UNITED NATIONS
ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA
GUIDELINES ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF INLAND CONTAINER TERMINALS ALONG THE MAIN TRANSPORT
CORRIDORS IN AFRICA
OCTOBER 1992
-;■; {o
TRANSCOM/590 7 October 1992
UNITED NATIONS ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA
GUIDELINES ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF INLAND CONTAINER TERMINALS ALONG THE MAIN TRANSPORT CORRIDORS IN AFRICA
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraphs
SUMMARY l ' VU
I. INTRODUCTION ■ • l
II. THE CONCEPT OF INLAND CONTAINER TERMINAL 2
(a) The general concept • • • *
(b) The dry port concept 5
(c) Facilities necessary at dry ports G
HI. TRADE PROJECTIONS AND TRAFFIC FORECAST 7
(a) Criteria 7'
(b) Types of data required for container traffic forecast '
IV. SELECTION FROM TYPES OF EXISTING CONTAINER TERMINALS 8
(a) Influencing factor °
(b) The chassis terminal °
(c) The straddle-carrier terminal *°
(d) The backup gantry-crane terminal • ■ - 12
(e) The heavy-duty forklift terminal 13
V. THE CHOICE OF TRANSPORT MODES 13
(a) The general situation *3
(b) Quality of transport services as the
main factor for consideration I4
VI. TERMINAL INVESTMENT COST CONSIDERATIONS 14
VII. CONCLUSION 15
ANNEX I: M
TRANSCOM/590
SUMMARY
(i) ^ There are seventeen transport corridors in Africa and most of the trades to and from the region's fourteen landlocked and coastal countries pass through the region's major corridors.
This is why it is important that inland container terminals (ICDs) which have an important role to play in containerization and container transport should preferably be established along the existing corridors. All factors to"be considered for their establishment should not be ignored to avoid premature investments.
(ii) Before any attempt is made in planning for the location of an inland container terminal along a corridor, planners must be ftilly aware of the general concept of ICDs and the problems associated with their planning, construction management and operations. It should also be made clear what role any proposed ICD is to play in the transport chain along the selected corridor; especially if the ICD is eventually to operate as a dry port.
(iii) One of the most important factors to corridor when planning for an ICD is the forecast of container traffic both inwards and outwards through an ICD. Criteria for traffic forecast should include considerations to traffic flow characteristics, transit times and the general international trends in container transport and containerization. Also of importance is the types of data to be used for forecasting and the selection of forecasting technique^) to be employed.
(iv) The second factor is the type of container terminal to be constructed and its appropriate location along the corridor. Many types of ICDs exist i.e. chassis, straddle-carrier, back-up gantry-crane, heavy-duty fork-lift and hybrid terminals. Experience in many countries in Africa has shown that none of the single existing types suite all operating characteristics in many ICDs, therefore, it is recommended that hybrid types should be considered for African conditions depending on the type of traffic to be handled and the conditions in the location
chosen for an ICD along a corridor.
(v) The third important factor is the availability of transport modes connecting to the place along the corridor where an ICD is to be built, Important issues under this factor is the availability of as many connecting modes as possible, the quality of the services they can offer to the terminal and their costs to the shippers. The major transport qualities relevant to multimodal container transport are: speed;, door-to-door service capability; reliability; security;
safety; and flexibility. All these qualities have effects on deciding for the location of an ICD along any transport corridor.
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(vi) Finally, the investment costs of constructing and maintaining ICDs can be very high depending on the type selected, size and location; because their construction and maintenance costs depends on conditions of the selected location and site. Sub-soil conditions affects surfacing costs and the types of equipments to be used depend on terminal lay out and operational factors.
(vii) These guidelines highlight how each of these important factors should be handled before decisions are made by planners on establishing an inland container depot in any location along any transport corridor in Africa. The factor are discussed irrespective of the ownership of the ICD in question; whether the ICD belongs to one country or a number of countries through which the corridor passes.
TRA#SCOM/590
■''*■ ■ y! Guidelines on the Establishment of Inland Container , '
> ^TgnWflaJfl along the Main Transmit Corridors in Africa
I. INTRODUCTION
1. The establishment of an inland container depot is an important factor in promoting containerization and container transport. This is the stage where the container traffic is moved from the port area to a terminal inland, thus placing the container in the chain of multimodal transport. Inland container terminals are normally linked to a port or an inland border crossing point through an appropriate transport route with suitable interface facilities. These interface points are particularly important at the ports. For border crossings no specific physical interface facilitation are required, since the crossing point is usually situated on the route on which the container carrier is travelling. This is true as far as transfer and handling equipments are concerned, but administrative arrangements and regulations covering border crossings must be adopted to the containerization system. The basic container transport principle is to allow uninterrupted traffic with minimum delays.
2. Hie trends in international transport logistics suggest that, irrespective of their wishes, the landlocked countries in Africa must be prepared for an increasing proportion of their inwards and general outwards cargo to be containerized. In many respects, containers are very well suited to the requirements of transit-transport but significant obstacles must still be overcome before their foil potential for the landlocked countries in the region can be realized.
3. While inter-state transport corridors, links or arterials are common all over the world, they are of special significance in Africa due to the fact that some 14 landlocked countriesl/
depend entirely on one or several of these corridors for the transportation of their exports and imports. This is the reason why the establishment of inland container terminals should first be considered to take place along the main transport corridors. There are seventeen major transport corridors in tile region with the main characteristic being that they provide access through coastal to landlocked countries and also to distance remote areas in the transit countries. As with regards to container transport, the establishment of Inland Container Depots (ICDs) is undergoing different stages. The Northern Corridor of the Eastern Coast of Africa starting from Mombasa in Kenya through Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and Eastern Zaire has advanced plans and programmes for the establishment of ICDs. The same applies to the" central corridors starting from Dar es Salaam to Burundi, Rwanda and Eastern Zaire. Also it is known that most traffic in the various subregions pass through these main corridors and the same applies to containers.
The Northern Corridor routes account for 72 per cent of the total international transport in the
1/ ;vnV Botswiiia, Burundi, the^C^al Af^can Republic, Chad,! teothb,J&ali, Malawi,
the Nfpr> fewaijiak, Swaziland, Ug4h#*; the Burkina Faso, Zambia aftd Zimbabwe.
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five countries it serves. This report cannot go into details of covering international traffic through all the seventeen corridors. It is only the potential of the corridors as areas of concentration for the establishment of ICDs that is given emphasis. However, a brief description
of the 17 corridors is given in annex I to this document witlvthe aim of being consistent with the
objectives of the Second United Nations Transport and Communications Decade for Africa (UNTACDA II) which has a major role in the physical integration of the region. African countries should, therefore, give preference to the main transport corridors while considering locations for the establishment of ICDs.
n. THE CONCEPT OF INLAND CONTAINER TERMINAL
(a) The General Concept
4. The concept of lifting large container vans onto and off vessels led to the development of specialized areas within ports known as marine container terminals. The role of the terminal was (and still is) to provide facilities for, in the case of imports, taking a container off a vessel hold under customs-approved security arrangements and then placing it onto another mode of transport (road, rail or barge) for subsequent on-carriage. Likewise, export containers are received into the port area, stacked and subsequently loaded onto a vessel. To ensure effectiveness of the container system, shipowners were compelled to expand their area of management to cover inland operations; however, the container terminal evolved as the central point, since it provided the focal area for all activities.
5. Whereas shipowners previously had concerned themselves only with ships and cargo on a port-to-port basis, they were now faced with other problems associated with:
high investment in specialized vessels high investment in containers
maximum utilization of containers (minimum turn-round time at each end of transit)
allocation and movement of containers
- from empty storage area to packing area (road/rail) - packing techniques used by shippers
- transit to terminal (road/rail)
- loading onto vessel (by terminal contractor) ■,.
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securing of containers on deck (provision and use of equipment to specified
standards)
berthing arrangements at terminals
discharge and loading of containers (by terminal contractors) delivery of container (all charges paid by importers)
storage of empty containers
inspection and repair of containers
'6. Ail' these problems could not be solved by confining container handling techniques to port areas alone; giving rise to the question of how to move some activities inland.
7. In addition to meeting shipowners' requirements, it was found that the container terminal must also satisfy the needs of many other interested parties: Customs, health departments, local and national governments, importers and exporters to name but a few. The establishment of an inland container terminal along a transport corridor is, therefore, a complex
exercise and factors affecting it may include:
availability of space;
availability of labour;
establishment of adequate communications systems;
- purchase of various types of equipments;
Resign of an operating method; and
r maintenance of handling equipments and containers, e&,
8. ■>Estobuslu&ent of container^mjnal wjtfci&port areas or in jthe hinterjand has to take some or all factors, a|x>ve. Where a container terminal has a monopoly position in a port-area
or m amn4u$trial part of an urban area in , %
the Jtinterland care, must be takett'to ensure effective operations, at a cost level designed to produce an acceptable internal rate of return (IRR) oii investments made for establishing it.
v. inorder to achieve this the internal container terminal operators should:
> be impartial; treat all customers equally
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use a common tariff set to cover costs
No special concessions which could lead to claims of unfair treatment. This is particularly necessary when .servicing containers from vessels on the same trade which are in competition with each other.
possess adequate container-handling equipments
This does not mean having the biggest and best available. It means having adequate equipment to do the job efficiently.
operate a good maintenance system
The key to successful operation. The best planning and control systems will be of little use if equipment is not in working order . \ operate management and control systems
These must be capable of processing the mass of data generated in the handling of containers including ship planning, operational activities and receipt and
delivery of containers.
Operate using clear documentation and security control system.
Interface with Customs in this area is often difficult due to a "clash" of objectives.
Communicate with users and government departments
Lack of communication between interested parties is still a source of major conflicts in many terminals at major ports.
Employ a trained and stable workforce
10. Establishment and operation of a container terminal often produces conflicts between unions and employers regarding conditions of work, potential redundancy and payment systems.
Such conflicts have resulted in major problems in most countries in which container terminals have been established. It is of utmost importance that the labour force aspect be considered at an early stage of establishing an internal container terminal so that operation of the terminal is not adversely affected in the initial period.
TRANSCOM/590 Page 5 The dry port concept
11. '"■' The dry port concept aims at providing some of the facilities available at s^apoitsat inland locations. At seafliortS'Jarge ships load and unload vast quantities of cargo belonging to various consignor and consignees. Export cargo is collected from the hinterland and import cargo dispersed by surface modes oftransport such as rail, road and inland waterways. To handle Such volumes of cargoes, ports provide facilities for aggregation, storage, segregation, customs clearance and documentation. Thus sea ports act as clearing houses for import and export traffic providing all such facilities that are required for handling storage, clearance and transport of international trade originating and terminating in their hinterland. Dry ports provide similar facilities at inland locations with the difference that their main linkage is with the seaports through surface modes of transport. Otherwise in terms of aggregation, dispersal, observance of clearance formalities and documentation they are similar to seaports. As satellites to sea ports, they fulfil all the basic needs of exporters and importers who are not required to deal with the seaports directly. The dry ports therefore provide many benefits to their hinterland in terms of new facilities and reduction in costs of transport. African countries should always give them preference when establishing inland container depots.
12. A definition for dry ports recently used by UNTACDA is: "A common user facility with public authority status, equipped with fixed installations and offering services for handling and temporary storage of any kind of goods (inducting containers) carried under customs transit by any applicable mode of transport, placed under customs control and with customs and other agencies competent to clear goods for home use, warehousing, temporary admissions, re-export,
temporary storage for onward transit and outright export".
13. From the foregoing it is clear that an inland container terminal where containers come under customs bond, by any mode of surface transport carried under customs controls, and customs and other agencies are present there to clear the goods brought in, is a dOLPQtf. Since it has to be a common user facility, with public authority status a formal notification from the appropriate governmental agency is required to establish a dry port. Such places may (not shall) deal with feffeafe bulk (loose, non-containerized cargo), may store and wiarehduse it, irtayre-export
it, may h&$fttemporarily for onward transit; may export it outright oridmit it temporarily for
some legra&naig purpose; These tasks, functions and facilities of are, h<^wever, optional. It has never been'M'teten^on of the framers of the deration of dry ports tdiniply ffiat it will not qualify ttfWpledaujry £ort unless ail tactionsare performed. X country that #ants a dry port to deal only with containers and containerized cargo, may do soand may even call it an INLAND CONTAINER DEPOT while conferring dry port status on it.of dry ports is closelyrelated to the prbnioiion of^ej through-
Ives the adoption of prbe&hites to carry ISoWfem'iiiie^^r'""" * ious modes o^f^&ort iMy^tV^ig transmpnfe^^thouf^fiien
J.*V for the landlpc^ed cdouoff^; the concepPeMsage _.
or containers by customs' at the5 se&pbrt. A customs'iran&it p&edure needs
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to be implemented in the maritime country. The introduction of a dryf>ort is associated with the simultaneous implementation of requirements for the through-transport concept. The dry port needs to have facilities to handle full and empty containers, facilities for the stuffing and . unstuffing of containers and may be also for' the storage of containers. In the case of landlocked
" countries, one document is issued for the conveyance of:
n (i) exports from the dry port in the landlocked country to the seaport or dry port of the importing country; or
(ii) imports from the seaports or dry port of the exporting country to the dry port in the landlocked country.
(c) Facilities necessary at (try ports
15. The facilities that can be provided at a dry port can vary considerably. A minimum requirement should include:
- customs control and clearance - warehousing for:
. inspection by customs, and . short-term storage
offices of an operator, either the site owner, lessor or contractor offices of clearing and forwarding agents
a security service and floodlighting telex, fax and telephone
stuffing and unstuffing services A fully-fledged dry port may require:
container handling and maintenance equipments for 20 ft and 40 ft 2/ containers banks, both branches of the Centra/Reserve Bank and commercial banks
Z/ The text of these, guidelines are limited to the requirements ; of itttU for the handling of series 1 ISO containers.
TRANSCOM/590 Page 7
,..'■■,. offices and shipping line agents
- railway goods office :■■■■.&; ■,
road trucking broker
III. TRADE PROJECTIONS AND TRAFFIC FORECAST
(a) Criteria '■■•■-
i6.. The next step, after deciding on the site for establishing either a dry port or a
,w• «_ w- > , -. -Jis should be restricted to traffic amenable to
The traffic forecast should be based on three basic criteria as follows:
(i) Traffic flow characteristic s of such a freight viz concentration of flows
; fonT*0* °f lOadS' continuity of Ioads> size of consignment, packing
(«) Modal operating costs and/or travel time.
I, 0*0 International trends in containerization.
(b) TvPeS Of data required fnr retainer traffic frrmrt
inriivi^ 1 h°u'd ^ minnl)' with *» international trade through the corridor or
mdmdual countnes m the corridor for both imports and exports. A clarification rfcareo accordmg to their suitability for transport in confers shouldTo be carrKt 8
*o sets^" SST" by SeleCting."" ^ **»*« "-^ to be used based on
m and data^enefated byjtbc major producets in ^ corridor Qg in external trade, regarding ^dividual commodifie§; wjuch1 are -n the external trade from a container-volume point ofc view. Data
mar^c «MtocW on present and expected future volumes, as well as
markets or suppliers, transport routes and transport costs.''■^kfc^
roost recent year available* asin^^vM^mod^^agroupof
3 otfjer government for cross checking
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19 All forecasts of future imports and exports along the corridor should.be related to a year.
The forecasting exercise is important for deciding upon the type of container terminal to be
established along a specific corridor and the size of the terminal. It ^ importot for the
planning of statistics to be collected once the terminal is operational and also for the type ot indicators to be employed for the monitoring of its performance.IV. SELECTION FROM TYPES OF EXISTING CONTAINER TERMINALS , ^
(a) Influencing factors
20 The selection of the type of a container terminal to be established in any part of a transport corridor in Africa is both an economic and a technical decision It will also be influenced by requirements of a member State where the terminal is to be bui t; and on whetiier it is a national terminal or the one to be owned by a group of countries along the corridor Questions such as who will operate the terminal have to be answered as early as possible and decisions on whether the terminal is to be a dry port or not have to be known. The Nairobi inland container terminal in Kenya, for example, was planned in phases first as an inland container terminal and then converted to a dry port at a later stage of its development and operation when it was already actively receiving containers from the port of Mombasa, and from
the landlocked countries in the hinterland.
21 A choice on the terminal can be made from four types of container terminals as given below depending on the type of lay out required, equipments planned to be used and the organizational structure to be adopted. The four types to choose from are:
(a) The chassis terminal
(b) The straddle-carrier terminal
(c) The back-up gantry-crane terminal or stacking crane terminal (d) The heavy-duty fork lift or front lift loader terminal.
22. Their characteristics which can assist in influencing the type of terminal to be chosen are
as given beltiW.
s terminal
23 This is the classical, so-called "Sealand" terminal type. It is commonly a port terminal or an area within the port area designated for container handling direct from vessels. In principle all containers are placed on a rbad chassis after discharge from a vessel or ^ ca^f^
containers, remain on a chassis after entering the terminal. Throughout the stay in the terminal
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the containers remain on a chassis; this is assumed to be very brief but, in practice, may exceed the allotted free time period. These type of terminals are not common in Africa. The main
advantages of the chassis system are: w*
a limited number of additional movements in the terminal after completion of ship-shdre handling;
relatively simple organization (terminal considered comparable to a large parking area for vans);
low investment in soil improvement; ■
provision of expensive, sophisticated handling equipment avoided (with exception of ship/shore gantry-cranes only terminal tractors are required);
feasibility of operation by medium-trained labour and staff;
simple and inexpensive maintenance of terminal facilities and equipments.
24. However, the chassis system also has considerable disadvantages. For example:
extensive terminal areas are required, as stacking of containers is not possible;
availability of appropriate manoeuvring space for tractors and trailers regulates a terminal's productivity and efficiency;
high investment in chassis is essential (during peak traffic periods the risk will remain that there will still be a shortage of chassis - with the result either of an V ; ; mterrujption of operations, or the need to provide some stacking equipment);
possible automation of operations is rather limited;
-■■■"' on large tennmals of this type traasfer distances may be lohg; mtei^moVcfments carried out by external hauliers would also cause congestion ford short period
(i.e. during peak delivery hours). A,
25. Land requirement is a major disadvantage. For example, 100,000 m2 will be heeded to accommodate 2,000 TEU at any one time on a terminal, assuming that a herringbone"lay out of boxes is used. This jQgure relates only to the actual stacking area, although it includes space for alleyways between container rows.
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26" Alsp, investment in Chassis is considerable. For.a weekly,turnover of 2,000 units (equivalent to an annual throughoutof 100,000 containers)va mmimum of, say, 2,500 chassis will be required (assuming that approximately 25 per cent additional capacity is needed to meet
peak demand).
27. At present this type of terminal can be applied specifically in the following cases:
(i) Where the port authority/ICD owners have to provide a low throughput
terminal and has sufficient space;
(ii) As a start-up of an inland or port container terminal, assuming that a fan- proportion of full car load (FCL) boxes are being handled;
(iii) Where shipping lines expressly require this type of operation, their inland operations being based completely on a high efficiency road transport
concept. '''' ■■■■..
28. As had been mentioned earlier sealand container terminals are rare in Africa and their establishments as ICDs should be discouraged because of their advantages as given in paragraph
25 and 26 above. : ;..
(c) Thfa straddle-carrier terminal <
■ " ■ ;- ■-■ .j
29. An additional distinction should be made for this type of terminal between those terminals using straddle-carriers exclusively (both for horizontal transfer and for stacking) and those terminals at which tractor/trailer units carry out horizontal transfer, and straddle-carriers are employed exclusively for stacking operations. This distinction is particularly important; it affects the total required investment in, and running cost of, mechanical equipment, the organizational
structure as well as the terminal's stacking area location.
30. The straddle-carrier operation has some major advantages over alternative systems, particularly in relation to operating flexibility and efficiency. A well-organized straddle-camer terminal, with an adequate number of machines in good wprjring order, may offer fast working rates, combined with good area utilization and almost random access capacity. This system is suited to those ports receiving a heavy flow of import containers and handling relatively few loaded export boxes. Many ports in Africa are likely to be in this position. However, the use of straddle-carriers>n some terminals for large numbers of export containers is not considered a disadvantage, given the potential speed of die machines and the urgency often linked to export
operations.
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31. Relevant area utilization can be ascertained by using the same exampleas^r the chassis
terminal lay out. To accommodate a total of 2,000 TEU at any one time, the required net
stacking area amounts to: .>.-.*?*"*•
40,000 m2 - when using a straddle-carrier capable of stacking 2 high, ode oV^- one, 1 hn nnn ^ achieving an average stacking height of 1.5 containers '
30,000 m2 - when using a straddle-carrier capable of stacking 3 high, one ovet two, and achieving an average stacking height of 2 containers.
32v, ^-^.W te™^ Operating wim straddle-cairiere have not been fre* ofsome serious
problenis. Frequent breakdowns, a relatively short life-span of the equipment, the need for sophistiqated maintenance and resulting high maintenance cost, as well as poor driver visibility were the most frequent complaints. It has to be admitted that earlier straddle-carrier designs were far from reliable and rather dangerous. However, since 19975 a serious effort was made by various manufacturers to improve on these weaknesses; at present operating reports reveal a
marked improvement. In fact, actual figures show that terminals with up-to-standard
maintenance provide excellent equipment availability, i.e. in exc&sW 80 per cent Presentdifficu ties experienced by many African ports regarding mamtenance and repair prohlk
generalized use of straddle-carriers. * y
33. However, the fact remains, particularly with new type of machines, that full straddle-
earner operation requires high initial investment. It is generally recognized that for every
^try-crane working a vessel, a minimum of four straddle-carriers is required to transfer and stack the containers. Another straddle-carrier is needed for delivery; and a? least one on average will be undergoing maintenance. Thus, a total of six straddle-carriers^r ^niry-crane is reached (this figure decreases if the number of gantry-cranes is in excess offive or six - me result of some economies of scale). For a terminal equipped with two gantry-cranes (generally regarded as the very minimum) initial investment in straddle-carriers would be a minimum of US$6 million. Tins figure, excludes spare parts and cost of spreaders, and relates to 3-nigh stacking
machines. . ■ ., ~ ■••■*.
34' ■*. W* -S81 ^^^in ** case ofstraddle-carriers led a numberofporte to chose the
combined stradoie-carrier/ttactor-trailer solution 2/. Furthermore, the latter equipment choice
also i&ows savings on maintenance costs, on account of reduced horizontal transfer $&&& ofAe sjra^le carpers. Clearly, some loss in overall output may occu* if managemeiit efficiency iS imperfect .Matchin^straddle-carrier and the tractor/trailer cycle%icycle is imitative in this
system an4 requires permanent and close monitoring of operations. The high investment cost for this type of terminal makes it unsuitable for many African countries that would consider it
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(d) The backup yantrv-crane terfpinql ....j]V i!
35. In this type of terminal organization the outstanding feature is the use of backup gantry- cranes on rail, or rubber-typed, to stack containers one over three, four-or five-high in the storage areas. The transfer from shipside to storage area is normally handled by tractor and trailer units or roa&chassis. To reduce the requisite quantity of equipment, road vehicles are generally allowed access to the terminal to take delivery ©f containers alongside the stacking bay
(or to deliver containers for shipment).
36. The particular advantages of this system are its economical use of land areas, reduced surfacing costs on the stack, reliability of the equipment and scope for automation. Labour on the terminal needs only medium-level training, but the supervisory and planning staff must be of the highest level.
37. To underline economic utilization of the land area, the example appearing in previous paragraphs can be repeated. To obtain a holding capacity of 2,000 TEU and assuming an average 3.5 high stacking height, the total area needed would only be 16,500 m2. This is half the area required for the better of the two straddle-carrier systems, and one sixth of the chassis terminal requirement. Some terminals confronted with very serious shortage of space have opted for this operating system, although the multi-user characteristics ofthe traffic would rather prefer
other types of equipment.
38. The use of backup gantry-cranes can also involve major setbacks, namely: inflexibility, relatively high initial investment, poor or, at least, mediocre access to containers and, therefore, a risk of lower productivity than, say, on straddle-carrier terminals, and a higher risk of accidents (as road vehicles will be allowed into the operating areas). A well-designed routing
system would alleviate this latter problem.
39. The inflexibility of this terminal system is not unduly detrimental in the case of export Containers which may represent the largest proportion of the cargo handled, or on terminals with predominant transhipment traffic. However, in terminals like those in Africa where import cargoes predominate, the backup crane system may reduce operating efficiency and, more particularly, cause serious delays in delivery which subsequently hamper storage operations and, finally, ship operation. Moreover, *non-productive' moves in the storage areas tend to increase correspondingly with delivery problems. However, some terminals claim that these difficulties have been overcome, thanks to sophisticated container identification systems^/.
4/ In this connection it is of interest to mention current experiments undertaken by some US operators with the aim of deciding on the feasibility of using bar codes or infrared waves for automatic identification of containers. The container terminal at Douala port in
Cameroon is fully computerized and has therefore overcome the same problems.
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40. the stacktag-crimeterminal is particularly suited where available land areas are very
limited, when considerable transhipment traffic is handled, and when full afttotoation of the terminal is envisaged to off-set high labour costs, or a combination of any of these tntee major factors. Many terminals in Africa are of this type and establishes of ICDs along corridors in the region should give high priority to the gantry-crane terminals.(e) The heaw-dutv forklift terminal
41. Discussion on container terminal lay outs would not be complete without mentioning the alternative use of heavy-duty forklifts equipped with either top-lift or side^ft spreader (the fottner is preferable in view of the better load distribution). This choice is jMtfoiis for smaller cargoes. It should be emphasized that the major advantage in the use of heavy-duty forklifts lies in their versatility, thus the probability of economic, i.e. intensive, use throughout the life
Of this equipment. *»"
42. In the previous section it has been shown that none of the four container types is without
major disadvantages. This has induced a number of developers and operators of container terminals to consider some combinations of the pure terminals already described Of these the s^ddle-carrier/backup gantry-crane combination is quite common. Such a combination if deeded upon results into what is generally known as Hybrid Container Terminal. Authorities in Africa which have the interest in developing container terminals along the main hubs of corridor traffic should be aware of the existence of hybrid terminals. Their combined nature of operations allow terminal managements to maximize the advantages of each type and to minimizetne most obvious operational and cost constraints.
V. THE CHOICE OF TRANSPORT MODES
j The general situation y ;:
L • ^P situation the choice of modes of transport for inland carriage' of
contain^ frill be affected by both cost and service quality criteria: those two aspects are closely ihnk^l and^stitute the basis m whichshippers will deej^ whichnmode or a combiiawof mode^ touse in the infendleg of each individual consignment or container alone a^transp^ncprridor or away frcimit,; However, these criteria are important not only fot the shippers immediate choice of a transport mode but equally for the suppliers of the transport -s^ces and for public entities providing the necessary infrastructure^/ which have to evaluate tnrments of the modes of transport in order to arrive at an optimum decision for infrastructure
and equipment mvestnient in line with the corridor's development plan, ft is therefore fhiitoftant 5/ F^^oiiafyanning authority, ftofwev^'thfe may be only«toe*6f a number of
•Other questionPsach as Ihe Volume
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that transport modes likely to service a container terminal in any part of a corridor be given serious considerations before the locationof the termasal is decided upon, ^t will also be found that the locations of surface transport hubs will influenceuthe choice of the location for a container terminal in any of the 17 corridors in Africa. '
(b> Quality of transport services fls the main factor for COasideratiQHS
44. Difficulties in assessing the transport quality stem from the fact that such quality along a transport corridor cannot be evaluated uniformly in monetary terms. Each shipper or planning unit will attract its own specific values to the various services based on their relative cost in the total distribution process, and thus decide on the premium it is willing to pay for any qualitative charge. The major transport quality relevant to services of an inland container depot are:
security, speed of handling and distribution, door-to-door distribution capability, reliability, safety, and availability of equipment and manpower. All these transportation factors have to be taken into considerations while deciding upon the location of a container terminal along a corridor in relation to the hinterland it is likely to serve. Specific container terminals in any part of the corridor can be based first on the transport costs. The actual level of costs for each mode serving an inland container terminal in any given corridor cannot be established in general; it may differ widely from corridor to corridor. It is however possible to establish a general relationship between the costs of the different transport modes, based on the principle that the costs of each mode will develop differently with varying voyage distances from and to the terminal owing to different proportions of fixed and variable costs in the total costs cf each
mode.
45. Both railways and inland waterways are characterizes by a high proportion offixed costs',
which have to be equally absorbed by short or long distance hauls. From this it follows that short hauls are relatively expensive, with little extra cost for each additional kilometre. Road transport costs, on the other hand, are largely variable, thus creating comparative advantages for short distance haulage. In the light of these consideration, the conclusion may be drawn that, up to a certain point from the inland container depot along a corridor, road transport is more cost effective feeder mode man rail and inland waterways whereas this relation may be reversed oncea break-even point has been reached.
VI. TERMINAL INVESTMENT COST CONSIDERATIONS
46. A risk is unavoidable in attempting to give a reasonably accurate estimate of the required initial investment in establishing inland container terminals. Depending on the type, size, but also on location, local conditions and specifically stipulated requirements, investments may, and
do, vary considerably. For example: >=....-...
both construction and maintenance costs depend very largely on conditions of the
selected site;
TRANSCOM/590 Page 15 surfacing costs are affected by sub-soil conditions and the selected type of container terminal;
equipment costs depend on the type of terminal lay out, and operational factors.
47. The general cost factors such as the wage level of construction workers, the amount of foreign expertise required, availability of and cost of building materials will further increase the disparity in investment levels.
48. Planners for internal container depots should always take into considerations the costs for the operations and management of iniand container depots as a function of its location in any part of a transport corridor. Details of what to take into considerations for the planning, operations and management of inland container depots are given in an ECA document titled "Guidelines for effective planning management and operations of container terminals" (TRANSCOM/376 of 9 May 1990) and are not a subject for this report on deciding locations of inland container depots along major transport corridors. The two reports are complementary and are a useful guide to any authority planning to establish an internal container terminal/dry port in any location along a transport corridor in Africa.
VII. CONCLUSIONS
49. The general conclusion which emerges from this document points to the basic need for African countries to consider establishing ICDs along the major transport corridors which cement landlocked countries to their coastal neighbours. The basic needs of an inland container terminal in any country should be synchronized with traffic conditions and requirements of that particular country and the services to be offered by the terminal to neighbouring countries. The synchronization starts on the drawing board and has to be checked continuously to ensure that all factors to be taken into consideration for the establishment of an ICD are looked into through all stages of the terminal inception and also once operations have started. In this respect an inland container terminal is no different from a conventional break-bulk berth. Overall operation of a terminal can seriously be harmed by ignoring any of the factors to be considered especially those related to its location in a corridor and type of the terminal to be constructed. These two main factors influence construction, maintenance, operating and labour costs of an inland container terminal.
TRANSCOM/590 ANNE I
(i)
A -Brief Inscription of the Maior Transport Corridors in
■ There are about 17 major transport corridors in Africa with the main characteristics being that they provide access to landlocked countries and to distant remote areas in the transit countries. The transport modes making up each of these corridors consist mainly of road railway, prot and inland waterways. These modes fit into the various corridors because of the critical transportation chain they offer along the corridors, without which the corridor might be unjustifiable. The transport potential of the corridors make them most suitable for the establishment ofinland container depots and dry ports, they are briefly described bejow to show their importance and consistency with the objectives of the Decade programme, and the major role they play in the physical integration of the region. ECA recommends that priority should be given to these comdors regarding any decision to establish an inland container terminal in anv
country or subregion.
'! <a) Momba^a-Nairobi-Uganda-Rwanda-RiminHi-Eastern Tain* (Kivu Province
— -This major transport corridor serves the landlocked countries of Uganda, Rwanda Burundi and Eastern Zaire both by road, rail and inland waterways (Lake Victoria) Rail services along the corridor are only to Uganda. The total distance by road from Mombasa to Bujumbura is about 2,000 kms and by rail from Mombasa to Kasese (Uganda) is about 1 700 km. The corridor has one dry inland port at Nairobi, Kenya and will soon have two more/one in Malaba on Kenya/Uganda border and another, in Kisumu on Lake Victoria. There is a plan also to have an inland container depot at Kampala in Uganda. Once these depots are all open Jne comdor will have the most typically located^inland container depots in the region, *
j (b) Par es Salaam - Rwanda -
This corridor serves the landlocked countries of Burundi and Rwanda by a combination
'™*and1 **? fiff0* modes- The route from Dar es Salaam to Bujumbura ponsists of
1,255 km^of rail and 175 km of lake transport. For traffic destined for Rwanda's (J^ect traffic
consistsctf982 km of rail to Isaka and 496 km of road from Isaka to Kigali via LS^
JUfs i:v- ..- ;;:■>
TRANSCOM/590 ANNEX I
Page 2
(c) Par CS Salaam - Zambia
The transport infrastructure of the Tanzania-Zambia corridor, consists of a parallel road and railway of about 2,000 km. Most of the facilities are in good condition and during the UNTACDA I, Zambia was to bitumenize 590 km of two roads (ROP-49-0Q2 and 006) and was also to carry out studies on the Mpulongu-Kasama railway (RAP-49-001). >
(d) Nacala - Malawi - Zambia
This corridor from the Mozambican port of Nacala serves the two landlocked countries of Malawi and Zambia by both rail and road modes. The rail and road distance from Nacala to Zimba, Malawi is about 700 km. The corridor has a satellite of inland container depots in Malawi.
(e) Beira - Zimbabwe - 2&nifrj[a - Malawi
The facilities on this corridor consist of a 1,055-km parallel rail and road from Beira through Zimbabwe to Zambia. Zimbabwe is also connected to Malawi by a 1,042-km road and there is a direct railway line of about 600 km from Beira to Limbe in Malawi. Given the existing road and rail transport links among the three landlocked countries (Malawi, Zambia and
Zimbabwe), each of the Mozambican ports and corridors provide transit services to all three
landlocked countries. The routes have potentials for inland container depots/dry ports.
(f) Maputo - Zimbabwe - Zambia ■
• * ., -
The main transport infrastructure on this corridor is a 1,200-km railway line from Maputo to Harare, Zimbabwe and about 1,710 km to Lusaka, Zambia. As already mentioned above, this is one of three Mozambican alternative corridors serving Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
(g) Maputo - Swaziland
Of all African landlocked countries', Swaziland is unique in that it has the shortest transit link of barely 220 km of a good railway line frbiti'&faputo to Mbabane. The corridor is quite
^efficient and in good condition and the expansion of the Maputo port facilities andpurctase of rolling stock by Swaziland (RAP-42-001) is envisaged to improve services on this corridor.
Swaziland already has advanced plans for the establishment of inland container depots.
TRANSCOM/590
ANNEX I Page 3
provide a shorter and more
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TRANSCOM/590
Page 4
(m) CPtCW - N'?er
The port of Cotonou in Benin serves as the major transit point for traffic to the Niger^and also as a minor transit point for the Burkina faso. The facilities «r^comtecom*stcrfJWO
km) rail and (620 km) road from Cotonpu to Niamey and a further 870 km by road to Ouagadougou, lipper Volta.(n) I nme-Upper Vnita-Niger
The port of Lome, Togo, handles a reasonable volume of transit services to Ouagadougou
and smJKumes to the Niger and Mali. A 1,024-km road from Lome to^Ouagadougou «
the main transport infrastructure. The road distance from Lome to Niamey via Koupela, Burkina
?L7y ^Ouagadougou) is about 1,253 km and to Bama^iaOuagadougou.s *om
2 067 fan The distance between Ouagadougou and Bamako could bereduced by about 140 km
£ the rmd from Bodo-Dipulasso to Sikasso were improved so that ^southern mstead of the
northern route could be y,sed. - J
(o) AMJa" - "pper V"^ta - Nige*
This is one of the most important transit corridors in Africa, serving the landlocked
countrieWf LVv£t Volta, the Niger and Mali. Xhe transport facilities on thiscorndor are TrSd road (1 260 km) and rail (1,15? km) from Abidjan to Ouagadougou. Ouagadougou
and Niamey are connected by a 512-km road, making the total distance from Abidjan to Niamey by road about 1,772 km and by a combination of road and rail about 1,662 km.
(p) Abidjan - Mali
Mali is served from Abidjan by a combination of rail and road modes throughthe Upper
Volta. The rail distance to Bobo-Diouksso is about 762 km and the road d^^^f^
Dioullasso to Bamako is about 868 km via the northern route, for a total of about 1,630 km from
Abidjan to Bamako.
(q) Dakar - lytali ;( -
Landlocked Mali largely relies on this 1,289 km railway line from Dakar to Bamako for a major part of its international traffic. There is a dirt road of about 1,323 km between Dato
and Bamako, but its condition is so poor that it cannot be used for any international traffic
purpose.
