What are the educational conditions (in theory and practice) for minor refugees who arrive in Lesvos, Greece ?

Under the direction of Dr. Zoé Moody

WHAT ARE THE EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS (IN THEORY

AND PRACTICE) FOR MINOR REFUGEES WHO ARRIVE IN THE

ISLAND OF LESVOS, GREECE?

Submitted to the

Interfaculty Centre for the Rights of the Child (CIDE) of the University of

Geneva

for the purpose of obtaining the

Interdisciplinary University Master's Degree in Children's Rights

Alexandra MYROVALI

Thessaloniki, Greece

Mémoire No CIDE 2021/MIDE 19-21/03

Jury :

Dre Zoé Moody

Dre Nataliya Tchermalykh

SION, Switzerland

January, 2021

Declaration of honor attesting to the originality of the work

performed

I declare that I am indeed the author of this text and certify that any statement it contains that is not the fruit of my personal reflection is attributed to its source and that any passage copied from another source is furthermore placed in quotation marks.

Name and Surname: Alexandra Myrovali Place / Date / Signature:

Thessaloniki, Greece

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was carried out in the context of the interdisciplinary university master’s degree in Children’s Rights at the Interfaculty Center for the Rights of the Child (CIDE) of the University of Geneva. The present work is an attempt to capturethe approach of the education offered to underage refugees arriving on the island of Lesbos in Greece, in relation to the legal framework for the protection of the rights of the child, but also examine the role undertaken by employees of public or private organizations in promoting optimal education of these minors.

I would like to express my gratitude primarily to the supervisor of my dissertation, Dr. Zoé Moody, Senior Research Associate at the Inter- and Transdisciplinarity Unit, Center for Children’s Rights Studies at the University of Geneva, for her supervision, scientific guidance, trust and encouragement shown during the preparation of the project. I also have to thank all the people who contributed to the research, who agreed to help me and shared their experiences and knowledge with me. Without their valuable help, I would not have been able to complete this research.

Finally, I own a warmly thank to my family and friends, who stood by me and supported me in my endeavor.

ABSTRACT

Since late 2014, Greece has had to confront not only the economic crisis but also the increase of migration flows from the Middle East region. According to the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), Article 28 referred to the right of the child to education and that the State has the obligation to make primary education compulsory and free. The main purpose of this survey is to examine the educational conditions that prevail both in theory and in practice for the minor refugees who arrive on the island of Lesvos, Greece. More specifically, the present research aims to investigate whether Article 28 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) applies to the case of minor refugees in Greece and specifically to the island of Lesvos and to record the difficulties that arise in the case that there is a violation of the aforementioned right.

For the present research, qualitative individual online interviews of 25-35 minutes were conducted, each composed of eleven open questions, which were restated according to the flow of each interview. The sample consisted of seven educators who either have the role of Coordinator for Refugee Education, or work at Greek public schools or at NGOs who are active on the island, with years of experience ranging from 4 to 35 years. The multi-actor multi-criteria analysis method (MAMCA) was performed for data processing. The participants, based on their professional status, explained the Greek education system and the position of the minor refugees in it. They also analyzed the process of educating refugee students, listing the difficulties and reasons why thousands of children are excluded from the Greek educational process each year, while not failing to refer to the reactions of both the refugee families and the local community that welcomes them. Finally, the interviewees shared their proposals and objectives that they set and envision for the future regarding the education of refugees in the Greek islands.

Keywords: Refugee Education, Lesvos, Minor Refugees, Children’s Rights, Access to education, Exclusion from educational process

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction………. 7

PART ONE: THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK

1.2. International and European Context………. 12

1.3. The Refugee phenomenon in Greece………... 16

Chapter 2: Minor refugees 2.1. Juvenile refugees……….. 18

2.2. Conventions relating to the status of minor refugees……… 20

2.3. Convention on the Rights of the Child………... 24

Chapter 3: Education of minor refugees 3.1. Education……… 28

3.2. Access for juvenile refugees to education………... 29

3.3. Greek Educational System ………. 34

3.4. Institutional framework of refugee education in Greece……….. 37

3.5. NGOs in Education………. 40

3.6. Intercultural Education………. 43

3.6.1. Basic principles of intercultural education……… 45

3.6.2. Models of educational approach to multiculturalism……… 47

PART TWO: EMPIRICAL PART

4.2. Research Methodology ……… 51

4.2.1. Research Tools……… 52

4.2.3. Research Restrictions……… 55

4.3. Ethical Framework in qualitative research……….. 56

Chapter 5: Results 5.1. Access of refugees to the Educational process………. 58

5.1.1. Greek Public Education and Refugee Students ……….. 59

5.1.2. NGOs and Refugee Students ……… 64

5.1.3. Greek State and Refugee Education………... 66

5.2. Reasons for Exclusion of refugees from the Educational process………. 68

5.3. Reactions to Refugee Education……… 70

5.4. Future Objectives………. 73

Chapter 6: Discussion 6.1. Lesvos: “a very special case” ……… 76

6.2. Greek Deficit……… 77

6.3. European Deficit ………. 79

6.4. Global Pandemic (Covid-19) ………. 79

6.5. Priorities of the Refugees ………. 81

Chapter 7: Conclusion ………... 82

References……….. 85

INTRODUCTION

The start of the civil conflict in Syria, in 2011 had a domino effect on the emergence and expansion of a variety of international issues. One of the most important issues that arose was the sharp increase in human migration flows to other countries, neighboring or not (Aroni, n.d.). Unfortunately, it is an issue that has not yet been resolved at the European, international, or national level. Greece, having to confront a national economic crisis at the same time, is called to also face the further increase of migration from the Middle East, mainly due to the deterioration of political situation. More specifically, in 2015, 885.400 refugees entered Greece illegally, representing 85% of the total population that entered illegally the territory of a member of the European Union, while at the same time 14% passed through Italy and 1% from all other possible inputs (European Stability Initiative, 2017). The UN High Commissioner for Refugees described some of the reasons which forced the refugee population to migrate and move to Europe as: hopelessness, limited educational opportunities, lack of supplies to satisfy basic needs, search for a better-quality future, and feelings of insecurity (UNHCR, 2015). Lesbos, along with other Greek islands of the Eastern Aegean Sea, such as Chios, are considered some of the main. In 2015, approximately 507.000 people stepped on European soil through Lesbos. (Karamagalis, 2016; Rontos, Nagopoulos & Panagos, 2019).

The refugees consist of a large population with various characteristics (economic, social, cultural), and the existence of vulnerable social groups within the population is crucial, with minors being part of these groups. The international community was shocked in 2015 when the body of a three-year-old boy, named Alan Kurdi, was found on a beach in Bodrum, Turkey. The little boy of Syrian origin, in his family's attempt to escape the horrors of war and cross to Western Europe searching for better luck, drowned in the Aegean Sea when their boat capsized. His mother and five-year-old brother were also found dead. The sole survivor was the father of the family. The picture of the little boy’s dead body traveled all around the world, triggering the emotions of people and becoming a symbol of the struggle refugees face (Demir, 2015).

The underage refugee population is estimated to be half of the total refugee population. Minor refugees, due to some characteristics, have more vulnerabilities, which have been recognized and accepted by the international community, and which should be sufficient for their further protection (UNHCR, 2015a). For these reasons, the protection of juvenile refugees and the safeguarding of their interests have aroused the interest of both the scientific community alongside the civil society. This presents an issue that could easily cause political change due to the innocence of minors.

The present research is divided into two main parts, with each part having its chapters. In the first part, we take knowledge of the theoretical framework of the refugees, while in the second one, we concentrate on the research carried out.

More specifically, in chapter one of the first part titled “Refugees”, we discover the history of the refugee flows, we capture the European and the International context surrounding the refugees and we focus on the situation that is established in Greece. The following chapter “Minor Refugees” concerns the children who risk their lives, accompanied by their family, or even sometimes they travel alone (unaccompanied children) with the ultimate idea of reaching better and more sustainable living conditions, away from misery, poverty and war. Thus, we analyze the status of underage refugees and the international and European conventions that surround them.

Chapter 3 of this first part is dedicated entirely to the education of refugee children. In particular, the importance of education is mentioned, a description of Greek educational system is given, and the issue of access or exclusion in the educational process for minor refugees is raised. At the same time, the Institutional and legal framework of refugee education which has been valid in Greece from 1985 until today is analyzed alongside the reforms that have been carried out for facilitating refugees' access to education. The contribution of NGOs in refugee education is also highlighted, in addition to intercultural education, its principles and models of this educational approach.

Passing to the actual research, in the second part of the present work, we report in detail the research methods. In other words, we review the objectives, assumptions and research questions that arise, while referring to research tools, methods and data collection. In the end, we take into account the limitations of the research as well as the ideological framework on which we rely for the elaboration of this project.

Finally, the following chapters concern the presentation of the results of the research, followed by a discussion to connect the theoretical framework with the data resulting from the research, while at the end we come out to some final conclusions.

In addition to the dissertation, the references used for the scientific documentation are presented and two appendices follow, the first concerning the guide of the interviews and the second one the questionnaire that was provided to the participants before the conduction of the interviews.

PART ONE: THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK

CHAPTER 1: REFUGEES

1.1. History

Refugee is a phenomenon that has been present in humanity since the early days of organized societies, with humans looking for a better place with a more favorable climate, better-living conditions with more opportunities, or sometimes for security reasons to avoid situations, such as war, attacks and conflicts (Genographic Project, 2016; Papadopoulou, 2017). There have and will always be problems that people have to confront and eventually overcome. Solutions often require leaving their homeland and settling in a new country, having as result, the evolvement of societies, the discovery of new places, and the exchanges of population that brought multiculturalism to the fore.

More specifically, according to paleontological and anthropological research, the first humans (so-called Homo) to inhabit the Earth lived in Africa and from there dispersed in small groups and gradually began to spread around the planet (Papapanou, 2016). In antiquity, there have been reports of migratory flows. Thucydides in his work "Historiae" states that the country called Greece was not always inhabited by permanent residents and people were forced to abandon their homes, by numerous other races which exerted pressure. Therefore, Greece, as many other countries, was created by colonization and population exchanges. Furthermore, the period, which lasted from about the 4th to the 7th century A.D., was called the "Migration Period", reflecting the extensive migration of many groups, representing when the most European countries were established, such as England, France and Germany. (Reynolds - Brown, 1995).

In the following years (around 1400 to 1750 AD), migratory flows continued in Europe, as religious wars, wars aimed at the spread of Europe and the exchange of slaves consisted the main reasons for population movements. Furthermore, there was a gradual development within the agricultural industry, which for the first time brought to the fore migration due to employment. People used to travel for a short time period

to find work and then returned to their countries (University of Leiden, 2008). The years from 1750 to 1914 are characterized by revolutions (such as the French Revolution in 1789). During the French Revolution, the phenomenon of political exile was observed for the first time, as refugee flows were created in an attempt to escape from inauspicious situations. Until that period, most of the persecutions were based mainly on religious reasons (Elie, 2014). The end of the 18th century marks the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, when changes in the structure of society and the economy took place, as people now moved to find work in the developed European countries, such as England and France, but also in America, although population movements were observed around the world until the end of the 19th century. (University of Leiden, 2008). At the beginning of the 20th century, Greece was faced with an unprecedented number of refugees for the time being, after the first persecution of 1914, where the coasts of Asia Minor and Eastern Thrace began to be abandoned followed by the Asia Minor catastrophe in 1922 and the Population Exchange signed in 1923, with about 1.200.000 refugees remaining in Greece (Papadopoulou, 2017). Concretely, the beginning of the 20th century is a period of historical events and war. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the Russian Revolution and the Balkan Wars, contributed to the reshaping of mainly Eastern Europe, with the entry of refugees from countries affected by the war and the formation of new states. At the same time, World War I forced the inhabitants of the countries that were actively involved to seek asylum, mainly in neighboring countries. The end of World War I revealed the necessity for international protection, leaving millions of people dead and thousands of them displaced from their homelands (Elie, 2014). World War II followed, during which societies were confronted with the effects of the most catastrophic war in history. The death toll stands at 50.000.000, while property damage, poverty, misery and fear of new attacks led 30.000.000 people to abandon their homes and search – elsewhere – for a better future. This number of refugees was the largest reported in history. The catastrophic consequences alongside the horror of the Holocaust, led to the realization that all people have rights and deserve equal treatment. Therefore, in 1945, the United Nations was founded, aiming to achieve peace in all the States of the world, while, in the same context, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) was established in 1950, focusing to commit all States to the management of the refugee crisis (UNCHR).

The post-war period finds Europeans in a movement, while the wounds of war are still visible, and thousands of people moved to countries like the USA, Canada and Australia for a better life. According to Ventura (1999, as mentioned in Papapanou, 2016), the post-war refugees in Greece reached 1.000.000 at that time.

This phenomenon is still in effect today and as it seems will continue to exist, since, through movement, people seek a safer environment for their survival, with better and more stable conditions for their future. These refugee/migration flows come from Europe (Kirk & Huyck, 1954), but also to Europe (Hankins, 1959), since every year thousands of immigrants and refugees try to reach Europe. Geopolitical realignments, war conflicts, persecution, the collapse of regimes, extreme poverty and violence due to social, racial, religious and political beliefs in their countries of origin are just some of the reasons for the influx of migrants and refugees into the European Union. More than 51 million people are forcibly refugees or asylum seekers or internally displaced (Zetter, 2015 as cited in Sgoura, Manesis & Mitropoulou, 2018)

Concluding, migration is a timeless, complex and current phenomenon, which, due to its qualitative and quantitative evolution, has occupied researchers in various disciplines at the international and national level (International Organization). The factors that contribute to the development of the phenomenon vary and are related to global and national socio-economic, political and cultural conditions. (Panagidis & Chatzisotiriou, 2014; Pantazis, 2015; Tsakiridi, 2012).

Into the subchapter that follows, refers to the need that arose for systematic protection of war victims and their rights after World War II and the creation of the United Nation is mentioned as the catalyst for the institutionalization of the rights of all people, including refugees. In fact, a series of published legal texts and actions followed establishing a common agreement of all states to defend human rights.

1.2

International and European Context

After the end of World War II, the United Nations (October 1945) and the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (December 1950) were created. Given the intensity of refugee flows, the international community has concluded agreements, aiming to protect human rights and particularly the refugee status.

Therefore, on December 10th_{, 1948, the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human}

Rights was signed and voted by the 192 member-states of the United Nations, aiming to prevent a recurrence of atrocities, such as World War II and the Holocaust that violated all freedoms and human rights, and to preserve the dignity of people of all races, colors and ages. The Universal Declaration consists of 30 articles. More specifically, this Declaration primarily emphasizes the freedom and equality of all people without discrimination (Articles 1 & 2) and the importance of personal security (Articles 3 to 5), as no one should be enslaved or sentenced to brutal humiliating sentences. Furthermore, Articles 6 to 11 refer to the legal obligations that people have, but also the equal protection they must receive by law, while Articles 12 & 13 mention the right of seeking asylum and citizenship. Another right recognized by this Declaration is that of marriage, without the restriction of race or religion, but with the mutual consent of the people involved. Moreover, the rights to property and freedom of thought, conscience and religion, as well as opinion, are also acknowledged in Articles 17, 18 and 19. The following Articles 20, 23 and 24 are related to work, recognizing the right of employees to join unions, to self-employment, to equal pay for equal work, and the right to rest and leave of absence. Furthermore, the right of the citizen to be directly involved in the governance of his country through the electoral process is also mentioned in Article 21, while society must provide the individual with those economic and socio-cultural stimuli that will contribute to the overall development of their personality (Article 22). Equally as important is Article 25, which raises the right to a decent standard of living, as everyone must live in a context of health and well-being, while vulnerable groups need special care and protection. The right of access to education on equal terms is indisputable in Article 26, while, according to Article 27, every citizen has the right to participate in artistic and scientific activities. In order for all the rights of this declaration to be realized, the well-being of society is essential (Article 28). Finally, every citizen has an obligation towards the Articles presented in the Universal Declaration, as well as towards society and its fellow citizens (Article 29). The Universal Declaration concludes with Article 30, which states that no country, group or individual may derogate from the Declaration and operate in a manner contrary to its provisions.

Regarding the European area, there is no specific Convention or Declaration that fully concerns and refers to refugees. This reality can be considered a “weakness”, even though, it is covered by the European Convention on Human Rights, which was

adopted in 1950, by the Council of Europe and it was based on the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). Despite that, this European Convention does not have clear provisions for refugees and asylum seekers, but application to all persons in the specific Contracting States regardless of their nationality, creating a framework for the protection of all individuals, and at the same time of obligations that must be satisfied by all the State Parties to the Convention.

Following the Universal Declaration, the Convention of Geneva Relating to the Status of Refugees was signed in 1951, ratified by 145 states and is considered the most basic and complete legal document for refugees, effectively defining who is a refugee, their rights and legal obligations of states towards them. Particularly, the Convention defines a refugee as any person who is outside the state of which they are a citizen, due to a justified fear that they will be persecuted, due to their nationality, religion, race, social class or political beliefs, and are unable to secure protection from their country (Article 1). Article 2 summarizes the obligations of refugees towards the host country, such as compliance with the laws of each country and the maintenance of public order and the safety of citizens. However, the obligations of the host countries are also mentioned, such as the treatment of all refugees without discrimination and the recognition of their right to freedom of religion (Articles 3 & 4). The Convention also emphasizes the rights granted outside this document to refugees and the non-reciprocity of visas. In addition, it stipulates that refugees are exempt from any emergency measures that may arise in the country where they are temporarily residing, while their host country, in a state of war or other extreme circumstances, may also take temporary measures exclusively for refugees. Moreover, it is possible to determine the length of their stay in a country, while the legal status of refugees, their property, intellectual property and their legal rights towards the court are defined. References are also made to their employment status and professional rights. More specifically, it highlights the equal treatment of a refugee by a host country with any foreigner residing and working within the country, however, no reference is made to equal rights with the indigenous population (Article 19, paragraph 1). Refugee welfare, such as housing, social security and public welfare, such as education, is stated, too (Article 22). An important point of Article 22 is the effort of equal treatment and opportunities for the refugee population alongside the indigenous, as well as the motivations that will lead them to learn the language of the host country, improving

themselves individually. The administrative and enforcement measures are also mentioned, such as rights to protection by the authorities, free movement, obtaining an identity card or other legal documents. Finally, according to this Convention, the Contracting States may not impose criminal sanctions on refugees in the event of illegal entry into a State (Article 31) or deportation (Article 32). The principle of Article 32 is also considered as the basic principle of the Convention, meaning the non-refoulment in a country where the life or liberty of a refugee is threatened (Article 32). Regarding the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and its role (UNHCR), it appears to function as the "custodian" of the 1951’s Convention, as it is responsible for safeguarding the rights of refugees. All States Parties shall cooperate with the High Commissioner. Concluding, the Convention legally protects refugees and safeguards their rights, as well as their obligations towards the Contracting States.

Equally as important as the Geneva Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (1951) is the New York Protocol, which was drafted and attached in 1967, as it removed virtually all the geographical and temporal constraints set out in the Geneva Convention (Papadopoulou, 2017).

Another legal text, as essential as the previous ones and related to the refugee status, is that of the "Dublin Regulation". This regulation was signed in Dublin, Ireland in 1990, and entered into force on September 1st_{, 1997 for the first 12 countries to sign it,}

including Greece (European Council, 1998). In 2003, the Regulation was amended and renamed the "Regulation Dublin II ". However, the one that currently applies to all countries, except Denmark, is the "Regulation Dublin III ", which was adopted ten years later, in 2013 (European Parliament, 2013). The Dublin Regulation aimed at the common policy of the Member States of the European Union on asylum and its management, with the basic principle that the first Member State to have a fingerprint or asylum application of a refugee is the one responsible for the acceptance or rejection of the asylum application. The applicant cannot initiate a new procedure in another country. Some of the criteria for accepting an asylum application are family, recent possession of a visa or residence permit in a European Union country and how the applicant entered the European Union, legally or illegally. Moreover, this Regulation mentions the guarantees for the safety of the applicants and their rights such as audition, information, free legal aid, the right to appeal and transfer to another country of the European Union. Finally, special emphasis is placed on

vulnerable groups such as children (whose decisions must be taken in their "best interests"), families in general, dependent members, while the family reunification is recommended, where possible (European Parliament, 2013).

The above Conventions are the most dominant ones, in terms of refugee status and their definition. Each State has national conventions related to the refugee phenomenon and the determination of asylum applications. All legal texts, however, are based on the Convention of Geneva and the protection of human rights. The legal texts of each European Union Member State asylum applications are based on the Regulation "Dublin III".

1.3. The refugee phenomenon in Greece

Greece is a country that has received a large wave of refugees, since it is considered a passage to European countries, due to its geographical location. According to the statistics of the Hellenic Asylum Service, refugee flows have started in 2013, when refugees could enter the Greek territory either from the coasts of Turkey to the Greek islands, or from Evros (a region northeast of the country). The most frequently used passage is through the sea, due to the absence of police forces at the sea borders. Indicatively, in 2020, 9.247 refugees chose to cross the coast of Turkey, to the islands of Greece. However, from 2014 until 2020, 1.948 people have been recorded drowning or missing in the Aegean Sea (UNHCR, 2020). The option of entering Greek territory from the sea has been classified as the most dangerous one, as this number continues to grow.

Therefore, Greece is considered the passage to Europe, as it has been recorded that the majority of the refugee population does not apply for asylum in the Greek state, but instead, tries to be promoted to another European state, passing through Greek territory. The countries of Central and Northern Europe are considered by many refugees being the ideal destination for them and their families to live in. The migration journey through the Western Balkans was, until 2016, the most common preference for refugees, since they traveled from Turkey to Greece and to the other countries of the Western Balkans, such as North Macedonia, Serbia, Croatia and Slovenia, aiming towards the countries of Central and Northern Europe (IOM, 2016).

According to the Hellenic Refugee Council, the borders closed in March 2016, resulting thousands of people be confined in Greece (mainly on the islands) and this new situation forced the state to deal with refugees and their special needs. The closure of the borders of the Western Balkan countries to refugees was one following measure that the European Union implemented to confront the refugee crisis. Immediately, since that day, no refugees managed to cross the border from Greece to North Macedonia, while conflicts and frictions occurred with the police and more than 50.000 refugees and migrants were found “trapped” in Greece. This decision resulted in the refugees being held in campuses and living in miserable conditions (Oxfam, 2016).

It is essential to mention that the above incidents were the consequences of the Covenant between the European Union and Turkey that was signed on March 7, 2016, declaring that Turkey will be the host country of the refugees, since it was arranged to create the appropriate structures that can adequately support the refugees and serve their special needs. Furthermore, it was a means of preventing irregular migration from Turkey to the European Union and in order to achieve that objective, the strengthening of the border guards in Greece and Turkey has been planned. A key point of the agreement was that, for those refugees entering Greece, the asylum application will be normally examined by the competent authorities. However, refugees and migrants who do not apply for asylum or whose application is considered incomplete, will be returned to Turkey. Finally, humanitarian aid packages were given to both Greece and Turkey in order to immediately respond to the living needs of refugees. (Council of the European Union, 2016).

In the following chapter, the definition of a minor refugee will be given, the reasons why it is considered a special and vulnerable group will be presented, while the Conventions related to their status will be examined thoroughly.

CHAPTER 2: MINOR REFUGEES

2.1. Juvenile Refugees

Minors, whether accompanied or not, make up for α particularly vulnerable social group within the refugee community. According to the definition of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (1997, p.1), an unaccompanied minor asylum seeker is “a person who is under the age of eighteen, unless, under the law applicable to the child, majority is, attained earlier and who is separated from both parents and is not being cared for by an adult who by law or custom has responsibility to do so”. The Committee on the Rights of the Child (2005) separates refugee children into unaccompanied minors and separated children who may have been separated by their parents or guardians in the process but may be accompanied by another adult member of their family. In literature, the above groups may be interchangeably used resulting to most cases referred to as "unaccompanied minors".

The group of unaccompanied minors is undoubtedly the most vulnerable for many reasons. Firstly, they are children, meaning that they are in a sensitive age bracket and still present the same needs and rights as the rest of the children around the world. In addition, they are equally, if not more vulnerable to any form of exploitation, such as sexual exploitation or forced labor (EE Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2010). Moreover, the carried status of a refugee, regardless of their age, goes along with experiencing many difficulties. More specifically, unaccompanied minors have experienced violence, war and possibly the death of their loved ones. Their life experiences are usually intense and traumatic, since most of them were forced to leave their countries, traveling under adverse conditions, in search of a better future, and putting themselves and their lives constantly in danger.

The cruel and inhuman experiences that have been scared on these children’s memories, have not been caused only from the start of their journey, but from their life back home. In other words, these minors may have experienced war, the death of family members, persecution, violence, escape from conscription into military or paramilitary organizations, and forced domestic work. Due to these harsh circumstances, unaccompanied minors often need medical and psychological care

that host countries are obliged to provide (Bronstein et al., 2012; Bradley, Greene, et al,2005).

The ongoing wars and migration process have led to this generation of refugee children having limited education and language development alongside access to the formal education system. They are often referred to as the "lost generation" (Deane, 2016), since the average duration of an armed conflict is 17 years. This situation confirms that millions of children lose their entire childhood during these conflicts, while at the same time lose valuable years of their education, leading to very limited opportunities for a complete education and literacy (Dryden - Peterson, 2015). The above statements underline the necessity for faster and more efficient action from the host countries towards these children.

In recent years, the number of unaccompanied minor refugees entering Europe has been growing rapidly. However, it is difficult to record the exact number, especially considering those who do not have applied for asylum. According to Eurostat data, the unaccompanied minors who applied for asylum between 2008 and 2013 were approximately 12.000 annually. In 2015, there was a rapid increase in both the total refugee population alongside that of unaccompanied minors, since asylum applications from unaccompanied minor refugees reached 95.200. In 2016, 63.200 applications were submitted, while in 2017, asylum applications were reduced by half (31.400 applications). In that year, most of unaccompanied minor refugees were boys (89% of the total), while most applicants were aged between 16-17 years old. From this data, it can be assumed that minors in this age group leave their homeland trying to avoid recruitment and involvement in war situations. The Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) sets the 15th year as the minimum age for enlistment. Moreover, the fact that the percentage of unaccompanied minor girls is very small, is explained as families rarely let the girls traveled alone. It is likely possible for a girl to enter a country unaccompanied, most likely not because she started her journey that way, but because she lost family members during the journey.

In Greece, the unaccompanied minors entering the country recorded since 2013 is up to 10.557, and specifically in 2019, there were 2.388 children seeking asylum, as stated by the Hellenic Republic Asylum Service (2019). Out of these children, 91% were boys and only 9% were girls, while 843 of them were in the age group of 0 to 13

years old, and 9.714 at the age between 14 to 17 years old. 41% of the girl refugees were of Syrian descents, while 17% from Afghanistan. On the other hand, 36% of the boys were reported to be from Pakistan and 28% from Afghanistan. The remaining percentages belong to people of different origins (Eurostat, 2019). The statistics available from the National Center for Social Solidarity (E.K.K.A.) reported until October 2020 present a relatively small deviation. More specifically, the number referring to unaccompanied minors reaches approximately 2.659. Also, the statistics taken from Ε.Κ.Κ.Α. demonstrate that 92,8% of those are boys with the remaining 7,2% being girls, while 8,5% of the total number were under the age of 14. Furthermore, it is reported that 39% of unaccompanied minor refugees were of Afghanistan origin, 23% were of Pakistani and 11% came from Syria, with the remaining 27% representing children of different origins. However, statistics vary from organization to organization, due to the large influx of refugees and asylum applications. Not all unaccompanied refugees apply for asylum in Greece, resulting in numbers which are undercounted for and far from reality.

Unaccompanied minor refugees are definitely covered by the International Conventions mentioned above. Due to their specificity as a social group, there are amendments and special conventions that deal exclusively with the status of unaccompanied minor refugees and will be analyzed below.

2.2. Conventions relating to the status of minor refugees

The first attempts to formulate an international document dealing with the rights of the child were made in 1924, in the light of the League of Nations. Subsequently, with the creation of the United Nations, efforts were made to jointly adopt specific laws and regulations with the Declaration of the Rights of the Child in 1959.

Request for asylum of minors – whether accompanied or unaccompanied - should be considered as an independent request. However, the Convention of Geneva Relating to the Status of Refugees (1951) does not seem to distinguish it from the request of adult refugees. The first distinction of children refugees from adults came in 1989 by the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, the most widely ratified human rights treaty in history (cf. Chapter 2.3).

NGOs are the ones who have been actively involved in the promotion and defense of children’s rights as well as ones regarding refugees. These organizations have managed to distinguish children from adult refugees, paying particular attention to the special needs of most unaccompanied children seeking asylum. Bodies dealing with the above issues in Greece are the Ombudsman and the UN High Commissioner for Refugees. In 2005, they published the guide entitled "Guidelines for Unaccompanied Asylum Seekers".

This guide is governed by 11 "guiding principles", followed by another 12 "instructions" towards State authorities. Starting with the "guiding principles": the first one highlights that all decisions should take into account the best interests of the child, while the second one is called the "principle of non-discrimination" and points out that all unaccompanied minors should receive equal treatment based primarily on their age (childhood) and anything related to their status as foreigners should be of secondary importance. The third principle promotes the right of refugee children to participate in decision-making according to their degree of maturity and age. The fourth principle emphasizes the necessity of preserving their mother tongue and generally, their socio-cultural and religious background. It is highlighted that any provision in health, welfare or education should address their special needs without perpetuating practices that oppose human rights. The fifth principle expresses the need for interpreters to communicate properly, while the sixth underlines the significance of the confidentiality of data collected for the safety of both children themselves and their families in the country of origin. Lastly, the seventh regards informing children about anything important to them such as their rights. The remaining four principles (8 - 11) are related to the cooperation of the institutions, the appropriate training of the people who are involved and the speed with which the asylum identification and provision procedures should proceed, due to the sensitivity of the situation for this specific group of people.

Regarding the "instructions" to the State authorities, the guide affirms that they should not deny entry to unaccompanied children seeking protection and asylum, nor deport them to the countries where they first entered and applied for it, as the Dublin Regulation does not apply to minors. The priority is always the protection of childhood

and in general the protection of children from any form of exploitation. Therefore, when the authorities locate an unaccompanied minor refugee, they must refer him to a special body or center for his protection and identification. Even if a minor refugee is accompanied by an adult, the relationship between them should be thoroughly examined. In addition, as soon as an unaccompanied minor is identified, the juvenile prosecutor has to provide appropriate information and legal protection as well as representation in any legal matter until their application is been approved. Another significant issue is communication and reunification with the child's family. In the case where the child's family is in the country of origin, the communication is occurred by special bodies, but only if it does not endanger the family. If the family is in another country within the European Union, reunification efforts intensify. Finally, if the child's family lives in a third country and both the child and the family desire their reunification, a special examination on the adequacy of their living conditions is required, always prioritizing the child’s protection.

The final part of this guide is related to Transitional Care, Education and Long Term / Sustainable Solutions. The section regarding transitional care, states the stages that the children go through. In other words, it refers to the structures that will host them or the foster families, as well as the necessary preventive health examinations (mental and physical) that should be done. In the field of education, it is mentioned that these children are entitled to rights and should have the same education as all other children living in Greece, while the schools should take care of their reception as students and offer second language lessons as well as lessons in their mother tongue. In addition, older unaccompanied minors should be provided with vocational and technical training, which will enhance the quality of their lives, in case they decide to repatriate in the future.

A few years after publishing the above guide, the European Union adopted a series of legislative texts, concerning the decisions taken by the European Union on unaccompanied children, within the context of the uniform implementation of the asylum policy. Hence, between 2011 and 2013, most of these texts were amended based on the principle of "the best interests of the child". Specifically, regarding unaccompanied refugee minors, Directive 2013/33 / EU presents that the detention of unaccompanied minors is only permitted in exceptional cases and when it has

been proven that all other measures cannot be implemented effectively. During the detention, unaccompanied children may engage in age-appropriate recreational activities. Every effort should be made to ensure that the detention is valid for a time period as short as possible (Article 11) and it does not take place at correctional institutions (prisons) since the children should always be kept in places separate from adults. It is also the obligation of the State to immediately appoint a legal representative suitable for the protection of an unaccompanied minor (Article 24, paragraph 1). In paragraph 2 of the same article (24), it is mentioned that if a minor refugee has siblings which fall in a close age category, the State is obliged to try and provide accommodation for both of them together in foster families, after considering their suitability to stay together. Furthermore, the State must search for the minor's family (paragraph 3), as long as the life of the child or their family is not endangered, especially if they are in the country of origin. Finally, regarding the provision of education (Article 14), it should not be delayed beyond three months and should apply to all unaccompanied minors. Preparatory language courses can be held when necessary and unaccompanied refugees should not be excluded, under no circumstances, from secondary education due to adulthood.

Furthermore, Regulation (EU) 603/2013 of the European Parliament and the Council of European Union is adopted to facilitate the implementation of the Regulation “Dublin III”, on the basis of which "Eurodac" was established. Eurodac is the EU's asylum fingerprint database (European Commission, n.d.). It contains the fingerprints of all asylum applicants from each State Party. In other words, it is a system where fingerprints are compared in order to identify the European Union State party, who is responsible for examining the asylum application. Fingerprints are collected for each person over the age of 14, including many unaccompanied minors.

Finally, Regulation (EU) 604/2013 defines the criteria and mechanisms for determining the State Party responsible for examining a request for international protection. In the case of unaccompanied minor refugees, the “Dublin III” Regulations do not apply, as in the case of adults. According to Regulation 604/2013, in the case of unaccompanied children, the State responsible for examining the request is the one in which a relative or/and family members are legally located (Article 8, paragraphs 1,2,3). The expansion of the family and the effort of family reunification are important,

since according to article 8, paragraph 2, other relatives besides the parents and siblings are considered as family as well. However, prior to reunification, an individual examination is performed to confirm the adult's suitability to care for the minor. Moreover, if there is no adult in an European Union country, the State responsible for examining the request for international protection is the State chosen by the minor and not the first country of entry, contrasting to the Regulation of “Dublin III”. This is an important modification for unaccompanied minor refugees, as they have the right to choose the country in which they wish to reside in case of the approval of their application and it is proven that decisions on unaccompanied minors are made thoughtfully while prioritizing their best interests, as all legal documents indicate.

2.3. Convention on the Rights of the Child

The "Convention on the Rights of the Child" (CRC) is considered the most complete legal document promoting and defending children’s rights, while distinguishing them from other social groups of people, recognizing and respecting their particularities and needs. All articles orient into the “best interests of the child”.

Particularly, Article 1 defines a child as "every human being below the age of eighteen years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier". Article 2, as it is already introduced, states that no discrimination should be made based on race, color, sex, religion or believes, and independently of the way -legally or illegally – which the child has entered the country. States parties must: firstly, protect children from any form of discrimination against them (article 2), secondly, take all legislative and institutional measures necessary to protect their rights (Article 4) and lastly, respect the rights and responsibilities of parents and extended family members to guide the child in a manner consistent with the child's evolving capacities (Article 5). Furthermore, the 6th _{Article of CRC acknowledges that every child has an inherent}

right to life and their survival and development must be ensured.

Articles 7 - 11 refer to the right of the children to retain their identity and to preserve their religious or other beliefs, citizenship and family relations, as long as they do not conflict with the best interests of their own and the safety of both: their family and themselves. In particular, Article 10 declares that " applications by a child or his or her

parents to enter or leave a State Party for the purpose of family reunification shall be dealt with by States Parties in a positive, humane and expeditious manner". There is also an indirect reference to refugees and the right of children and their families to leave a country, in the case of endangerment.

The capability of expression and freedom of speech of children is analyzed in Articles 12-17 of CRC. Explicitly, children have the right, in any matter or proceeding concerning them, to express their opinion and their views freely and to have that opinion taken into consideration (Article 12), obtain information and share ideas and existing knowledge (Article 13). Additionally, according to Article 14 of CRC, children have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, as well as the freedom of association (Article 15). Finally, Article 17 regards that the State parties guarantee the children's access to information and materials from a variety of sources and encourage the media to disseminate information that is socially and culturally relevant to the child, taking measures, at the same time, to protect children from materials injurious to their well-being.

Special reference to refugees is made in Article 22, according to which every child, whether alone, with his or her family, or with any person responsible for them, who wishes to become a refugee or is already a refugee, needs humanitarian assistance and protection, intending to enjoy all the rights offered to them through the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) and the European Convention on Human Rights (1950). If the child is alone and there is insufficient evidence of reunification with their family, then they need the same protection as any other child, as defined in Article 20 (alternative custody: such as adoption, placement in another family, institution).

Children’s educational rights are pointed out in Articles 28 and 29. It is affirmed that the education must be compulsory, provided publicly and be free of all charges. Furthermore, it is necessary to ensure access for every student, presenting incentives and opportunities which could reinforce their development, both academically and professionally, without any discrimination or exceptions.

The Convention also emphasizes culture, cultural identity and the preservation of particular cultural elements. Based on Article 30, it is clear that the identity of minorities must be maintained, regardless of the period of residence of a minor in the host country. For this preservation and protection, principles must be taken into account: the preservation of the mother tongue, the continuation of religious identity, the dissemination of values through art and the avoidance of coercion.

Articles 32 - 37 refer to the duty of all States to protect children from all forms of exploitation, such as child labor, drug trafficking and use, sexual exploitation, human trafficking and torture. There have been several reports where it has been revealed that unaccompanied minor refugees, due to lack of adequate State protection, often fall victims of exploitation. Article 38 cites the protection of children and civilians in the event of armed conflict and war and the duty of the State parties to ensure their psychological and physical recovery (Article 39).

Finally, the last Articles of CRC (40-54) describe the rights of the child in case they are brought to justice (Article 40), while the rest ones delineate the procedures needed to implement the convention, such as the constitution of the Committee on the Rights of the Child and others (Articles 42-54).

On that account, State Parties part of the Convention are obliged to uphold the above articles, regardless of a child's migration status. Greece signed the Convention on the Rights of the Child on January 26th_{, 1990 and ratified it on May 11}th_{, 1993 (UNTC,}

2020). As of October 2015, a total of 196 countries have become State Parties of the Convention and only the United States has not ratified it yet (UNICEF, n.d.). Conclusively, it is inferred that the Convention certifies that all children have rights, that must be recognized, respected and protected by adults, and the emphasis is placed on maintaining both the physical and psychosocial well-being of children. More specifically, concerning refugee children and their rights, the Convention attaches particular importance on the proper psychosomatic development and rehabilitation of children aiming to the full coverage of their needs, such as access to health care and protection, the maintenance of contact with their culture and their relatives (repatriation or/and reunification with their family, in the case of unaccompanied minors).

The next chapter provides an extensive analysis on one of the basic rights of children, that of access to education (Article 28 of CRC), a right that all children should exercise without discrimination.

CHAPTER 3: EDUCATION OF MINOR REFUGEES

3.1. Education

Education has a primary, special and significant role in the healthy development of every child all around the world. But what is the exact definition of the term “education”? According to Kalantzis & Cope (2013, p.66) education is "a set of institutions within the scientific field that concerns planned and systematic learning." Learning typically takes place in institutionalized spaces, such as classrooms, at specific times, while interdependent relationships are established among the students as well as between them and their educators.

UNESCO (1992, p.4) also defines education as “the instrument both of the all-round development of the human person and of that person’s participation in social life.” In addition, education can take place with no discrimination, at any age, through the actions of many institutions such as family, community or work environment. It can also occur through interaction with the natural environment, especially when such interaction is socially and culturally determined. From these many influences, schools remain the most dominant educational institutions with a central role such as the development of society. Its objective is to develop the potential of learners through the transmission of knowledge and to create the competencies, attitudes and values that will prepare and empower them for a life in society (UNESCO, 2006).

However, providing education is not enough, since it must also be characterized by quality. In other words, the school environment must take into account the difficulties and adapt to the special needs of each and every student. Pedagogues, on the other hand, must be properly educated and trained, so that they can adapt their educational methods to the needs of their students. The curriculum programs should also provide children with the appropriate skills and the school itself should be a place of safety and acceptance for each student (UNESCO, 2019).

In addition, according to UNHCR (2016) there are many advantages of quality education, such as the decrease of phenomena of child labor, child marriage, exploitation, and teenage pregnancy and has also positive effects on the psychological development of children, strengthening them with self-confidence, self-esteem, while, at the same time, helps them gain confidence, develop teamwork

as well as critical thinking. In the right school climate, good relations between all members of the community are evident, the spirit of cooperation and teamwork prevails, open communication and innovation are promoted, feelings such as trust, acceptance, recognition, satisfaction and pleasure are developed among all members (Zbainos & Giannakoura, 2010). Hence, children which grow up in such an environment have all the prospects to develop their skills and have greater professional success in the future (UNHCR, 2016). Finally, it is also proven that education can contribute to a smooth transition from childhood to adulthood, giving children all those competencies that will help them triumph.

However, to what extent do refugee minors have access to education? This is a key question for the present research, and it is important to answer it within the following subchapter, taking account literature.

3.2. Access for juvenile refugees to education

The majority of refugee children have been forced to quit school, and in some cases, they have abandoned it even before leaving their home due to the war. Moreover, a smaller percentage of children have never had access to education due to the difficulties presented to them and their families (UNHCR, 2016). According to literature, refugees remain in exile from their homelands and in a state of refuge for about 17 years (Dryden - Peterson, 2015). Seventeen years is considered to be the entirety of childhood and beyond. For many, it is considered a childhood “lost” or even “stolen” from the children’s lives, since they carry with them, in addition to different cultural backgrounds and languages, the psychological traumas of the refugee experience. They are people, who at such a young and vulnerable age, have experienced war, the loss of loved ones, such as friends and relatives, and have experienced violence, abandonment and the destruction of their homelands. All of these are experiences and images with catalytic power for the psychic world of these children. Inevitably, this brings similar results to the education of those young people (Deane, 2016). The UNHCR has published three reports concerning refugee education. The first one named “Missing Out” (2016) refers to the school year 2015-2016, the following one “Left Behind. Refugee Education in Crisis” (2017) regards 2016-2017 and the last one

titled “Turn the Tide: Refugee Education in Crisis” (2018) alludes to the academic year 2017-2018. All three reports cite statistics, refugee reports and case studies, while highlighting the necessity of education by giving multiple examples. Furthermore, solutions to the acute problems faced by students and educators are also presented. The report "Missing Out" (2016) states that more than 16.1 million refugees are under the care of UNHCR. Out of the 16.1 million refugees, a number that is estimated to be much higher since a lot have not requested asylum and have not been registered by the authorities, more than half of them are children and 6 million of them should be going to primary or secondary school. Statistics also show that only 50% of refugee children have access to primary education. The numbers are shrinking in secondary education, as only 1/3 of refugee children have access to schools and finally, only 1% manage to reach higher education. However, if primary and secondary education is necessary to enter higher education and obtain a degree, then at least 6 million young people will be left with unfulfilled dreams in the future.

The need for provision and access of refugee children to systematic and quality education is more urgent than ever. In their testimonies from the three reports, the refugees express a desire to go to school as they recognize the importance of education and its contribution to a better future. Children and young people have dreams and unfulfilled goals, which can be achieved with their success in school (UNHCR, 2016; UNHCR, 2017; UNHCR, 2018). Some refugee children show great devotion to education. Furthermore, systematic schooling, for the ones that do have access, and the great effort they make to succeed are explained by their aim to integrate into higher education (Peterson et al, 2017).

Equally as important seems to be the quality of the education provided. In other words, it is important for the school environment to offer a sense of security to the refugee student, as they will spend many hours of their day learning in creative and enjoyable ways, surrounded by people who understand and support them. During school hours, it is an opportunity to be with classmates and leave behind the unpleasant journey and the difficulties they confront in their daily live. Also, in addition to an environment full of security and learning stimuli, we need educational employees that are properly trained and have excellent knowledge of the

psychology of the children in their classrooms (UNHCR, 2016), since it’s the only way for both the parents and the children themselves to feel safe and join school regularly. In addition to quality education, there should be quality guidance and counseling. Systematic guidance has positive effects on children's decisions regarding their education and their inclusion in higher education (Peterson et al, 2017).

Furthermore, the most important reason for including refugees in the educational process is to avoid creating a vicious cycle. In particular, it is well known that conflicts, violence and war result in millions of children quitting school. Also, the lack of systematic education leads to war and violent situations. Given the above, a vicious cycle is created full of violence and abandonment not only of countries, but also of education. Of course, the fact that children have access to education is not enough to resolve such situations catalytically, although systematic and quality education have been shown to help, which is why the matter is considered of urgency for the development of refugee children (UNESCO, 2016).

However, there are several complications present throughout the educational processes in which refugee children participate. Regarding the complication of the educational processes, according to research by Peterson and his colleagues (2017), refugee children may not always be included in their new communities within the educational environment, since the recognition of their experiences is crucial for their integration and also for the design of appropriate educational practices. Moreover, besides the wide range of techniques and practices used in refugee education, they may not always end up being as effective if they are not framed by understanding and accepting the diversity of these children by going beyond the phrases "refugee" and "asylum seeker", considering and facing them simply as children.

The reasons behind the exclusion of a juvenile refugee from education are plenty. The first reason is related to the treatment of refugees in terms of education. There are many families who have experienced war and violence and are afraid to send their children to schools far from their residence. Specifically, the refugees live either in a camp or in houses offered to them by the UNHCR program ESTIA. These houses are located in urban centers, creating a sense of security for families, in contrast to the location of camps, which are usually in remote areas, hosting thousands of people,

who are living in bad conditions. Therefore, it is easier for parents who have settled in the city to let their children go to school than those who live in the camps, unless integration classrooms are set up within those environments. Otherwise, the distance they may have to travel from camp to school can seem long in the eyes of parents, believing that their children are exposed to any form of risk (UNHCR, 2017).

Furthermore, the feeling of fear can be translated in other ways as well, such as the curriculum in the host countries being very specific and often differentiating from the mother tongue of the children who were initially taught in their country of origin. Refugees usually have different socio-cultural backgrounds, speak different languages and follow other religions compared to those in the host countries. For example, in Greek schools the curriculum is taught in Greek. The fear, therefore, of the different and the unknown, often creates an initial misunderstanding regarding the integration of children in the curriculum of a new country and there is a belief that during their education, they will lose their identity, religion, language and their culture. However, outside of the school environment, refugees are free to speak their own language and maintain their religious and social traditions (UNHCR, 2016).

Alongside the sense of insecurity and feeling of fear, the financial problem also emerges. Refugees are people who have lost everything and have no resources to provide even the basics for their survival. In this context, transporting children to and from school, school supplies such as books, notebooks, stationery and in some countries, school uniforms or tuition fees, are an additional financial burden that many families are being forced to deal with. The provision of public and free education for all, as an inalienable right of children (CRC, Article 28), is considered to be the solution to this obstacle. Governments, therefore, have to cover the aforementioned financial costs, so that they cease to be an obstacle to children's education.

Another difficulty is presented by the language in which the lessons are conducted. This difficulty is perhaps the biggest obstacle that refugee students confront, as depending on the host country, the lessons are taught in the respective local language, which refugees usually cannot understand, especially if they have not attended preparatory lessons. In Greece, refugee children are required to attend classes in a language completely different from the one they knew until that day,

Greek. The difficulty lies in the linguistic differences that exist regarding their own mother tongue (Arabic or other languages) and Greek, such as the different alphabet, the way of writing from right to left and the union of letters during writing (morphological elements) (Yaser, 2006). English is one of the main languages taught in host countries immediately upon arrival in the host country. Among other things, English is the most spoken language in the world and will help them, not only in their integration into the school system, but also in their communication with the current social environment. However, the teaching of English must be systematic and qualitative in order to achieve the desired results (Dryden-Peterson, 2015).

The ability of a refugee child to have access to the educational process is itself a challenge for two very important reasons. The first is related to the fact that in some countries, the number of native students is quite large, and schools are very limited with finite facilities which cannot respond to the demand (UNHCR, 2017). Therefore, it is difficult and often impossible for a refugee student to enter such an environment. Of course, in some cases, such as in Greece, special school hours have been set up for refugee children, so that they can go to school at a separate time from the indigenous population. In other words, instead of attending the morning hours and being overcrowded, refugee students go to school at noon, after the end of regular hours, and attend selected courses such as Modern Greek, English, Mathematics, Informatics, Physics and Aesthetic education (General Secretariat for Lifelong Learning, n.d.). The second reason concerns purely bureaucratic issues. In some countries, specific documents are required for admission to and enrollment in schools, which people usually do not have available. As a result, these children are not admitted to regular schools and end up attending informal classes, which are not provided or officially recognized by the state. This attendance is considered a temporary solution, but in the case, it is extended, other problems arise, such as not promoting them to the next level of education. In many countries, inflexible state laws can prevent the education of refugees. For example, it may be necessary for parents to provide a birth certificate or identity card to enroll a child in school, papers that may have been lost during their journey. Thus, if a refugee student wants to join the educational system, they may not be able to do so, as they may have exceeded the compulsory age limit. Also, many times the children who have successfully completed the classes in the country of origin may not be recognized and may be subject to