishbarvesters,Italso provides an opportunity for metolink.thisfisheriesresearchto previous investigations (Grzcticetal.,1996;Grzetic,I998)intowomen'sexperiencesinmaJc-dominatedtrades andtechnology workand training in Ne\rloundland and Labrador.
II
Thesis
OyroiewInthischapterIintroducethisresearchwhich explores womenfIShharvesters' healthatwork,ina contextofsocialao:Ienvironmentalrestructuring.Theimponanccof carryingoutthisresearchwillbe discussed,as wellastheinterdisciplinarynatureofthe topicbeing studied.Iprovide a reviewoftheexisting researchconcerning women'srole asfishharvesters in Newfoundlandand Labradorandinothercountries.Basedonthe socialdetenninantsofhcalthapproach,this research considershealthdeterminantssuchas gender, employment,workenvironment, working conditions,andlearning, andtheir effectsonwomen'shealth.
InChapter Two,Idevelop the analytical frameworkusedintheresearchtoassess policyimpacts onwomen'sworkand theirheahhand well-being.Thisframework incorporates insightsfrom the socialdeterminantsofheahh[HealthCanada,1999),a socialecologicalperspective (NeisfOlal,2001;Stokols,1996),ao:Ifeminisl:research (Moo re, 1994).WhileIdrawonbothqualitativeao:Iquantitativedata, Imainlyuse a feminisl:post-structuralistapproachtoanaJyzingwomen'snarratives.Themethodology sectionoutlinesthe approachtakenwithdatacolJection, andhighlightstheimportance of doingparticipatoryandemancipatory researchbasedonfeministvalues.
InChapter Three,Jbeginmyexplorationofwornenfishharvesters'work and learningexperiencesand impacts on theirhealthbyintroducing thewomen interviewedin thisstudy.Idescribetheir workresponsibilities, workloads,and relationswith their husbands, co-workersand fisheriesinstitutions. I thenprovideanoverviewofthemajo r
social, economic,andenvironmental changes thatformthe contextwithinwhichwomenin inshore fishing familieswerelivingandworkingin2001,Ialsoexplainrecentchangesin women'sparticipationasfishharvestersinNewfoundlandandLabrador.
In QlaptcrFour,lprovide a moredetailedanalysisof women',healthandthrough their narratives,descnbehowtheyunderstandtheir healthrelationaltyandas connected to thefL'\heries.IconsidertheinlJactoffisheriesmanagementpoliciesonthesafety practicesoffish harvestersandthehealthoffishresources.Ialsodiscusstheeffect, of restructuring onwomen's healthinterms ofvio lcnceagainst women,workoverload,and the adequacyof healthservicesin rural Newfoundland communittes.Drawingonhealth questionnaire data.loutline women'sresponses to avariety orquesuonsaboutinjuries, diagnosedconditions,andpersonalhealthpractices.
In Chapter Five,I explore a particularaspect offisheriesrestructuring, profe ssionaliza ticn,andthecurrentapproach takentofisheriestraininginthisprovince.I drawagainonwomen'snarrativestodiscuss women'sinformal leaming on-the-joband theirformalleaminginthe classroom. Idiscuss thedegree towhich theyfeeltrainedand competent towork onfishingboatsand the workandlearningdynamicbetween women andtheirhusbands aboardfishingboats.I concludethischapter with women'sviewson the futureoftheinshore fishery,thefisheriesworkforce,andtheir roleinit.
Finally,intheconcluding chapter,Isummarizethe main findingsconcerning women'shealthat workand theimpactofrestructwing ontheirwork.1eaming,and health.Givenwomen'sinvisibilityinthemanagementoffishresources,Ioffer some
recommendations for change that might improve theirstatus.help acknowledgethe impol"l.anCe of theirwork.andaddresstheirconcernsregardingtrainingandoccupational beahh.Ialso reviewmyapproach to studying women'shealthatworkandoffer some suggestions forfutureresearch
I2 Fishel'ie:;Restructuring
Sincethelate 1980smany changes have taken placein the Newfoundlandand Labrador fishery.Whileinshorefish harvestersweredealing with decliningfishlandings inthemid-1980s, majorchangebeganin1992when,afteryears of over-harvesting,over- capacily,use of intensivetechnologies,mismanagement,andenvirorunentalchange,lhe commercialgroundfishfisherywasshutdown. Two moratoriawerecalled:onein1992 onthenortherncodstocksanda second on othergrourdfishstocksin1994.Atpresent, agroundfishery~ristsbuI wiIh drastjcallyreducedquotas,
A total of50,OOOfisheryworkers throughout Atlantic Canadawereaffectedbythe moratoriaand over32,000 of (hose were from Newfoundland andLabrador(Williams., 1996,21;StoreyandSmidt, 1995,170).Job loss affected not only fish harvestersandfish processingworkers,butalso peopleinvarious spin-offjobs associatedwiththefishery.
Twoadjustment programs,theNorthernCodAdj ustmentandRecovery Program (NCARP)andTheAtlanticGroundfish Strategy (TAGS),wereput in place toreducethe sizeofthefisheryworkforceandtoprovide income supportand assistancethrough training andworkprojects.Theseprogramsaimed to a..'lSist displaced fisheryworkersto
make thetransitionto other areas of work or,for some,to"enhance thepro fession of fisherswhowillremainactiveintheindustry"(Human ResourcesDevelopme ntCanada (»ROC),1998,II).Otherelementsof the two adjustment programsincludedlicense buybacks,earlyretirementprogramsandrelocat ion supponforfishharvestersandfish processingworkersexit ingtheindustry.
Themoratoriaacted as a catalystforrestructuring thefi.sheriesatthepolicylevel.
Thisrestructuringhas beendrivenbyabelief thai thereare"too many fishermen chasing too fewfish."TIlemainsolutionis believedtoIn\'QM:decreasingthenwnberof processin g workers,fish harvesters,andplantsbymeans of rationalizatio nprocesses premised oncompetition,reducedaccesstosocialprograms,andprivatization.The cornerstone offisheriesrationaJizatio nis foundinpoliciesdesigned to enclosethe commons throughprivatizationandindividualizationoffish resourcespreviously understoodtobecommonpropertyoropentothepublic.Thisinvol vesincreased emphasisontheindividual'entrepreneur'fishharvesterand increasedmarketcontrol withinthe industIy (McKay.1999,301;Munk-Madscn,1998,2 29;Neisand Wl1liams, 1997,48).InN~fOlmdlandandLabradorthisreo-liberal ideologicalthrust has resulted inincreasingattachment to global market s whilereducingIocaIaccess tofisheryresources andthesizeofthefisheryworkforce,anddecreasingfisheryworkers'relianceonthe federalgove nvne nt'sEmp loymentInsuranc e (EI)program forseasonalworkersthrou gh restructuringofthe EI program (MacDonald.1999,6 3).
12IWOmen'sWork
in
the RestructuredFisheriesInthe fishery,muchofworrcn'sworkcanbecharacterizedbyitsdivisiononthe basisof sex-traditionally, women haveworked on shorewhilemen have worked atsea.
AsNadel-KleinandDavisargue,one characteristic of women's workin thefisheryhere andelsewhere isthewayithas beenW'IdervaIued,unpaidandmadeinvisiblebyamale- focusedandcapitalistbiasrelatedto how 'productivework'isdefined(1988, 7).This male-bias in valuingthe typesof work considered'productive,'andtherefore recognized bygovcnunents andotherjnstjtut jons,isanissue thathascharacterizedfisheriespolicies inNewfoundlandandLabradorsince theirorigin.
Animportant goalin thisresearchis to exploresome ofthelinksbetween reslructuring andwomen'shealth.Amongotherthings..thisinvolves identifyingprocesses thaihavehistoricaUyperpetuated women'sinvisibility,ways in whichreslructuring redefinestheseprocesses,andtheimplicationsof theseforwomen'shealthandwell-being.
HistoricalJy,lheinvisibililyofwomen's workhasbeeninstitutionalizedinanumber of ways-theJOOstwell-knownbeingdiscriminatory UnemploymentInsunmce(UI) regulationsthatinthepas!credited a woman'sfishprocessingwork to herhusbandand deniedUleligibility to women whofished withtheirhusbands (Williams, 1996,12;
ConnellyandMacDonald,1995,391). Becausewives whofishedwith theirhusbands were preventedfromapplying forVI,their work wasnot recognized,andthey were denied access tothebenefitsoffishingandfisheryresources (Neis, 1993,199).This discouraged women fromfishing.Beginninginthe19805 womenfishharvesters fought
successfully forfairer assessments.recognition. and correenserionof their work,especialJy withregard to UI. Furtherchalknges still exist for womenfishharvesterswiththe new Ell regulations.
ProbablymorethanMy otherpolicy, EIaffectstheworkdynamicwithinfishing communitiesandthe fishing household . EI regula tionsregardingfishingdefinea fish harvester broadlyas someonedoingavarietyoftasks relatedtothefishingenterprise both on land asgroundcrew,and onthe water(HumanResourcesDevejopeemCanada, 2001, PartI).EJregulations,however,restrict recognition and compensation forgroundcrew workinthefishingenterpriseunlessthose workers arealso activelyinvolvedincatc hing fish.Thisregulationhas madeit diffICultto COmpensatewomenwho aremore likelythan mento doonlygroundcrew workbecauseEIbenefitsrelate solelyto workeffortonthe waterrealized throughflShsold.'Theresultisthat women doingthis workhaveoften beenineligiblefor EI.
'Thewaysinwhich women inthe Newfoundlandand labradorfisheryarebeing affectedbyfisheriesrestructuringhave been researchedthusfarmainlyinrelation tothe NCARPand TAGSadjumnentprograms.Forsomeverygood reasons, researchhas tended to focus onwomeninthe fishandshellfishprocessing sector.Employmentloss has been muchgrea ter thaninfish harvesting (Neiset ul.,2001, 40) , and proces sing work ers appe ar tohave become more vulnerableto repetitivestrain injuriesresuhing from
'InJuly1996,Human Reso urcesDevelopment Canadachangedthename UnemploymentInsurance(111)to EmploymentInsurance(EI).
changesintechnology(NeisandWilliams,1990)anddiseases suchassnowcrab occupationalasthma(Nes,1995).Some patterns of exclusion were docwnenledin lookingat women'sexperienceswith theTAGSprogram Firstand foremostwasthat women'sinputwasexcluded fromthe designofTAGSitselfand later,fromthedesign of skills-basedtraining programs.Asa result,manywomenhaddifficulty getting institutionalsupportforappropriatetrainingthatwaslinked to employment(Neisetal., 2001,119).Womenfishharvestersinparticular,hadtostruggletoeven become eligible forTAGS(FFAWICAW,1994,14; Neisetal.,2001;Williams,1996,23. 25;Robinson, 1996,172).Furtherresearchis needed todocwnenttheimpactofnewfisheries maoagerrc nt policiesonwomenand specifically,theeffectsof such policies on thehealth of womenfishharvestersinNewfoundlandandLabrador.
In Norway,theimpactofti'lheriesrestructuringon womenhas beenweD documentedoverthe pastdecade.There,researchershavefound thatrestructuring has tendedtofunhcrmarginalizeand makeinvisiblewomen's traditionalactivit iesin the fisheries.Theresult is thatwomen'straditional workhasnottranslatedintorights of access for women inmodemfisheriesmanagementpolicieswhich"builda strongbond betweenscienceand thestateand reston a particularinBge ofnatureandsociety"
(Munk-Madsen,I998,230). Women'srights are based onaparticular assessment oftheir needs.Theparticular image of natureandsociety thatMunk-Madsen talks about leaves little room toaddresswomen'sneed towortforpay,to have their trainingneedsmet,and tohave ayoreinthedevelopmentof lisheriesmanagemernpolicies.New management
10 structures providewaystoformalizemale dominanceand actto formallyrestrictwomen whiledisregarding much oftheworkthey do (Munk-Madsen,1998,230).This exclusion isevidentinlhe lownumberof womenfishharvestersinNorway.In 1994therewere 561 women fishharvesters,constituting2.4%oftbefisheriesworkforce(Munk -Madsen, 1998.233). By 2000,thenwnber of bothwomen andmenhaddecreasedandtherewere 526women workingasfishharvesters,representing2.6%of tbefishingworkforce (Personalcorrespondence, Norwegian Directorate ofFisberies, 2001).
ResearchonwomenintheIcelandic fisheriesandinNewfoundlandand Labrador focuses onwomen'sroleinthefish.processingworkforcewhere.asUnnurSkaptadottir explains.,theyare oftentreatedas a'reservepoolof labour'(1996,91).Womenare brought into and sent outoftbeworkforce as conditions chang e and asthedemand for labourgrowsorshrinks.Duringperiodsofrestructurin g,whenemploymentopportunities typicallyshrink,women' shealthmaybecompromisediflhey are unable10maintain their employmentandincome.
Forthoseremaininginrural corranunities.theloss ofemployment,lack of ahcmalMemploynrnt,andfinancialuncertainty havebeenmajorstressors,The increasedstressonflShing familiesfromlossofemploymentandincomeduringthelate 1980sand the moratoriumperiodare well docume nted(Rowe Cons uh ing, 1991, 31;
Williams,1996, 21).Intheirrecentresearch entitled"From FishplanttoNickelSmelter,"
Neis, Grz.eticandPidgeon(2001)foundthatthemaingroupofwo rkcrshitparticularly hardbythemoratoriawerefishprocessingworkers.especiallythoseininshore seasonal
II
plantswhere the majority ofworkers were women.Women'shealthwas affectedbythe lossofemploymentandincomesand.forthose whoremainedworkinginfishplants.by changesintheprimaryoccupationalhealthrisksintheindusuy.Theyconcludedthat environmentalrestructwing,along withgovernmentand industryefforts10 downsizethe fishingindustry, shiftsfromgrcundfish tocrab andshrimp processing,andchanges toEI regulation.s,haveresultedin fewerjobs,less certainwork,and reducedincomesforfish processing workers.Theeffects ofrestruct wingwere associatedwithincreasedlevels of depressionfor some womendisplacedfromfishprocessingplants,panicu1arlywhere tminingprogram;throughTAGSfailedto offsettheriskstothesewomen' shcahh associatedwith unemployment(Neisetal.;2001).
Other researchhasalso detennined thatNCARPand TAGSwerenotentirely effectiveinhelping!aid--off fishprocessingwork ersfindahemalive employment.Intheir studyonthe effectivenessofTAGS and NCARPinhelpingpeoplemove outof'tbe fishery,Human ResourcesDevelopment Canada (IIROC)foundthatby1996fish processingworkerswereamuch lower percentageof'adjusted,2workersthanfish harvesters(1998.iv).
21ntheirevaluatio nof rheTAGSprogram, inco me _ both typeandamount-are keyto HROC'sdefinition ofadjustmentandwhether HRDCgot creditforassistingina person'sadjustment.Ifincomewasfromfisherieswork.HRDCdidnot getcredit for assistinginthatperson edjustnent.Thecalculationalso compared a recipient'safter- TAGSdcpendencyonEItohisIherdependencyon UIpriortoTAGS(lIll."&W'edoverthe 1988-199 1period) .For amorein-depthexplanationoftheirdefinitionofadjustmen tsee AppendixIoftheEvaluationoftheAtlanticGrmmdfishStrategy(fAGS).
12 Womeninfishing familieshavehistoricaUytakenan active roleinensuringthe success offishingenterprisesbydoingimportantground crewworksuchaslinebaiting, wash ingboats. bookkeeping,purchasingfood andspareparts,banking, interacting with fisheriesofficialsand buyers,aswetlas otheraspectsofmanagingfishingoperationson shore (Neis andWilliams. 1997.50•Jentoft,1993).As Marilyn Porterwrote,womenin fishingfamiliesare oftendescribed as the'skippe rs ofmeshorecrew'(Porter.1985).
Whiletheirnumbershavebeensmall,womeninNewfound land and Labrador havealso beencrew members on inshoreandoffshore boatswheretheyhave worked mainly as cooksandhclpers(Wtlliams, 1996.11).
Forwomenthro ugho utNeM"oundlandandLabrador,thefisherycrisisiseot just aboutover-fishing,tighter regulationsandmonitoring,andtheneedfornew management structures.Thefinancialandemotionalstressonfishing familiesandthe continued survivalof rural communitiesare major concernsoften articula te dbythem. These concerns arecentral totheirviews onindustry restructuringandrestructuringofsocial programssuch as EIthatareessentialto seasonal workers (FFAW,1994. 7;Cahilland Man land.1993,l lcJentoft,1993,
n).
Tbelack ofemployment resultingfromthe moratoriahas forced manypeopletolookoutsidethefisheryandruralNewfoundlandfor workandpartjcularly,to encouragetheir children to do so.Asruralpopulations decrease duetooutmlgrarion,locaJsocial support networkswhich haveinthepast mitigatedthe effects ofunernploymem. may also decrease (Neis., 1998,10).13 Overlhepastdecade.while fisherieshavebeenrestruct uredinCanada,thenwnber ofwomen workingonfishingboatshasincreasedonhathcoasts.While00studies have beendonespeci1icallyonthe workexperiencesand heahhconcernsofwomen fishingin thePacificNorthwest,theirnumbershavebeenincreasmgaswomen takeadvantageof opportunitiesincommerciallishing(Nade l-Kjein andDavis,1988, 9;Jensen, 1995,vii).
For a varietyof reasons,thenumberofwomcn fishinginNewfoundlandandLabrador has alsoincreased duringthepast decade.Thedepiction of fish stocks,loweredmarketvalue offishandincreasedprivatizationhave resultedindecreased accessto resources and incomefor manyinshore fishermen(Neis,1998,2).Ithasbeensuggested thatlowerreal incomescomingunoholmholds,changestoEIregu lat ions, and thelackof onshorejobs forwomeninfishprocessing andother areasafterthemoratoria.maybeactingasthe catalystfurwomen to move intoworkas fish harvesters (Neisand Williams. 1997,48;
NeisandGrzetjc,2000).In Prince Edward Island,MaureenLarkin(1990) foundasimilar patternwheresinglelobsterenterpriseswereincreasinglyW\able tosupport muhiple familiesandhadtodevelopnewstrateg iestostabilizetheirhousehold income.The main strategy involved womengoingfishingwith theirhusbands.Intraditionalfishingfamilies.
men'sworkandsourceof income take precedenceandasConnellyandMacDonald explain,"itiswomenwho mainlyreallocateandreadjust theirlabour8.<;conditionschange, inorder to maintainthe familyhousehold"(1995,394).
It isnot possibleto studyfisheriesrestructuringinNewfoundland in the 1990s without considerationoftheeffectsof changestotheEIprogram in 1996.Tbesechanges
14 maybehaving an adverse effect onwomenbecaesetheyspecifically targetpan-time workers, makingitmore difficult forthemtoqualifyfor EI.Recently,KellyLesiuk,a part-timenursefromWmnipegbroughta successful courtchallengeagainscthefederal government. claimingthat thenewEI regulations violatedthe CharterofRightsand Freedomsbecause theydiscriminated against womenwhoare more likelytoworkpan- tirre(CanadianLabour Congress, 2001).
Fishing familiesmay alsobeadversely affectedbynew EI regulations whichtarget not onlypan-time workersbutalso seasonalworkerswho,according tothefederal government. havebecome100dependent on thesystem(P uIkingharn, 1998,8).Eligibility forEIhasbeenmade moredifficultandrequireslongerperiods of employment for shon er benefit periods. andtherearepenaltiesforreuse.Thisclawingbackofbenefits.while recentlydiscontinued.,hasmadeitnmchmore difficult financiallyformanyinshore fishing familiesto continuefishingas a source ofinoomeanda way offiCeinruralNewfoundland and Labrador.
I22The Health of Woqrn Fish Harv esters
Withinfisheries,restructuring entailsthe redesign ofrules.laws.,and discourses thaideterminewomenfishharvesters'rights,needs,andaccess to material,structuraland emotionalresourcesinthe workplace,the householdand intheircommunities.When studying itseffects,we mustconsiderthefit betweenredesigned rulesandwomen's understandingoftheir rightsandreeds,changesintheir workloadandinthequality of
15 theirworkexperiences.AUthreeaspects ofrestructuring•access,fit,andquality.impact 00women'sautonomy and equality and have implications for theirheahh.
Centraltothisresearch is a focus onthe experiences of women fishharvesters.the conditions tmderwtUchthey workinthe restructuredfishery,andthe effectsthatfisheries restructuring hasontheiridentity,autonomy ,heahh. Genderanalysisisthereforekeyto this discussion Areas ofthema t icfocus includetheeffect s of restructuring onwomen's work responsibilities. work relationsandworkenviromnentinthefishery;their occupa tio nal health andsafety asfisheryworkers,prof es sionalizationand training,and some concluding thoughtsonthefisheryofthe future.
IJ Significance andSocial
Relevance
ofthe Rese arc hThisresearchissignificant foravarietyof reasons. First,.itrespondsto arequest forresearch and support from women fish harvesterswhoaretryingto overcomeissuesof invisibilityand marginalizationinthefishingindustry.Second,givenwomen'shighly segregatedpositionintheworkforce.itisalwaysimportant10investigate changesintheir labour force participation. Some women may always havebeenfishingintheinshore smallboat fisheries.However,thenwnber of womenworkingas fish harvestershasbeen increasing since the early19805, although the extent oftheincreaseinNewfoundlandand Labradorisunclearand needs tobeinvestigated (NeisW1d Williams.,1997,48; Neisand Grzenc,2000).
I.
Third,thedivisionof labour between menandwomenisa malleableand dynamic socialconstructinwhichthehousehold,alongwith other institutions,plays an important role.Anincreaseinthenwnberof women onfishingboatsindicatesa changeinthe sexual divisionof labour.probablylinkedto changesinthe industry,socialprograms.
fishingcommunitiesand household income.Itisimponant tounderstand thereasonswhy the nwnber of womenfish harvesters is increasing.thenatureof thedivision of labour on board boats,and theconditions under which womenareworking.
Fourth,thesewomenaremovingintoa maje-dominatedworkenvironment where verylittle researchhas beendone toidentifYtheirheahhrisksandconcerns.Women' s occupational heahhingeneralhasbeen wxlerstudied andwxIenninedby patriarchal institutionsregardlessofwhether women areworkingin maJeor temaJe.dominated wo rkp laces(Mess ing,1998).Research onwomenin male-do minatedoccupationshas sho wn thattheyarevulnerableto unemploymentand marginalization,aswellas expos ure to workenvironmentsthatare notdesigneda) for women'sbodies,b) for amixed -se x workforce.orc) for women's homeandcommunity-relatedresponsibilities(Gnetic etaI.•
1996,49;Messing. 1997).
Afinalreasonwhythisresearch is neededistbatwhilesignificant workhasbeen done10makeissuesrelatedtowomen'shealthvisible(Jack, 1991; Neiset al.,2001;
Messing,1998;OstroveandAdler,1998),IIXJre researchisneeded to studythelinks between inequalityandiOOUSlriaIrestructuring,theconstructionofgender,andthehealth of womeninspecificcontexts.11isimportant thatthesestudiesintegratecoredebatesin
17 feministtheory.literature onthesocialdeterminantsofheahhoften claimstotakea gender-neutralapproach.Thiscan resultinamalebiasanda relateddisregardforthe realityof ",..omen'slivesandtheconstraintsontheiropportunities.Oneafmyaim'>then is toprovideafeministanalysisthattakesintoconsiderationthefactthat women areoften seriously disadvantaged compared tomen.EvidenceforthisinthecaseofAtlantic Canad ianfisheriesindicatesthatthisdisadvantag emayplay cutin women'slivesina varietyofwaysthatcouldnegativelyaffecttheirhealthandwell-being.Sincefederal and provincialhealthand fisheriespoliciesare currentlyinfluencedbyframeworksthatare generally uninformedbyfeminist theory,Ifeel that such researchislong overdue.
This thesisintegratesideasandknowledge fromdisciplinessuch as heahhsciences, sociology/anthropology, philosophy,andpoliticalscience tohelpinvestigate social, political.economicandenvironmental factorsthataffectwomen'sbe:alth.Iwillexplore some oftbewaysthe health ofwomm fish barvestersis affected and integra tefeminist ideas10helpbroadenourunderstandingof women'shealthatwork.Thesocojogjcal perspective invo lvesthestudy of local socialandindustrialrestructuring and thewaysin whichtherelated processesaregendered and linkedtoheahh.Transit ionsinwomen's work-bothpaid andunpaid-andeducation areof particularinterest.as wellasthe impacts ofrestruct uring onsupport fo r women fishharvestersatthe institutiona l and conununity levelandtheresuhingimpactson women' shea lth.
Thestudy of individualandcollective identitiesleadsinevitablytodebate sabout rights and needs. Aswomenstruggletonegotiate,male sense of,andlegitimatetheir
18 own changing identitiesandchangingneeds.whichoftenconflictwithandcontradict dom inantviews,thespaces for political actionexpand (Jenson,199 3,147).Inthis research. suchstrugglesand negotiationsinevitablylead toquestions about differential accessto insrmnjonalresourcesnecessaryfor women toaddresstheirneedsas fish barvestersandaswomen workers. Henrietta Mooreremindsusthataccess to such resourcesis affectedbyone'smembershipincertaindemographic groupsandtherefore.
bysociallyconstructed differencesbetweenpeople:"Such sociallyestablished differences generally drawon nonnative understandingsandpractices whicharelinkedto accepted powerdifferencn and ideologies"(1994.91).Linked 10questions of power within fishinghouseholds andbetweenhouseholds andorganizations related to thefishing industry,areissuesassociatedwith'naturalized' notions of women'splace and sk.ills. Whenideas about women'sskills are naturalized,a validityandjustificationis given to women'splaceinthe fishery.This often determinesthedegree ofinstituticnalsupport they can expect.butitalso affectswomen'ssense ofthevalueoftheirown ideas concerningtheirplaceinthefishery,theirautonomyand theirparticipationinbuildinga SUSlainabiefisheryandsustainabkconunWlities.Thenatureandimpactofgendered polidesandpracticesand theirhistorical legacydirectlylnfluencewomen'spresence as fish harvestersandtheir healthandsafetyina male-dominated work environment.
19
!.4CO!lClusjons
InthischapterIhaveintroducedtheresearchtopic, givenanoverview cf'tbe thesis,and introduced the relevant themesassociatedwiththe recentfisheriescrisisin NewfoundlandandLabradorandtheimpactof fisheries restructuring onwomen'swork andhealth,Thediscussionhasincludedthemainareas of studyinthisresearch,including thesoco-ecoro mcconditionsthataffect women'spanicipationintheindustry,work responsibilities. workrelationsandtheworkenvirorutrnt;professionalizat ion of'the restructuredfishery,thegenderedandhistoricalconstructionof women'spositioninthe fishery.and heahhand safety issues.
CHAPTER2:
THEORYAND METHO DS
Itakeas mystartingpoinlinthis researcha feminisl: positionthatthe:currea genderedsocialorderisproblematicinthat its dualistic andb.ieran:bicaI beliefs disadvantagemanywomen and compromisetheirhealth andwell-being.Iunderstandtbis socialconstructionofdisadvantage to be institutionalized.IIisunfair,discriminatoryand disablingandIbelieveitisimponant to exposethe gcederednatureofoursocial institutionsso thatall women.regardlessofclass, race, sexuality,ageor ability,can recognizethemany waysinwhichthe social orderL"maintainedandperpetuated sothey mightfind waystoactinorder tochangeit.Thisisa comroongoal amongthemany feminic;msthatexist-10denaturalizediscoursesaboutwomen and10redistributepower andmaterialresources tobenefitwomen.
Feminist researchandwritingisone wayItry10create changeinthis world.I undertookthisresearch as a feminist
woo
believeslhatthe constructionofinequality undermineswomen's autonomyandhaspanicuJarconsequences fortheirhealthandwell- being.Ialsobelievethaiallsocialpolicy,regardless of whether it concerns education.employment,economicdevelopmentorsocialservices,should haveasitsbroad aims to alleviateinequalityandoppression,therebyimprovinghealth.
2\
2J TheSocialDetrnninants ofHeaJtb
The1999SecondReporton 1M Healthof C!JnaJiamby HeahhCanadadescribes theinter-relatednessof socialandeconomic conditionsand waysthathealthis affectedby adequatekamingopportunities,meaningfulworkandworking conditions,gender.
income,andthephysical envirorunent. Educationltrainingisanimportantdeterminantof healthbecauseof its influenceonemployme ntopportunities.workingconditionsand income(5I).Otherresearchindicatesthateducation/trainingaffectspeople' shealth becauseittendsto have apositive effect onpeople's confidence,theirlevelsof participationinsocietyand thequalityoftheirsocial supports(Ross&Van Willigan, 199 7, 2 75).Employment hasa significanteffect on people'sphysical. emotionalandsocial health not only becauseitprovidesan incomebutalsoasense of identityand purpose, social contact andopportunitiesforpersonalgrowth(HeahhCanada.,1999.54).Worling condit ionsin both paidand unpaidwork:canhaw:jmportaet impactson physicaland emotio nal heahh. Workerswho havemore controlintheir workplaceare often beahhier thanthose who havelinlecontrolThedegree of supportin theworkplaceandstress- relateddemandsassociatedwiththe workenvirorunent are alsoknownto affect heahh (Health Canada.1994,)8).Allofthese health determinantshave consequences forthe life ofwomenfish harvesters.
Physicalandemotionalsafetyare other importantdetenninantsofwomen'shealth andwell-being.Givenwomen'soften subordinatepositioninthe workplaceandthe home,they sometimes have 10dealwith emotionalandphysicaJviolence.Incomeand
22 income uncertaintyarecriticallyimportantdeterminantsofhealth. People withhigher incomestendtolivelonger,healthierlivesthanpeople withlowincomes.Thephysical environmentaffectsthehealthand well-beingof womeninfishingfamilies.firstand foremostbecausetheirverylivelihooddependsupontheheahhandsustainabllityoffish resources.Tbe degradatio noffish resourcesoffthe coastof Newfound landandl...abrador andelsewhereinthe '....ork!.has beenwell-docurrenred,
WhileaUthedeterminantsofheahhare inter-related,gender impacts oneachof them.Inthisthesis,allthehealthdeterminantsunderstudy areviewedthrougha gender lens.HealthCanadaprovidesthefollowing definition ofgenderandanalysisofits linksto health:
Genderisa social construct rooted moreinhuman cuhure thanbiological differencebetweenthesexes.Gender referstothearray ofsocially determinedroles,personalitytraits.attitudes, behaviours,values.relative powerandinfluencethatsociety ascribestothetwo sexesonadifferential basis.
Theembodiment of gendered normsinsocial institutionsand practiceshas subordinatedwomen.,inhibitedtheir achJevement of political, cultural, social.andeconomic equality,and asa eonsequence,impededtheir attainmentofoptimalhealthstatus.
InCanada.womenwill.on average,livelongerthanm=n,suffermore chronicanddisablingdisease,bepredeceasedbya malepanner,bebetter educated.earnsigrrificanllyless,have lessaccessto sup pkmentaryhealth insurance,bemore likelytoheadup alone parentfamily,have differential ratesandtypesofexposureto healthrisksandthreats (e.g.accidents, STDs, suicide,smoking.substanceabuse,prescriptiondrugs,physical activity,etc.)fur gender-relatedreasons.OIher factors(includingsome of theotherdetcnninanls)willfurthershapethepresence, incidence,and natureofthese heaJlh..relatedfactors,but,inthefirsl:instance,themost influencing factorisgender(J996,17).
23 2IJTheHeahh EffectsQfRestructuring
Since themid 1980s,Canadiansociety hasundergone aperiodofextensive industrialandpoliticalrestructuring.Someoflhe major restructuring-relatedprocesses includeresourcedegradation,tradeliberalization, workreorganization(desJcillingand reskilling).downsizingandmasslayoffs. outsourcing,capitalflight,privatization.
professionalization, deregulation, urbe.nization,andchangestopublic servicesandsocial programs(Armstron g,1996,29;MacDonald, 1999,59).Theseprocesse ssometimes increasethelevelof stressorsandchangethetypesof stressorsinpeople'slives.and may affecthealthinother waysbychanging:I)thelocation,types,and availabilityof work; 2) incomes;3) theregulatoryenvironment forwtionizat ion;4)theregulatory environment for thepreventionanddetectionof work-related healthrisks;5) environmentalregulations;
and6)workers'access topublicservices related tounemployment,healthcan; training.
aswetlasto compensationforJossofwork,accident,injuryoroccupationaldisease (Lavis.1998,12; Neis, 1998,2).
Research onthepotential negativeheahheffectsofindustrial restructuringtendsto focus on restruct uring within sectors,particular ly the urbanservicesector and manufacturingemployment(Leach and Winson,199 5, 342).This research has shown thai an environmentofdownsizingandcapitai llight increases employmentuncertainty.
unemployment.andforced retirement,aUof whicharc importantsources ofpsychosocial stressfor displacedworkersandtheirfamilies(Ferrie,1997,381;Koslowski etal.,1993, 277·279).Attemptsto create a'f]clUb le'workforcehaveincreasedemploymentinstability
24 andfinancial insecurity,affect morepeoplethanthosewhoactuallylose their jobs(Ferrie.
1997, 393),and affectwomendifferentlythanmen(LeachandWmson, 1995.357;Neis, 1998,5).Inher anaJysisofdatafromtheWhitehallIIstudydoneinBritain. Jane Ferrie foundthatpsychologicaldisorder wassignificanlJyincreasedamongimecurely employed women and menbut womenhadthepoorestself-reponedheahhstatus(1997,389).She concluded thatworkplacerestruct uring resultedinadverseaffectsonhealth bothbefore and aftertherestructuring look place.
Downsizingalsocreatespsychologicalstressforsurvivingworkers(Ferrie.1997.
393)partlybecausetheyfeel guilt)' and also bycreating anenvironment ofworkover load, job redesign.pressuresto retrain.andnewretrainingrequirements.Uncertaintyin employmentcreates afearfulatmosphere among employees, increasingtheir reluctanceto identifYsafetyproblems.and encouragingthemto take'unnecessary'risksinorder to appearproductiveandto take'necessary'risksinorder toguarantee an income (MWI3y and Dojomcuot,1994;WttheriUandKalak, 1996).
2J.2RestructuringGender andHeahh
Restructuringisnotgender neutral.Asarguedby Cormellyand MacDonald,
"[gJender relationsshape thegovernment, corporate,andhousehold strategiesand the labourmarket-outcornes associated withrestructuring"(1996,82).Theyalso affect the healthoutcomesofrcstruc turing.Socialnormsandstructures placeconstraints on both abilitiesanddesires by,for example,altering women'sability to access educationltraining,
2S
workandincome.Inher researchonreslructuringinCanada duringthe 199Os,Pat Annstrong found thatrestructuringhasresultedinanincreasedworkload formany women anda concurrentdegradingorhannonizingdownof men'swork,Restructuring haseliminatedsome men'sjobsandmade men'sworkmorelikeworkwomen have trad itio nally doneand forthe lower wages thatwomen havetraditionallybeenpaid(1995.
369).Inmanydevelopedcountriesrestructuringhasallbut eliminated trendsineconomic policiesthatens ureda'family' wage for maleworkers.whileat the sametime,forcing more womenintothe workforce.
Thereare healthimplicationsfor bothwomenand men resultingfromthe feminizationof'fbelabourfo rceandhannonizingdown.Whilemanyaspects of een's work havedeteriorated,women toohavebeenexposedto economicpressures toincrease theirworkloadforlower wages or no pay atallandoften tmderdeterioratingconditions.
Nowhereis thismoreevidentthaninthedo....nJoadingofcaringworkforthe:sickand disabledonto communitiesandhouseholdsandhence,onlowomen.
Economicpressures suchas those fo und duringperiods ofreslruCturing.
negative lyaffectmen' sworkandput additional pressureonwomen to dopaidwork.
Moreandmore often, thatworkispart-time.contingentand still lowerpaidthanmuch of men'swork(Armstr ong,1995,37 1;Leach andWinson, 1995.347).During restructuring women'sworkloadisknown to increase especiallyincaseswheretheytake onadditional paidwork without changesinthesexual divisionof labourwithinthe household(Connelly andMacDonaJd,1996,82.83).
26 Bothaccesstoemploymentopportunities andwodingconditions(including overalldaily workload)arc:imponantfactorsin women'shealthand~n-being(lleahh Canada.1999.64).Women'shealthis alsoaffectedby thebroadercontextof environmentaldegradation.localeconomics. resource develop ment.resource management initiatives,technologicalinnovations,migratio n,labourstandards andWorkers' Compensa tion legislation,andpolicychanges related tohealth, education,socialservices andEmploymentInsurance.Women'swork mayincludepaidwor k, unpaiddomestic work.unpaidworkinsupportof family-run businesses.caringworkand communitylkinshipwork.Resourcedegradation,coupled withindustrialrestruc turing, out-migrat ion and the erosion ofpublicserviceshavebeenshownto extend the workload of women(Messiaset aJ.,1997).Newworkresponsibilities,inadditionto thealready existingworkloadof women, may compro misetheir health, especiallyinthe absenceof traditionalsupportsystems,lack offinancialcompensation and decreasing socialservices.
Ncr.andWilliams(1997,50)arguethatindustrialandworkrcstruC1uringlinkedto environmentaldegradation mayimpact on women'sheahhbyincreasinglevelsofstress, poorer nutrition,increasedpoverty,unemployment.andeconomicdependence.aOOby placingconstraintsonaccesstoretraining,safe work,deycare,and appro priate heahhand othe rsocialservices(NelsandWilliams.1997, 50 ).Other researchhasstressed the posit iveeffectofemp loymernon women'shealthandthai,onaverage,employedwomen livelongerthanunemployedwomen orhousewive s(Osrro veandAdler,1998,453).Itis importan t10understand that women' soccupationalhealthisvery under-studied,acrossall
27 occupatio ns.Occupatio nalrisksto women'shealthcanchangewhentrad itionalwork environmentsarereplacedwithnewones.Thisisespecially true whenwomen moveinto male-dominatedwork envirorunentswheremuchmoreresearchinto women's occupationalhealthisneeded(Grze1:icet01••1996.33;Mess ing, 1991,83).
2I3TheWorkandHealth of WOmen fIShHaryest rn:
Wo men' sworkinfishingfamiliesencompasse sbothfishingworkandarangeof care-taking dutiesinthehome andthe community.But.as Marilyn Port er explains, the sexualdivision of labourinfishinghouseboldsdoes 001 alwaysimplymaledominance (1985).Infact.thefishingf.uniJy'sbasicstruggle forsurvival combined with the onerous workhadinvolved.creates akindofsolidaritybetween husband and wife.oftendespite oppressiveconditions.includingviolence (Cadigan, 1991).Itis therefore more like lythat the familyandworkdynamicswithinfishinghouseholdsare basedon amutuaJdependence andcooperation betweenhusbandandwifethatismediatedbyeconomicnecessity.In some cases, mere egalitarianrelationshipswillresult,despite the historical lackof recognitionandfinancial compensationforwomen'sworkbysocialinstitutions.
Tbc centralityofwomen'sworkinthefisheryrestricts theamountoftimethey have availableforotheractivitiesthatgenerate incomeforthehouseholdandthisoften results in womenbecomingeconomicallydepe ndent on men(Cadigan,1991).And fishery-related wo rkisonlypart of women'sdailyworkload.Tbeir work involves afusing of productionandreproductionworkas theyalsotake care ofchildrenandolderfiunily
28 members, cook and dean house.tendafamilygarden.andplanandorganize community activities(Williams.1996,1·2).Men become economicallydependentonthisfishing work that woroendc [Neis,1999.35).Notonlyisthere asharingofduties.but,probably equallyimportantis thefact thai women'swork helpsstrengthenthestatus ofthemale fishermanintheconununity.Tbereforewe must view women'srole asinclud ingtheir physicalandsocial reprod uctive:workofgivingbirth to pote ntial newfishharvestersand givingthese children anoutlookonlifewhichisgrounded in fishing as a wayoflife (Nadel-KleinandDavis,1988).
Women'sworklivesarefar fromorderly:they oftenjuggleworkinsideand
outsidethehome.Sometimestheyworkpart-t imeandmove intoandoutof'tbe workforceseveraltimesduringtheirworkinglives, Yet,mostwomen like toandusually needtowerk,andmany womeninfishing fumiliessaytheyenjoytheir work andidentify strongly with thefishery(Nels.1999,45;Port er,1993).
Women'sworkload, especiallyduringthe fishingseason.isanimportard considerationwhen studyingwomen'shealthinfishingfamilies.Inrecentyears. moreand morewomeninfishingfamiliesare tryingto offsetthewrertaintyassociatedwithfishing withpaidworkoftheirownoutsidethehome.Researchhasshownthatworktransitions canhave varyingeffectsonwomen 'sheahh .In theirresearch onthe healtheffectsof work transitions amongwomenintheirmidlife,PavelkoandSmith foundthatthecontext oftiletransitionandthedynamics ofwomen'sworkliveswere themain detenninants of whetherwomen'shealthwas positivelyornegativelyaffected.Womenwhose workforce
2'
transitionswere involuntarybadthe greatest increasesinpbysicallimitatio ns(Pavalko and Smith 1999.1152).
Astudy doneinNorwayfoundthatonly9'.4of womeninfishingfumiIiesfished withtheirhusbandseventhough40%ofthemsaidtheywould liketofishand44%ofthe mensaidtheywouldpreferthatthe irwivesdidso(Jentoft.I993. 78).However.fishingis afamily tradition where knowledge ofworkonthewater istransferred from fatherto son.
AsMarian Binkleyexplains.mostlearning earlyonina boy'slifeoccurs on anindividual andinfonnalbasis.TIlemajorityof boysinfishing familieswholearn to fish go through a periodofinitiationwherethe fathers socializetheirboysinto aparticularwayof beinga fishharvcsterinorder to copewiththeenvironment(1995,15 S).What happenswhenthe traditionaltransfer aCknowledgefrom father toson shifts fromhu...ooootowife?Howdo genderdynamicsaffectwomen'swork asfishharvesters?How areindustrialand environmentalrestructuringaffectingtheirworkandlearning?
InthisthesisIwilldocumentwomen'saccounts ofwhy theybecame fish harvesters.thedegreetowhich they feeltrainedandcornpetem10go towork.ontiWng boats,andtheirinteractions atworkwith theirhusOOnds. co-workers, industrylunion representatives,governmentandother peopleinthe ircommunities. Iwillalsodocument waystheirhealthisaffectedbytheir working conditions.the workenvironment.and publicpolicy.
Workisimportant to women's healthbut thevalue associated with workwomen doandtheconditionsunderwhichtheyareworking are elseimportantareastoconsider.
30 Insight into women'sworkonfishingboatsoff Newfoundland and Labradorwasprovided byMildred Skinner,a Fish, FoodandAllied Workers (FFAW)representative and fish harvester, at a recent workshop on'JndustrialRestructuringandWomen'sHeahh'(Neis and Grzetic.2000) and at an internationalconference entitled "Gender, Globafuation and theFisheries"heldatMUNfrom May6-12.2000.Her presentations helpusunderstand some of the dynamics and complexity ofwome o'sworkandhealthinfish harvesting.The following quoteis fromoneof her presentationswhere sheisdescrib ing aconversation withanotherwomanfishharvester. Thewo manwastelling her aboutthestre ss she fell aftershewenttoworkas afishharvester:
SinceIstartedfishing,Ihave agedbecause of rbe stress, the stress of feelingguilty.Ifeel guihywhenIam outfishingbecause ofthe timeI spendaway from myfamily.Iff take the day ottIfeel guilty because my husbandhastofishalone.IfIam not aboard of'theboatthai day...Ifeel guihywhenpeoplethinkI' m not fishing so I don'tdeservemyEInext winter.And the chancesarethatsomeone...may callURDandreportthat Iwasn'tin the fishingboatthat day (citedinNeisandGr7.etic.2000).
Other issees raisedduringher presentationsinclude:
difficultiesqualifying forEmploymentlnsurarce under the new, mererigidcriteria because theycannotgetenough hours fishingduring the season;
the stress resuJting fromadditionalwo rkload, forexample withejdercare, for womenwho remaininrural cormnunities;
difficuhies finding dependable childcare workerswillingtocarefortheir children during the longhourstheyare atsea;
governmen tinveetjgaro nschallengingchildcareworkers'EmploymentInsurance claims addingtowome n's difficuJtiesinfmding end keepin g reliablechild care workers;
stigmatiza tionbythoseoutsideofthefisherywho thinkwomen don'treally fish;
stigmatiza tio nbymaJefisherswhodon'tacceptwomenaslegitimateandequalco- workers inthe boats;
lackof mechanicalknowledgerelated to operating boats;
31 risksto women'sphysioktgicalheahhsuch asbeckandjoinl.problemsandkidney infections;
risks createdby therequirementtofishfartherfromshoreinrelativelysmallboats;
and,
stress relatedtoanxietyabout whatwouklhappentofamiliesifbothparentsare hurtordieonthesea sincehusbandsandwives oftenfishtogether.
Thisthesiswillexploreingreater depththeseissues.thegenderdynamicsofwomen's work and Ieamingasinshorefishharvesters,andissues related 10theiroccupational health.
Researchonwomen workingon fishing boatsandinthefishing industryin Oceania'suggeststhai women'sworkisbothdownplayedanddevalued.LeonieStella, whostudied women's experiencesontrawlers offthecoast of Western Australia,.argues thatwomen'sparticipationinthe industryrequiresonly"appropriatemaritimetraining,a love ofthesea,an enjoyment offishingandmanuallabour.andthe abilityto cope with longperiods ofbeing awayfromfrieoJsandfamilyon the land"(1996.192 ).Ho wever. shegoes on to saythat foranysubstantialchange to takeplaceinthe industry,including increasedpartk ipat ionbywomen.themasculineculturethat promotesanidealof'risk- taking,anaggressivealtitude to wardsthe natural envirorunent,ahighlycompet itive hierarchy, adisregard fortherights of othersto workinasafeenvironment. anda disrespectfor women,mustbechalleng edoutright andchang ed (193).
'Oceania includesthe islands of Australia,NewZealand.PapuaNewGuinea and
themainislandgroups ofMicronesia..Melanesia,andPolynesia.
32 Inother partsof'Oceena,Margaret Chapman foundthatwomen'swo rkinthe imhorefisherywlISconstantly devalued.Forexample.shefoundthatmen wererd uetant tosharetheirknowledge of lishingwithwomenbecauselocalmythsand taboosneededto beupheldinorder toensuregoodcatches.TIlerestrictionsincluderefraining fromsexual interco urse beforefishingtrips.thebanningof womenfrombuildingboatsandhandling nets,andpreventingmenstruatingand/orpregnantwomen from participatingincommunal fishing (Chapman, 1987,282).Theprevalence of theseandotbermyths hasbeen documentedinthefishingindustryin Canada by Roger Boshicr(200 I).
2I 4 OccupationalHeahh andWomen FishHarv esters
Workisgenerallyunderst oodtobebeneficialto women'shcalth(PavaIko and Smith,1999 ) but the\'lllucassociatedwith thework womendo,the sizeoftheir workload,andtheconditionsunderwhich their workisdone canmitigateitsheahh benefits.Formanywomen.genderisan importantdeterminantoflheirhealthandwell- beingatwork.Manywomenworkinlowpaying,lowstatusjobswherehazards associatedwithsome ofthesejobsmayOO(beidentifiedandmaybavenegativeeffects on theirhealth.AsKarenMessing explains, overwhebninginstitutio nal support andinterest inoccupationalhealthissuesassociatedwithmaleworkershavedelayed our understandingof risksassociatedwithwomen as workersinbothfemaleandmale- dominatedwork environmen ts (1997,40).In herstudyof repetitivestrain injwiesinthe workforce,PennyKomefoundthatwomen work erswiththeseinjuriesoften have great
33 difficultyhavingtheiroccupationalhealthissuestakenseriouslyandreceiving compensationfurthem(1998,32).
Research onwomeninrreje-dominated occuperc eshasshownthat even though these occupationsget mostoftheattentionfromoccupationalhealthexpertsand Wor ker's Compensation agerces,thereisnoguaranteethatwomen'smovementinto thosejobs willmeanthatencmion willbepaid totheirhealthonthejob(Messing,)l)q7.
42).Onthe contrary,itisoftenassumedthatheath effects arethesameforwomenand men.In male-dominatedworkenvironments, womenare often expectedto 'behavelike men,'including the numberofbours worked.theirapproaches todoingphysicaltasks.and theirresponses tojobpressures.Sometimeswomenare segregatedinto specific repetitive tasks with littleopportunity forfurtherlearning (Messing.1995.42).
The workspace,equipment.tools.medicalinsurancepolicies.andexpectations relatedtoschedule flexibilityinmaJe...dominated work environments can create numerous pressures andhealthproblems forwomen.Theseincluderiskstomental healthresulting fromsexistattitudes andhabits of employers.colleaguesandwomenthemselves;therisk offatigueandstressduetoconflictbetweenfamilyresponsibilities and jobrequirements thatreflectmale lifestyles;real orimaginedrisks forreproduction,altho ughwenow know thatalmostell conditi o nsandwork environments whicharedangero ustopregnant women arealsodangerousto men;and.finally,riskofinj ury duetowomendoing certainjobs using equipmeminanenvironmentdesignedformale bodies (Messing,1991,83).
34 Tbcaveragewomanisa differentsize and shapefromtheaverage man. Without adequatetrainingand adjustmen110tasks, women mayriskaccidents.backache.shoulder andjoint problems (Messing,1991,69).Ina studyof women on theHibernia project a numberofexamp les werefound wherewomen'ssafetywasput at risk duetoinadequate easing intotrade s work(Gtzetic et al.,1996,51).Also,women reportedthattheir personalprotecti veclothingwasoften toobig fo rtheaveragewoman.thereby putt ing themalfurtherrisk,
A reportonoccuparcnalheahhinNewfoundland'sfishing industryinthe 1980'5 byWtlliamsandNeisraisesa numberofconcerns aboutthework.womendointhefish processingsector.Theyfo und that women plantworkers.particular ly those who were married,seemed tobe undera greate r degree ofwork-related stressthan malework ers because oftile nature oftheir workexperiences-concentrationin lower-pa id repetitive andfast-pacedjobs,and additionalresponsibilities forchildrenandthe home (1990.38).
Overalltheyroundavarietyofstress-re jated sympIomsamongplantworkersincluding high rates ofabsenteeism.sleepesseess,fatigue.irritability,anxiety,appetiteproblems, depression.stomachpains,chescpains.rashes,coldsandflus.bladder infections.
respiratoryailments,and job dissatisfuction (1990.21).
ThcoNicholsarguesthat social sciencemakes animportantconrr ibcucn to the studyof deathand injurie s atworkbychalleng ingdominant individualizedapproaches.In his research, he looksfor thesocial and economic determinantsofaccidentsthat hesays areoften playeddown orignoredin accident invest igation'i(1999.88).Research into
mk
35 andoccupationalheahhandsafetyinthefishingindustryhas focused on threemainareas:
techeclogical changeanditseffectsonworkenvironmentsaboardfishingvessels,the interaction of socio-economic factorswithworkingconditionsandjobsatisfaction,and socialand economic factorsinfluencingfishers'awarenessandperceptionofphysicalrisks (Binkley,1995,12).AslXltedabove.otherresean:herssuchasBoshier(2001)have focused ontheuse ofmythsandsuperstitionsbyfisberrenandtheirlinkswithrisk-taking, educationandsafety.
Marian Binkley's199 5 bookent itledRisks,DangerandRewards inthe Nova ScotiaOffshoreFishery,provides ananalysisoftherisks involvedinworkingasdeep sea fishers.She uses abroadframeworkthat considersboththework envirorunentwhich includeslegislation,technology use and education,establishinglinkswith workconditions andthebeaJtboffishery workersand their families.Over a numhcrofyears.she collected datausinga combinationofmethods-statisticalanalysis.panicipantobservation, surveys, and formaland informalinterviewswith individuaJfistvmnen,theirwives,andkey informantsingovernment,thefishingindustryandin themedicalprofession,10determine theworkenvironment as well astheoccupationalheahhand safetyconcerns ofthese fishery workers.She fo und that attemp tsto makefIShingboats saferplacesto work have mainly focused on attempts to control theworkenviroruncnl. Shesaysthatsuch strategies maybefutile because,whiletheymaybeappropriateforland-basedwork environments,theyare usuallyfoundtobe inadequateinfisherywork.Unlikeworkon shore.thework envirorunent on alio;;hing vesselisinherently uncontrollable andthe
36 industryisrifewithuncertaintybothinterms ofthe weather,healthoffis hstocks,the size of thccatchand the pricespaidforit(157).She callsformore proactivestrategies such as induslry-wideassessmentsof'new technologiesand regulationstailoredspecificallyto thefishingindustry(158). GiventhatBinkley's studyisdone onoffshore workerswhere the labour forceis abnostexclusivelymale.the gender dimensionoffisheryworkandthe impactof safety Iegislalionand wo ding conditionson women'sheahhisabsentinher work.
Research on health andsafetyintheNewfoundland inshorefishery doneby Michael Murray andMark Dolomount (1994) foc used onthesmall-boal sector. II involved a combination of interviewswithfish harvesters and representatives offlShery organizationsandamail-outsurveyquestionnaire toidentifYsafetyattitudesandpractices offishharvesters.Theaims of thisstudywere tolearnmoreabouthowto prevent accidentsonthe waterandto develop asafety courseforfishharvesters .Considemtion was also given to the impact of recent regulatory changes onfishharvesters'work routinesand behaviours.1beyidentifiedfourfactorsthatwerethe maincontnbnors10 accidents andinjuriesinfishingandaDareclosely related to individualbehaviour onthe water.The most importantwastheadoptionofdangerousfishingpract icesinrecent years,followedbya perceptionoftileworkenvironment asa dangerousplace, consumption ofalcohol andfishharvesters'opposition to restrictionsplaced on fishing vessels(MurrayandDolomount,1994).
37
"Thesurveyconductedintheaboveresearchfocusedonthesocio-economic environmentin thefisheryandwhysomefishharvesterswen:becoming morewilling10 takerisks.Theyfound thaiv.ithrestructuring,new DFO policies andpracticeswere putt inginshorefishharvestersWIderanumber ofpressures whichwerecontributing to greaterrisk-takingandworryamongfishharvesters.Tbeauthorsrecommendedthat management of scarcefishingresourc es cons iderinadvancetheimpactof restrictio nsand regulations on fishingpractices (1994. 9-3).Unfortunately,thereisno consideration givenineither oftbesestudies tothe increasing presence of womenintheinshorefishery ortheheahhandsafety concernsofwomenfishharvesters.
InNovember.2000.theDepartmentofFlsheriesandOceans -CoastGuard, releasedareport entitled:Fishing VC.JSel SafetyRn iew(less'han65feet).Inthisreport, theydescribedthe changing patternsinsearch and rescue(SAR )incKkntsandfatalities relatedto fishing offthc coastof Newfo wxUand and Labndor.Theyfowxlthat between 1993 and 1999,therewasa31%decreaseinvesselsregistered under65feet.In199 3 tbeyrecorded193incidentsbutin1999they recorded382-anincreaseinincidcnlsof 49%.lbeyfound thatthemost commoncause oftheseinddcntswas mechanicalfililw'e.
causingvesselsto become disabled(DFO,6)and a trendthatshowed more incidents to be occurring furtheroffsho re(OFO. A9).Anotherimportantfindingwas thatbetween199 3 and2000,vesselsunder25feetfishinggroundfishandlobster showedahigher rate of fatalities (DFO,8)thanvesselsin otherclasses.Severalrootcausesoffishingvessel accidentsweredeterminedfromreports madebyresponsibleagenciesandby conducting a
3' literaturereview.Those causesirJ:1uded:
a willingness byfishermentotakerisksinaveryharshenvironmmt;
an overalllackofsafetyculture amongfisbennenthattsmanifestedinpoor seamanshippractices,lowpriorityinthecarriage of safetyand survival equipment.
andsubordinationofsafetyfor economicgains;
inadequatetraining and education;
an inadequatestructurallllTallgementwherebysafetyprovidersestablishand implementinspections,compliance.,andpreventionprograms;
alinkbetweenfleetviabilityand the economic means toproperlyequip for safety;
a reluctancebysafety providersto impose mandatory safety regimes;
a reluctancebyfishermentoaccept mandatorysafety regimes;and, extemal influencessuchasenvironmentalfactorsandfishmanagementregimes thatdo notgive adequateconsideration to safetyissuesand maylead tofishers takingextrarisk(DFO.to).
Itis significant thatfrom the point of view ofthisreport,the maincause of increasingincidentsseems10berootedintheavarietyorjnad ecuecesamong individual fishennan.Itisimportant10notethat00fishbarvesters-womenormen were consulted in theCOIJI"Seofwritingthisreport.Indeed,womenfishharvesterswere001even mentionedand no genderanalysiswas done on any datautilizedforthisreport,including dataoninjuries.,incidentsand fatalitiesrecordedbythe WorkplaceHealth,Safetyand Compensa tio nCommissio n(WHSCC). Aoothershortcomingwiththisreportis its narrow concep tio n ofoccupatio nal healthanditstraditional focusonphysicalinjuries.
Thisignores anyrecognitionof stress-relatedillnesswhichisa growing problemand may beone ofthewaysinwhich inequalitiesinsociety affectpeople'shealth(Wilkinson, 1996).Many oftheseissueswillbeaddressedinthis thesis .
39
2.1.5FisheriesProfes;;ionalization
An importanlaspectof6sheries restructuringsincethemid19905has been professionalization, astrategy adopted 10 control accesstofishinglicensesand to reduce thenumberoffish barvesersinNewfoundland and Labrador.In 1996.theprovincial governmentpassedtheFishHarvestersAdwhichrequires thatallfish harvestersinthe provincebecertifiedbythe ProfessionaJFishHarvest ers CertiftClltio nBoard(P FHC B).
Certificationisestablishedon threelevels:apprentice,level Iandlevel II.WhentheAct waspassed,fish harvestersinDFO'sre gistration system were 'grandparented' into professionalizat ionataUthreelevels.Allfish harvesters exceptthose atLevelIIare requiredto have aspecifiednumber of'ho ursfishingwithalevclll harvester andarange ofeducalionltrainingcreditsinorder toupgradetothenextcertificationlevelOnlyfish harvesters at Level IIcan obtainafishinglicense(PFHC B.No~,2000).
Professionalizationandcertificat ion,oftendescribedbyFFAWunion representativesandothersas'grassrootsinitiatives.,'were putinplaceOSleDSl.b lyto protectthelivelihoodof inshorefishharvestersbylimitingaccesstofishingto full-time f1.<Jlharvesters.ensuringthatfishharvestersaretrainedandqualifiedthrougha combinationofon-the-jobandclassroom training,andaddress ing somecf'tbe health and safetyconcernswithintheindustrythroughtraining.There seems tobe greatsuppo rt for itsaimsto recognizethenumber ofyears workedandsecureaplaceinthe fishery for thosewhohaveinvestedthegreatesttimeandeffort.Ho wever,grassroots support for professionalization is uneven.Thedisagreemen tvoicedbyfish harvesters focusesemthe
40 wayprofessionaliza tionis beingcarried out. For example.inJanuary,2001,thePrawn Newsletteroutof Richmond,
s.c.
reprinteda letter writtenbya group of fish harvesters fromNewfoundlandandLabradorwhovoicedtheir discontentwiththeway professionalizationwas beingimplemented.TheydisagreedwiththePFHCBrequirement for accessto informationon taxesand incomefrom employmentandEIinorder to determinea harvester'srightto certification,claimingthatthisis an invasion ofprivacy.Theyalsodisagreed withthePFHCB'sCode ofEthicswhichrequireseach fishharvester tobeamemberingoodstanding ofarecognizedfisheriesunion or co-operative.
A numberof researchers andwritershave criticizedthe philosophicalgroundingof professionalization initiativessuchas thoseinengineering,teaching,medicine,policing andfisheries. Salling Olesen, whose work documentstheway professionalidentitiesare constructedbyexamininglife histories,suggeststhat the impactofprofessionalization shouldbestudiedinrelationtotrendsintheworkplaceandinthebroadersociety.He explainsthatinstitutionspromoteprofessionalizationschemesbasedupon anotion ofa reflexive,knowledge-basedsociety where rationalactors-the so-called'professionals' - makechoicesas individuals,disassociated fromhistorical and materialcircumstances.He describesreflexivityashavinga'democratic deficit.'Itis,"a characteristicofmodemity [thatis]not an individual,but a societalquality.organizedinthedivisionof labourand differentiationof individuals'conditionsforlearningandknowing"(2000, 3,4).
Suchcriticismsofprofessionalization initiatives have beenreiteratedbyother researcherswho have studiedmore closelythe potentialimplicationsofprofcssionalization
