Article pp.190-193 du Vol.22 n°3-4 (2010)

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NOTE /NOTE

Some reflections on the popularity of forensic anthropology today

Réflexion à propos de la popularité de l

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anthropologie médico-légale aujourd

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hui

E. Cunha

Revised: 8 December 2009, Accepted: 9 March 2010

AbstractAs the title states, this article presents reflections on why forensic anthropology is now so popular. We do not wish to present the history of this science or to discuss it in detail, but rather to comment upon the present situation by raising what we believe are important questions for all who work with this science. The past and present contributions of forensic anthropologists must be adapted to the needs of society today. Furthermore, the quality of the techniques applied must be improved in order to satisfy more demanding legal requirements. For this, the accreditation process and the publication of guidelines are paramount. The developments that have taken place within the discipline during recent decades justify the role of forensic anthropology as a determinant science within the forensic context.

KeywordsForensic anthropology · Perspectives · Developments

Résumé Comme le titre l’indique, cet article présente des réflexions sur l’anthropologie médicolégale et discute les raisons à l’origine de sa popularité. Sans revenir sur un historique de cette science, nous nous attacherons à commenter la situation actuelle en analysant les questions importantes soulevées par les scientifiques de ce domaine.

Les contributions passées et présentes des anthropologues médicolégaux doivent être adaptées aux besoins de la société d’aujourd’hui. En outre, la qualité des techniques appliquées doit être améliorée afin de satisfaire les exigences légales croissantes. Pour ce faire, le processus d’accréditation et la publication de lignes directrices sont primordiaux. Les développements qui ont eu lieu au sein de la discipline au cours de ces dernières décennies justifient largement le rôle de l’anthropologie médicolégale comme une science à part entière dans des contextes médicolégaux.

Mots clésAnthropologie médicolégale · Perspectives · Développements

Forensic anthropology on the 150th anniversary of the Société d

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Anthropologie de Paris

In terms of the history of forensic anthropology, its academic roots go back to European scholars of the 18^thand 19^thcenturies, one of whom was Paul Broca [1].This means that the foundation of the world’s oldest association for anthropology, La Société d’Anthropologie de Paris, is also linked with forensic anthropology.“Broca recognized the need for understanding human variation and putting skeletal interpretation on a more scientific footing” [1].

Furthermore, the instruments developed by Broca, such as the osteometric board, are still in use in forensic analysis today. However, from Broca to the present, this science went through several phases, the first of which were clearly linked with physical anthropology, while the later ones were decisively affected by molecular biology. Though it is not the objective of this article to present the history of the discipline, it is necessary to refer to crucial moments such as the creation of the physical anthropology section of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, in 1972, and the formation of the American Board of Forensic Anthropology (ABFA) in 1977, mainly concerned with the recognition of the discipline. Outside the United States, groups such as the Equipo Argentino de Antropologia Forense must be acknowledged as one of the very first ones, while in Europe, only in 2003 was the first association of the discipline created, the Forensic Anthropology Society of Europe (FASE) [2], which has just published the first European guidelines for forensic use [3]. In addi- tion, an obvious trend within the development of the discipline is a growing interplay with other fields such as genetics and archaeology; in other words, forensic anthropology has become much more pluridisciplinary. Not only does it depend on other sciences (histology, biochemistry, optics), but also other sciences now need the answers

E. Cunha (*)

Life Sciences Department, University of Coimbra, Forensic Sciences Center, Coimbra, Portugal e-mail : cunhae@antrop.uc.pt

Bull. Mém. Soc. Anthropol. Paris (2010) 22:190-193 DOI 10.1007/s13219-010-0025-8

Cet article des Editions Lavoisier est disponible en acces libre et gratuit sur archives-bmsap.revuesonline.com

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provided by anthropology (genetics, pathology). It is also necessary to point out the important changes that have recently occurred in the treatment of scientific evidence presented in court, which has also had crucial repercus- sions on forensic anthropology [4,5]. Other key advances that have occurred in the last 20 years are the development of subdisciplines, such as forensic taphonomy and trauma analysis, which is practiced quite differently today. As pointed out by Dirkmaat et al. [4], 20 years ago trauma analysis was exclusively conducted by pathologists.

Today, the study of traumatic injuries to bone is one of the major tasks for anthropology as well as one of its contributions to the legal system, with a major impact on the investigation of crimes against humanity. Thus, the developments that have occurred in the discipline are such that, and subscribing Dirkmaat et al. [4] it can no longer be con- sidered a daughter of physical anthropology, but rather a sister to it.

Why is forensic anthropology so popular?

The word forensic has become very attractive. Everywhere, students seek centers where they can study forensic sciences.

And the answers can be surprising. For example, in the UK, more than 400 courses (such as forensic accounting!) includ- ing the word forensic can be found. In other words, if the word forensic is“googled,”the answers retrieved are amaz- ing. Why is this? Is this a fashion that will decrease over time? The availability of information in modern society cer- tainly makes a difference. The internet in itself is a powerful tool of galvanization. Among the forensic sciences, anthropology has an important place today. The media have also played an important role in the spread of this discipline.

“While Bones and CSI markedly increased the visibility of FA, the downside is that jurors and lawyers may have expectations that extend beyond our science”[6]. I would add not only jurors and lawyers, but also the public in general, and some of the students who apply for the courses in particular.

There are very high expectations concerning the length of time for the resolution of a case, and how far we can go in producing evidence and the media sometimes transmit the idea that forensic anthropologists are both scientists and experts in crime, which is not the case. On the one hand, it is also true that in some instances, the authorities do not know that forensic anthropology can go as far as it can, as in the case of inferences that may be made from a cremated bone. But why is the investigation of skeletal remains or of bodies in an advanced state of decomposition now more interesting than ever to the general public?

The reasons for this are mainly related to the quantity of situations requiring the expertise of forensic anthropologists.

Key events such as the Twin Towers Disaster in 2001 [7],

and the too much crimes against humanity [8] that have occurred in various countries, have required the expertise of forensic anthropologists, whose useful work was recognized. Such events have led to a significant, almost exponen- tial increase in the science of forensic anthropology at the beginning of the 21^st century. The significant amount of books published on this subject during the last decade is also a proof, as well as a consequence, of this increase.

Thus, simple questions such as“How to become a forensic anthropologist?,” “Is it beneficial to become a forensic anthropologist?” [9], and “What education or training do you need to become a forensic anthropologist” become frequent. Again, the fact that answers to these questions are sought through “Google” reveals the large interest in this subject. In the United States, the answer may be: “If you want to become a forensic anthropologist, you must go to university and study physical anthropology”[9]. In Europe, where the background of forensic anthropologists varies from country to country, the answer could be different [6,10–12]. A common element on the two continents, though, is the number of students on waiting lists for forensic anthropology courses, in spite of the fact that there are not enough places to match the enthusiasm [10,13].

Hence, it becomes important to know what are the main possibilities for the employment of forensic anthropologists.

Universities and museums have been the more traditional employers, followed by hospitals and forensic institutes.

Recently, humanitarian initiatives have become a major source of employment [6]. An example is Joint POW MIA Account command [14], which calls itself the largest forensic anthropology lab in the world, employing the largest number of experts.

To fully evaluate these questions, it is important to define the present-day contributions of forensic anthropologists.

Despite general opinion, forensic anthropologists are not restricted to skeletal remains. They should be called upon for identification purposes whenever facial recognition is no longer possible or to perform bone analysis every time a traumatic injury is doubtful. They also now deal with living individuals. It is not the aim of the present article to discuss this issue, as it has been developed in other publications [10], but the systematization of the main areas of intervention of forensic anthropologist should be clear.

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Recovery of human remains/scene of crime

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Determining the PMI

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Determining the human origins of remains

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Building of biological profiles (putrefied, burned, skeletal, dismembered)

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Craniofacial reconstruction

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Personal identification (searching for identity factors)

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Assistance in the determination of cause and manner of death (traumatic injuries assessment)

Bull. Mém. Soc. Anthropol. Paris (2010) 22:190-193 191

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•

Mass disasters

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Mass graves and war crimes

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Identifying the living

The quantity and the quality of recent articles and book chapters on the subject are both relevant and enable the dis- semination of information concerning forensic anthropology in specific countries [6,12,15–18].

To illustrate the changes operated in this discipline, I quote here a paragraph from one of the above publications both particularly eloquent and updated:“The days when a physical anthropologist could occasionally take on a forensic case without extensive training or experience are over.

Modern forensic cases have to be handled appropriately from beginning to end, from the in situ scene to the case report”[15].

A reference should also be made to one of the most com- plete, critical, and well-written articles on the roles of forensic anthropology, that of Dirkmaat et al. [4]. This article deals with the evolution of forensic anthropology from Iscan’s assessment [19] to the state of the discipline today.

Consequences of the growth of forensic anthropology

Besides the reasons for the growth of forensic anthropology, it is important to analyze the consequences of such a phe- nomenon. In general, the preparation of a forensic anthropologist should be better today than it ever has been and this implies the application of rigorous methodologies and a very demanding process of certification. Without such pre- cautions, there could be an increase in the number of false forensic anthropologists, individuals who believe that they are qualified after completing an intensive course or after working with some skeletal remains from archaeological contexts. To quote, Scheuer and Black [20]: “Forensic osteology is not something that can be learned from a textbook in a year. It is a subject that relies heavily on practical experience that must be gained over time and, therefore, it is essential that rigorous accreditation procedures be in place.”

It must always be borne in mind that we are dealing mainly with the restitution of identity to human remains and/or documentation of human rights violation and that these may have very important legal consequences. Black [13] points out: “Maintaining and protecting the integrity of identity has reached levels of unprecedented importance and has led to international legislation designed to protect human rights.”

Two important facts are to be retained: traditional physical anthropology is not enough for the forensic context, and themodus pensandiis quite different in the forensic domain.

Perspectives and needs for the near future

The proliferation of forensic anthropologists could be slowed down by a rigorous accreditation system, thus leading to a decrease in the growth of the discipline in the near future. But, of course, this does not apply to those who have undergone a recognized academic formation and have acquired proper experience in forensic anthropology.

Forensic anthropologists should be familiar with courts and be ready to present their evidence. This implies more work on the quantification of results, as in fingerprinting and genetics. Statements such as “my experience enables me to say that those skeletal remains belonged to a man” should no longer be valid.

Some of the urgent needs on which some associations are working (FASE [2]; ALAF [21]; Swganth [22]) are as follows:

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The establishment of a reliable and credible system of accreditation for forensic anthropologists;

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The regulation of the admissibility of forensic anthropology evidence in court;

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The adoption of standards/protocols and guidelines recognized by the scientific community through publication in peer-reviewed journals.

Human bones can be analyzed only by experienced forensic anthropologists, and this discipline is experiencing unprecedented growth and transformation which cause it to be particularly appealing. It is expectable that the near future will continue to provide situations/cases where the profes- sional forensic anthropologists will be irreplaceable.

References

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In: Schmitt A, Cunha, E, Pinheiro J (eds) Forensic anthropology and medicine. Complementary sciences from recovery to cause of death. Humana Press, Tottowa, pp 3–12

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Last accessed 2010/06/07

3. Cunha E, Baccino E, Martrille C, Cattaneo C (2009) The prob- lem of aging human remains and living individuals: a review.

Forensic Sci Internat 193:1–13

4. Dirkmaat DC, Cabo L, Ousley S, Symes S (2009) New perspectives in forensic anthropology. Yrbk Phys Anthropol 52:33–52 5. Christensen M, Crowder C (2009) Evidentiary standards for

forensic anthropology. J Forensic Sci 56:1211–6

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10. Cunha E, Cattaneo C (2006) Forensic anthropology and forensic pathology: the state of art. In: Schmitt A, Cunha, E, Pinheiro J (eds) Forensic Anthropol Med Complementary Sciences from recovery to cause of death. Humana Press, Tottowa, pp 39–56

11. Blau S, Ubelaker D (2009) Forensic anthropology and archeol- ogy: introduction to a broader view. In: Blau S, Ubelaker H (eds) Handbook of forensic anthropology and archaeology. Left Coast Press Inc, Walnut Creek, pp 21–6

12. Brickley MB, Ferllini R (2007) Forensic anthropology. Cases studies from Europe. Charles Thomas, Springfield Ill, 250 p 13. Black S (2003) Forensic anthropology–regulation in the United

Kingdom. Sci Justice 43:187–92

14. Joint Pow/MIA Accounting command http://kwvachapter210.tri- pod.com/id123.html last accessed 2010/06/07

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Schmidt C, Symes S (eds) The analysis of burned human remains. Academic Press, pp 15–54

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