The Potter's Wheel

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Valentine Roux, Daniela Corbetta

To cite this version:

Valentine Roux, Daniela Corbetta. The Potter’s Wheel: Craft Specialization and Technical Compe-

tence. Oxford & IBH Publishing, pp.145, 1989. �hal-00439770�

THE POTTER'S WHEEL

CRAFT SPECIALIZATION

AND TECHNICAL COMPETENCE

Valentine Roux

in collaboration with

Daniela Corbetta

in collaboration wit h DANIELA CORBETT A

OXFORD & 1B H PUBLISHING CO . PVT . LTD .

New Delh i Bomba y Calcutt a

Foreword : Alai n Galla y v

Preface : Valentin e Rou x x i

W H E E L - T H R O W I N G T E C H N I Q U E A N D C R A F T S P E C I A L I Z A T I O N 1 Valentine Roux and Daniela Corbetta

P A R T O N E : Context , Objective s an d Strategie s o f Stud y 3 1. Contex t of study 3

1.1. Themati c choic e 3 1.2. Theoretica l framewor k 4 2. Objective s of study 4 2.1. Definitio n of objectives 4 2.2. Objective s 5

2.3. Craf t specializatio n among potter s 6 2.4. Th e Indus potters 6

3. Strategie s o f study 6 3.1. Workin g hypotheses 6

3.2. Th e field, or ethnographic investigation 8

P A R T T W O : Stud y o f th e Wheel-Throwin g Technique /

Craft Specializatio n Relationshi p 1 0

Observational Dat a 1 0

1. Wheel-throwin g techniqu e 1 0

1.1. Learnin g condition s 1 0

1.2. Learnin g proces s 1 1

1.3. Apprenticeshi p of main moto r controls 1 2

1.4. Apprenticeshi p in terms of number o f fashioning operations 2 8

1.5. Apprenticeshi p in terms of manufacturing time 2 9

2. Coilin g Technique 3 0

2.1. Tandur s 3 0

2.2. Hearth s and silos 3 1

2.3. Coile d jars 3 7

Experimental Dat a 4 0

1. Two-hande d strategie s and experimental productio n 4 0 2. Perceptua l moto r tests of pressure an d two-handed pointin g 4 5

2.1. Tes t of simultaneous symmetrical pressure s 4 7

2.2. Tes t of simultaneous symmetrical pointing s 5 2

2.3. Two-hande d tes t of combined pressures i n pointing 5 6

2.4. Tes t of asymmetrica l pointing s 5 9

Discussion o f th e "Wheel-Throwin g Techniqu e an d

Craft Specialization " Hypothesi s 6 7

1. Characteristic s o f apprenticeshi p i n wheel-throwing techniqu e 6 7 2. Characteristic s o f apprenticeshi p i n coiling techniqu e 6 9

3. Conclusion s 6 9

PART T H R E E : Significan t Materia l Stud y 7 1

1. Researc h procedur e 7 1

1.1. Constitutio n o f a significant ethnographi c corpu s 7 1

2. Descriptiv e syste m 7 2

2.1. Dimension s 7 2

3. Significan t measure s o f technica l difficultie s arisin g during transi t

from one stage t o the nex t 7 5

3.1. Absolut e an d proportiona l dimension s 7 5

3.2. Inde x o f shapin g regularit y 7 6

3.3. Inde x o f standardizatio n 8 4

4. Conclusio n 8 4

PART FOU R : Conclusion s 8 8

References 9 1

D E V E L O P M E N T O F A T A X O N O M Y T O M E A S U R E T H R O W I N G DIFFICULTIES O F P R E H I S T O R I C A L A N D

P R O T O H I S T O R I C A L C E R A M I C V E S S E L S 9 3 Valentine Roux

Introduction 9 5

1. Definitio n of a morphological serie s o f container s 9 9

1.1. Restricte d container s 9 9

1.2. Unrestricte d container s 10 1

2. Reproductio n an d indigenous classificatio n o f morphologica l serie s 10 2

2.1. Experimenta l procedur e 10 2

2.2. Indigenou s classificatio n 10 5

3. Developmen t of a techno-morphological taxonom y 11 3

4. Pertinenc e o f indigenou s classificatio n 11 6

4.1. Margi n betwee n measurement s o f experimenta l productio n an d

norms give n i n instructions 11 7

4.2. Manufacturin g tim e 12 3

4.3. Thinnin g and shaping: gestures, numbe r an d duration 12 4

4.4. Conclusio n 13 9

5. Evaluatio n b y Frenc h potter s 13 9

5.1. Measure s o f throwin g difficultie s 14 0

5.2. Techno-morphologica l taxonom y 14 1

5.3. Technica l gesture s 14 2

5.4. Typ e of whee l 14 2

6. Conclusion s 14 3

References 14 5

Foreword

Since archaeolog y exists , prehistorian s an d protohistorian s hav e turne d towards ethnograph y i n a n attemp t t o understan d bette r the materia l vestige s discovered i n excavations .

Most o f the time, imperfectly mastered , this confrontatio n ha s experience d varied succes s an d ha s ofte n b e e n rightl y criticized . Bor n i n th e contex t o f the Ne w Archaeolog y o f th e sixtie s ethnoarchaeolog y aime d a t providin g ne w insights, permitting u s lastl y to get ou t o f the stalemat e an d to buil d up a theor y of th e past-presen t confrontation .

In spit e o f numerou s studies , mos t archaeologist s ar e no t convince d b y the results . I t i s worthwhil e t o analys e th e cause s o f thi s situatio n becaus e the stud y propose d b y Valentin e Rou x an d Daniél a Corbett a shows , i n a n exemplary fashion , th e w a y s t o follo w i n orde r t o ge t ou t o f th e stalemate . Given the curren t stat e o f research , ethnoarchaeology mus t cop e wit h thre e types o f difficulty :

1) Th e analysi s o f th e presen t ough t t o lea d t o positiv e proposition s regarding th e significanc e o f th e vestige s o f materia l culture . Goin g throug h ethnoarchaeological literature , on e note s tha t mos t o f th e studie s c o m e ou t with negativ e statements . Materia l vestige s are , b y thei r ver y nature , ambiguous an d thei r significanc e i s eminentl y variable ; mos t o f th e interpretations offere d b y archaeologist s ar e no t justifie d o r ar e a t leas t no t the onl y o n e s possible .

These cautionar y note s ar e naturall y salutator y t o the exten t tha t prudenc e is advocated . However , i t i s s o m e w h a t curiou s t o observ e a developmen t o f this contestin g curren t eve n thoug h th e ne w archaeolog y claim s t o sho w th e way t o reconstitut e th e pas t takin g int o accoun t al l th e cultura l aspect s whic h have disappeared .

However, i t i s neithe r possible , no r desirabl e fo r a disciplin e t o b e base d solely o n negativ e statement s an d o n invitation s fo r caution . Although th e w a y to resolv e th e stalemat e i s stil l t o b e foun d out .

2) Ethnoarchaeolog y mus t searc h fo r generalizabl e propositions ; th e transcultural constitute s it s fiel d o f action . Whil e confrontin g th e present , th e investigator mus t i n fac t avoi d tw o danger s w h i c h , lik e Charybd e a n d Scylla , threaten t o d r o w n him .

Concentrating solel y o n th e transcultura l ca n giv e ris e t o platitude s o n

human behaviou r whic h ar e devoi d o f heuristi c interest . B y avoidin g thi s

approach, onl y loca l cultura l particularism s ar e highlighted . Thei r actua l fiel d

of applicatio n i s neve r k n o w n an d i s probabl y limited .

This difficult y i s wel l k n o w n . S o m e scholar s though t o f gettin g ou t o f th e impasse b y adopting a n intermediar y positio n an d b y developin g middle-rang e theories neithe r too genera l no r to o specific . Bu t ca n on e reall y maintai n suc h a delicat e balanc e o n th e razor' s edg e withou t fallin g t o sid e o r th e other ? To ou r mind , thi s questio n stil l remain s t o b e answered .

Ethnoarchaeological though t indee d ha s neve r bee n concerne d wit h defining i n term s o f tim e an d spac e th e fiel d o f applicatio n o f th e enunciate d propositions.

3) Mos t o f th e statement s o f ethnoarchaeolog y ar e w h a t w e ten d t o cal l regularities. The latte r can b e expresse d i n three differen t w a y s : mathematica l correlations b e t w e e n tw o continuou s o r discontinuou s variables , typologie s associating intrinsi c characteristic s (natur e o r shap e o f objects ) wit h extrinsi c characteristics (localisation , tempora l attribution , functio n o f th e object ) an d finally discursiv e proposition s o f th e typ e i f P i the n P i + 1 .

In mos t cases , thes e regularitie s ar e no t understoo d a s nothin g i s k n o w n about th e "reasons " foundin g th e empirica l realit y highlighted , eve n i f th e proposed construction s witnes s a powe r o f efficien t predictio n o n reality .

W e thin k tha t i t i s onl y b y understandin g th e mechanism s responsibl e fo r the observe d regularitie s tha t i t shal l b e possibl e t o determin e onc e th e field s of applicatio n o f th e propose d transcultura l rules .

While w e w e r e askin g ourselve s thes e questions , w e go t t o kno w o f th e present work . I t w as fo r u s a veritabl e revelatio n a s i t offered partia l respons e to th e question s asked .

W e woul d lik e her e t o demonstrat e ho w thi s wor k differ s f r o m man y previous ethnoarchaeologica l w o r k s an d w hy w e thin k i t opens th e w a y t o th e emergence o f a rea l scienc e o f referenc e fo r archaeology .

1) Ou r first poin t migh t s e e m banal ; it is no t howeve r negligible . B y choosin g to stud y th e relationshi p w h i c h exist s betwee n th e wheel-throwin g techniqu e and craf t specialization , Valentin e Rou x an d Daniel a Corbett a ar e place d explicitly a t th e hear t o f a fundamenta l archaeologica l problem , namel y tha t of criteri a allowin g the descriptio n an d explanatio n o f th e urbanizatio n proces s in th e Nea r an d Middl e East .

The objectiv e o f the researc h i s thus define d o n the basi s o f archaeologica l questions. A rea l critica l analysi s o f archaeologica l discours e develope d b y Valentine Rou x i n other publications , precede s the ethnoarchaeologica l enquir y and specifie s th e stake s involved .

Confronted wit h the difficultie s o f interpretin g vestiges , archaeologist s hav e always turne d intuitivel y t o ethnography . However , the y hav e no t alway s explicitly formulate d th e problem s t o b e solved . Th e presen t stud y i s one ste p ahead; i t finds it s origi n i n a "logicist " analysi s o f th e archaeologica l discours e itself an d a fundamental criticis m of the latter . This criticis m enables the author s to la y d o w n th e limite d objectiv e o f th e stud y : to demonstrat e tha t us e o f th e wheel necessaril y implie s a certai n craf t specialization .

It i s als o throug h th e examinatio n o f archaeologica l realit y an d it s

confrontation wit h th e presen t tha t th e centra l hypothesi s o f th e adopte d

procedure w a s "discovered" . The tempora l evolutio n of cerami c shape s a t site s

in the proces s o f urbanizatio n i s no t without analog y t o the evolutio n o f shape s obtained a t th e tim e o f learnin g wheel-throw n ceramics . Suc h a n analog y i s not base d o n an y identit y betwee n phylogenesi s an d ontogenesi s bu t o n th e constraints associate d wit h a progressiv e master y ove r th e wor k o f a specifi c material.

2) Findin g it s origin i n a discourse o f extrem e complexity , th e presen t stud y manages nonetheles s t o clearl y defin e it s limit s an d i s therefore controllable . The wil l t o restric t th e objective s mus t b e emphasize d a s i t i s rar e i n th e fiel d of socia l sciences . I t constitutes nevertheles s on e o f th e necessar y condition s for progres s i n knowledge .

In th e presen t case , th e objective s ar e clearl y define d an d limite d : t o demonstrate firs t tha t th e appearanc e o f craf t specializatio n i s linke d t o th e difficulties encountere d i n learnin g th e wheel-throwin g techniqu e an d subsequently t o fix , a t th e leve l o f th e morphologica l propertie s o f ceramic , the threshol d beyon d whic h i t is possibl e t o infe r tha t master y ove r th e w h e e l - throwing techniqu e ha s b e e n acquired .

3) Fo r the firs t time , a n ethnoarchaeologica l stud y attempt s t o g o b e y o n d the framewor k o f typologica l regularitie s b y tryin g t o searc h fo r thei r foundations. Binfor d w a s on e o f th e firs t archaeologist s t o as k himsel f thi s question whil e studyin g th e Mas k Eskim o site . Onl y th e understandin g o f th e mechanisms ca n ensur e a certai n validit y t o transcultura l models . To o man y are the studie s o f the kin d undertake n b y the Yelle n o n Bochima n camp s whic h deal onl y wit h correlation s b e t w e e n variables ; th e c a m p size , th e quantit y o f vestiges, th e numbe r o f occupants , th e occupatio n tim e withou t bein g preoccupied wit h analysin g what , i n th e natura l environment , th e techno - economic an d socia l structure , justifies suc h a n empiricall y perceive d structure .

Studies dealin g with suc h issue s w e r e unfortunatel y to o rare . The firs t par t of th e presen t stud y clearl y take s u p th e challenge . Th e relationshi p betwee n wheel-thrown cerami c (Pi ) a n d specializatio n (P i + 1 ) find s it s origi n i n th e difficulties inheren t i n learnin g th e wheel-throwin g techniques , i n othe r w o r d s in acquiring a certai n master y ove r th e material . This master y bring s tw o pole s into play , o n th e on e han d th e physica l characteristic s o f th e materia l (i n th e present cas e clay ) an d o n th e othe r han d th e perceptua l moto r structure s o f Homo sapiens sapiens which ar e materialize d i n acquire d automati c "chaîne s opératoires".

The sam e typ e o f approac h i s tested i n the secon d par t o f th e study . Her e the regularitie s ar e presente d i n th e for m o f a typolog y linkin g a n indigenou s classification o f th e degree s o f throwin g difficult y (OX , extrinsi c characteristic s of th e F type , function ) wit h th e complete d cerami c shape s (Ol , intrinsi c characteristics o f the G type , geometrical shapes) . The mechanism s discovere d are th e sam e bu t th e perspectiv e ha s b e e n decentred . Th e firs t par t emphasizes th e natur e o f th e perceptua l moto r proces s w h e r e a s th e secon d part insist s mor e particularl y o n th e constraint s arisin g ou t o f th e physica l properties o f th e w o r k e d material .

W e shal l als o not e tha t i n this latte r cas e th e explanatio n propose d b y th e

scientist ha s bee n suggeste d b y India n an d Frenc h potter s w h o themselve s

possess a more-or-les s explici t technical knowledge . W e invit e epistemologist s

and logician s t o reflec t upo n th e operationa l know-ho w o f th e artisan s an d the necessaril y ne w formulation s constructe d b y th e anthropologis t w h e n recounting facts . Valentin e Roux' s secon d wor k ha s th e meri t o f implicitl y raising thi s questio n eve n thoug h th e give n answer , t o ou r mind , i s stil l no t very clear .

However, th e procedur e followe d i s beyon d criticism . I n science , th e progress o f knowledg e occur s throug h th e sol e w a y o f descriptio n o f "wha t is happening" .

It i s thu s necessar y t o clearl y distinguis h betwee n thi s typ e o f functiona l explanation an d an y "functionalism " whic h explain s observe d structure s b y their finality .

4) A scientifi c approac h i s recognize d a s suc h b y th e link s whic h ca n b e set towards othe r fields i n science. Al l isolated knowledg e developin g i n close d circle i s suspect . Her e th e openin g toward s othe r bodie s o f knowledg e i s particularly convincing . W e hav e appreciate d th e linkag e establishe d betwee n an eminentl y "social " characteristic, th e specialization , an d question s dealin g with th e maturatio n an d perceptua l moto r contro l o f th e movement .

Having sai d this , i n n o w a y w e wan t t o asser t tha t th e socia l ca n an d rrius t be reduce d t o th e psychological , rathe r a n understandin g o f th e socia l doe s not exclud e th e descriptio n o f certai n component s i n term s o f experimenta l psychology an d perceptua l moto r function .

A simila r typ e o f linkag e coul d undoubtedl y b e establishe d betwee n th e typology o f degree s o f throwin g difficult y an d solid-stat e physic s allowin g fo r a mor e rigorous approac h o f th e dynamic s o f cla y subjec t t o a movemen t o f rotation. Thu s a n articulate d bod y o f knowledg e i s constructe d gradually , consistency couple d wit h efficienc y bein g a sig n o f relativ e truth .

5) Valentin e Rou x a n d Daniél a Corbett a offe r u s a functiona l (bu t no t functionalist) explanatio n o f reality . Th e fact s brough t t o ligh t thu s escap e cultural contingencies . The y ar e base d o n th e biologica l natur e o f Homo sapiens sapiens an d o n physica l propertie s o f matter . Here , on e coul d cr y scandal an d we ca n alread y se e anthropologist s suggestin g tha t on e thus turn s a blin d ey e t o th e ver y essenc e o f culture(s) . However , i t i s no t a questio n of missin g the targe t bu t simpl y tha t th e objectiv e i s different. Th e w a y chose n is the onl y possibl e on e becaus e on e stand s explicitl y i n the transcultural realm . Such a n approac h doe s no t eliminat e th e cultura l b y contestin g it s existence ; it considers i t as a differen t typ e o f reality . Ethnoarchaeolog y doe s no t attemp t to understan d th e constantl y renewe d originalit y o f cultures ; i t seek s t o construct generalizabl e proposition s abou t th e latter .

6) W e w o u l d lik e t o underlin e finall y th e utilit y o f presentin g th e result s of th e enquir y i n th e f o r m o f a logicis t s c h e m e . Thi s latte r highlight s th e fac t that th e acquire d bod y o f knowledg e onl y constitute s a smal l fraction o f reality , which i n n o w a y devoid s i t f r o m it s solidity , rathe r i t enhance s it .

It als o show s tha t th e mobilizatio n o f knowledg e acquire d a t th e tim e o f

an archaeologica l demonstratio n implie s recours e t o a whol e ne w serie s o f

other proposition s : to stud y th e appearanc e o f craf t specializatio n necessitate s

for exampl e t o fin d ou t th e m e a n s t o demonstrat e th e non-craf t specializatio n

in the earlie r periods . N o w a d a y s , man y o f thes e proposition s ar e no t d e m o n - strated (neithe r demonstrabl e ?) . W e spok e o f th e integratio n o f ethnoarchaeology wit h othe r scientifi c disciplines . Her e w e fin d ourselve s i n the fiel d o f integratio n a n d articulatio n o f bodie s o f ethnoarchaeologica l knowledge. Th e logicis t explanatio n o f demonstration s prove s t o b e extremel y helpful i n researchin g a n d explorin g ne w space s o f analysis .

Finally, logicis t schematizatio n enable s th e discover y o f th e condition s required fo r establishin g th e network s o f pyramida l demonstration s an d avoiding fan order construction s whic h onl y lea d to equivoca l conclusions . Thi s appears, t o oti r mind , t o b e th e necessar y conditio n fo r th e creatio n o f a n efficient bod y o f archaeologica l knowledge .

One poin t wil l retai n u s again . W e deal t wit h i t lastl y a s i t doe s no t relat e to the necessar y an d sufficien t characteristic s o f ethnoarchaeologica l approac h as i s the case , to ou r mind , for the previou s points . W e wan t her e t o talk abou t the lin k establishe d i n th e presen t w o r k betwee n observatio n an d experimentation.

These las t years , experimental archaeolog y ha s mad e grea t stride s i n man y fields. W e thin k especiall y t o th e stud y o f microwea r trace s (traceology ) o r the reconstitutio n o f chippin g techniqu e o f chert . Fro m a forma l an d epistemological poin t o f view , experimenta l archaeolog y i s no t distinc t fro m ethnoarchaeology. Bot h discipline s wor k indee d towards a n externa l referenc e knowledge syste m w h i c h ca n b e use d i n th e interpretatio n o f archaeologica l vestiges. W e w o u l d lik e t o underlin e her e th e interes t o f th e join t us e o f bot h approaches i n th e resolutio n o f a specifi c problem . Perhap s i n th e futur e i t will be usefu l to bette r integrat e bot h discipline s a n exampl e o f whic h w e hav e here an d a s i s alread y practise d b y certai n archaeologists . Experimenta l archaeology propose d b y a citize n o f th e 20t h centur y indee d run s th e ris k of bein g le d astra y o n a n unrealisti c w a y i f i t i s no t constantl y confronte d wit h data give n b y traditiona l populations . Bu t thi s i s anothe r matter .

As w e wrot e a t th e ver y outset , Valentin e Rou x an d Daniel a Corbetta' s work c a m e t o u s a s a revelation . Afte r it s reading , on e questio n nevertheles s remains, brutall y asked , to w h i ch w e stil l d o no t hav e answers . W e wan t her e to spea k o f middle-rang e theories . I f we ar e convince d o f th e advisabilit y an d the grea t us e o f transcultura l approaches , w e d o no t se e ho w t o develo p a useful approac h whic h take s int o accoun t contingencie s an d cultura l variabilities. Suc h studie s indee d alway s c o m e u p agains t on e unresolve d question : how t o delimi t i n a n explicit , soli d a n d forma l manne r th e tempora l and geographica l fiel d withi n whic h th e proposition s highlighte d (b e the y regularities o r mechanisms ) ar e applicable . W e hav e thu s t o as k ourselve s the questio n whethe r ethnoarchaeolog y ough t t o b e limite d t o a scienc e o f the specie s Homo sapiens sapiens o r whethe r i t ca n b e als o a scienc e o f diverse cultures ?

One o f the mai n merit s o f this beautifu l study , an d no t the least , i s in filigre e to rais e thi s essentia l question .

June, 1 9 8 9 A L A I N G A L L A Y

Preface

The boo k offer s tw o ethnoarchaeologica l studie s o n cerami c vessels . Thes e were writte n a s separat e articles , bu t bein g closel y relate d t o eac h other , i t seemed appropriate , fo r th e benefi t o f th e reader , t o publis h t h e m togethe r in the form of a book . Thei r mai n concer n i s with th e constructio n o f a referenc e knowledge fo r th e interpretatio n o f archaeologica l facts . Th e theoretica l framework use d i s th e logicis t analysi s a s outline d b y Jean-Claud e Gardin . Its main principle s ar e the "bien-formé " an d the "bien-fondé " of th e interpretativ e constructs, which m e a n s th e analysi s o f the foundation s o f interpretation s an d the demonstratio n o f thei r validity . A s emphasize d b y Alai n Gallay , th e interpretation o f materia l fact s implie s b y necessit y a referenc e t o ethnographi c knowledge (i n th e broa d sens e o f th e word) . Accordin g t o epistemologica l principles, ethnographi c dat a ar e applicabl e t o archaeologica l fact s onl y t o th e extent that th e contex t o f validit y i s defined, an d that th e archaeologica l contex t is analogous . Th e contex t o f validit y ca n b e define d b y ethnoarchaeologica l investigations o r experimental observations . Thus , in the perspectiv e o f logicis t analysis, ethnoarchaeolog y b e c o m e s a privilege d an d necessar y w a y fo r building u p o f a referenc e knowledg e agains t w h i c h th e validit y o f interpretations c a n b e evaluated .

The firs t stud y deal s wit h th e concep t o f craf t specialization . Thi s i s on e of th e majo r concept s use d t o describ e an d understan d th e emergenc e o f complex societies . Th e proble m addresse d her e i s to ascertai n th e particula r features o f materia l fact s whic h ar e significan t i n potter y specialization . T o thi s end, w e undertoo k a stud y o n th e natur e o f th e apprenticeshi p require d fo r the master y o f th e wheel-throwin g technique . Th e hypothesi s w a s tha t th e apprenticeship i s sufficientl y lon g an d difficul t s o tha t no t everybod y i n a community ca n lear n th e craft . W e collected : (a ) ethnographi c dat a o n th e process o f apprenticeship , an d (b ) experimenta l dat a t o defin e th e perceptua l motor problem s characteristi c o f eac h stag e o f apprenticeship . I t w a s the n possible t o asses s th e difficultie s face d b y th e childre n i n learnin g th e craft , and als o t o understan d th e duratio n o f th e apprenticeship . Accordin g t o ou r results, w e propos e t o associat e th e materia l fac t "throwin g technique " wit h the attribut e "craf t specialization" . Thi s associatio n shoul d no t b e viewe d a s the reductio n o f a socia l p h e n o m e n o n t o a perceptua l moto r problem , bu t a s the descriptio n o f a relationshi p b e t w e e n t w o element s i n term s o f moto r complexity.

The secon d stud y i s the constructio n o f a techno-morphologicai taxonom y

for evaluatin g th e difficultie s o f the throwin g techniqu e o f pre - an d protohistori c

ceramic vessels . Thi s taxonom y shoul d enabl e us : (a ) t o defin e a threshol d

beyond whic h th e wheel-throwin g techniqu e i s mastere d an d therefor e significant i n craf t specialization , an d (b ) t o stud y th e diffusio n o f th e w h e e l - throwing technique, regiona l distributio n o f the technica l know-how , integratio n of th e throwin g techniqu e wit h th e techno-economi c systems , evolution , maintenance an d regressio n o f th e technique . Th e measure s ar e provide d by th e cerami c trait s whic h ar e significan t o f a n indigenou s classificatio n o f pot shape s accordin g t o a n ascendin g orde r o f difficulties . Th e classificatio n w a s mad e b y India n potters . I n thi s regard , th e taxonom y pertain s t o a n empirical reality . It s transcultura l valu e i s discusse d o n th e basi s o f a n investigation wit h Frenc h potters .

These studie s shoul d interes t no t onl y archaeologist s w h o loo k fo r criteri a significant i n craf t specialization , bu t als o archaeologist s intereste d i n theor y ( p r o b l e m o f v a l i d a t i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i v e p r o p o s i t i o n s ) , a s w e l l a s ethnoarchaeologists (fo r a w a y o f constructin g a referenc e knowledge ) an d psychologists (experimenta l an d intercultura l psycholog y whic h deal s wit h th e development o f moto r skills. )

The fieldwor k w a s carrie d ou t i n 198 6 an d 198 7 i n Utta m Nagar , a subur b of Ne w Delhi , i n th e f r a m e w o r k o f th e Indo-Frenc h Archaeologica l Missio n (M.A.F.I.) an d i n agreemen t wit h th e Archaeologica l Surve y o f Indi a (A.S.I.) . I should lik e to expres s m y gratitud e t o the A.S.I , an d t o the Ministr y o f Foreig n Affairs i n Pari s (M.A.E. ) fo r thei r ful l suppor t throughout , an d thank s t o whic h this wor k ha s bee n achieved . Likewise , I a m gratefu l t o th e Frenc h Institut e of Pondicherr y (I.F.P. ) w h o s e suppor t gav e m e th e opportunit y t o complete , in India , the writin g an d the translatio n o f th e book . I n particular, I wish t o than k Har Kishan , ou r informan t i n Utta m Nagar , w h o gav e u s s o muc h o f hi s tim e and knowledge , an d w h o h a d th e patienc e t o explain a t lengt h t o th e childre n and othe r potter s wha t w e w a n t e d fro m t h e m . Withou t Ha r Kisha n thi s wor k could no t hav e b e e n done . M y gratitud e extend s als o t o hi s famil y an d t o al l the potter s w h o s o kindl y agree d t o participat e i n ou r experiments .

During th e cours e o f th e research , w e receive d advice , criticis m an d encouragement, al l o f w h i c h ha s bee n ver y usefu l an d contribute d greatl y t o the presen t versio n o f thi s b o o k — o u r thank s therefor e t o H . Balfet , J . Fagard , J.C. Gardin , C . Glllieron , C.A . Hauert , C . Perle s an d S . V a n de r Leeuw . W e are gratefu l t o M . Roduro n fo r th e excellen t drawings .

June 198 9 V A L E N T I N E R O U X

CRAFT SPECIALIZATION AND

Valentine Roux and Daniela Corbetta

Context, Objective s an d Stratégie s of Stud y

Malgré l e caractèr e loca l de s scénarios , l'interprétatio n nécessit e toujours de s référence s à u n context e extérieur , â u n savoi r souvent situ é e n dehor s d u domain e archéologiqu e étudié .

A. Galla y (1986:175 )

1 . C O N T E X T O F S T U D Y 1.1. T h e m a t i c c h o i c e

From 198 3 t o 1988 , M.A.F.I . (Indo-Frenc h Archaeologica l Mission ) ha s bee n conducting researc h o n th e settlemen t histor y o f northwes t Indi a (Francfort , 1985) an d o n th e modalitie s o f developmen t o f th e Harappa n civilization . I n this context , a stud y w as designe d fo r the p h e n o m e n o n o f craf t specializatio n and it s possibl e descriptio n o n th e basi s o f archaeologica l facts .

This phenomeno n is , in fact, considere d a n essentia l facto r in the evolutio n of comple x societie s o r states . W e ma y briefl y recal l that , sinc e G . Childe , the definitio n of urba n societ y i s base d o n th e notio n o f complexit y an d tha t socio-economic differentiatio n i s one o f th e mai n criteri a of urbanization . Th e concept o f differentiatio n i s s o muc h a par t o f ou r visio n o f th e developmen t of societie s tha t analysi s o f archaeologica l materia l fro m Neolithi c time s onwards implicitl y postulates the following hypothesis: "the gradua l appearanc e of societie s tha t ar e mor e an d mor e differentiated. " Here , th e meanin g o f

"differentiation" i s associate d wit h tha t o f "specialization" . T o suppor t thi s statement, w e nee d onl y t o mentio n th e recen t boo k b y Brumfie l an d Earl e (1987), Specialization, Exchange and Complex Societies, o r the firs t sentenc e of the articl e b y Tos i (1984:22) : "Craft specializatio n ha s lon g been recognize d by Marxist s an d non-Marxist s a s a facto r o f significan t weigh t i n th e development o f comple x societies. "

Craft specializatio n i s th e for m o f specializatio n studie d i n priorit y b y archaeologists, becaus e othe r form s o f specializatio n (politic , ritual , fo r example) are , a t th e moment , difficul t t o identif y an d defin e o n th e basi s o f material remains , particularl y w h e n i t come s t o ancien t period s (Neolithic) .

3

1.2. T h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k

The theoretica l framewor k i s that o f logicis t analysi s (Gardin , 1979,1981) . Th e basic principle s ar e th e "bien-formé " o f interpretativ e constructio n (th e expression o f derivation s w h i c h enabl e u s t o pas s f r o m th e fact s mobilize d in th e constructio n toward s a n interpretation ) an d th e empirica l verifiabilit y o f the inference s propose d a t eac h stag e o f th e construction . Th e presen t stud y is summarize d i n a logicis t diagra m give n i n the conclusions , whic h highlight s the foundation s an d th e verifiabilit y o f th e interpretativ e propositions , a s wel l as th e importanc e o f ethnographi c knowledg e (i n th e broades t sens e o f th e word) i n th e elaboratio n o f interpretations .

The las t poin t ha s bee n stresse d b y Galla y (1986) , w h o explain s tha t th e procedures o f interpretatio n includ e a n obligator y referenc e t o r e g u l a r i t i e s . These ar e th e relationship s betwee n propertie s (intrinsi c and/o r extrinsi c properties o f materia l facts ) an d attribute s (type s o f significance ) tha t ma y b e observed i n a context outsid e th e field of archaeolog y o r induce d from historica l scenarios. Applie d to archaeologica l data , regularitie s serv e a s a basi s fo r th e construction o f historica l scenarios .

In theoretica l terms , thi s stud y o n craf t specializatio n ma y b e define d a s an analysi s o f th e relationshi p betwee n th e observabl e fac t "wheel-throw n ceramics" an d th e attribut e "craf t specialization" . Th e statemen t o f thi s relationship shoul d b e considere d a s a too l o f analysi s fo r interpretin g th e wheel-throwing techniqu e i n t e r ms o f potter y specialization . O f course , othe r ways exis t t o infe r thi s latter . Ou r ambitio n i s limite d t o th e proposa l o f on e way a m o n g others , tha t i s to sa y th e proposa l o f on e regularit y a m o n g a bod y of regularitie s a i m e d , i n a lon g term , a t describin g th e comple x p h e n o m e n o n of craf t specialization .

2. O B J E C T I V E S O F S T U D Y 2.1. D e f i n i t i o n o f o b j e c t i v e s

Archaeological studie s o f th e p h e n o m e n o n o f craf t specializatio n durin g protohistorical time s ar e generall y base d o n hyphothese s draw n fro m socio - anthropological works . Thei r objective s consis t mainl y i n definin g th e degre e of craf t specializatio n an d th e factor s responsibl e fo r it . Craf t specializatio n is considere d a continuou s p h e n o m e n o n i n whic h differen t degree s ar e perceptible throug h fiv e variables :

1. Affiliatio n (independen t specialists , i.e. , thos e w h o cate r t o th e genera l d e m a n d o f th e population , o r attache d specialists , i.e. , thos e w h o cate r to th e d e m a n d s o f patron s only) .

2. Intensit y o f specializatio n (part-tim e o r full-time )

3. Organizatio n o f craf t productio n (domestic , i n workshops , a t th e villag e or regiona l level , with th e "chaîne s opératoires " eithe r spatiall y distribute d or assemble d a t th e s a m e location) .

4. Intensit y o f craf t productio n (rat e o f production , outpu t pe r specialist) .

5. Qualit y o f productio n (degre e o f sophisticatio n an d standardization) .

Depending o n th e valu e assigne d t o thes e variables , a craftsma n ma y b e considered mor e o r les s specialized . The highl y specialize d craftsman , a t th e extreme en d o f th e continuum , i s th e on e w h o s e sol e economi c revenu e i s derived f r o m hi s craftsmanship .

Factors whic h coul d explai n th e evolutio n o f craf t specializatio n ma y b e s u m m a r i z e d a s follows : populatio n growt h [an d consequentl y a decreas e i n tillable lan d an d a n increas e i n d e m a n d fo r craf t product s (Arnold , 1985) , o r economic differentiatio n (Evans , 1978)] ; intensificatio n o f agricultur e [whic h encourages agricultura l surpluses , makin g nurturin g o f specialize d craftsme n possible (Dow , 1985)] ; unequa l acces s t o economi c resource s [specialist s appear w ho appropriat e thes e resource s (Rice , 1981)] ; maximization o f profit s [a factor arisin g with a n increase i n demand for craft products , an d which result s in craf t specializatio n (Torrence , 1986)] ; and contro l o f productio n b y a n elit e [which promote s specialize d craf t productio n (Rice , 1 9 8 1 ; Tosi, 1984)] .

These approache s t o the p h e n o m e n o n o f craf t specializatio n propos e ric h and interestin g hypothese s fro m a n anthropologica l poin t o f view . However , according t o the principle s o f verifiabilit y an d validity , i t appear s tha t th e give n interpretations ar e o f t w o kinds : eithe r non-verifiabl e becaus e the y aris e fro m propositions tha t d o no t refe r t o materia l fact s (e.g. , agricultura l surpluses) , or canno t pas s test s o f verification , keepin g i n min d ethnographi c counter - examples, whic h revea l th e multiplicit y o f interpretation s o f materia l fact s considered significan t here . W e hav e expresse d thi s poin t o f vie w elsewher e (Roux, i n press) , havin g undertake n critica l examinatio n o f archaeologica l writings an d obtained dat a from two ethnoarchaeologica l studies : the first stud y concerns th e criteri a use d i n defining th e degre e o f craf t specializatio n (Roux , 1989) an d the second, the problem s raise d b y the descriptio n o f som e o f thes e criteria (Roux , 1988) . Thes e studie s highligh t th e multivoca l natur e o f th e material facts an d the fragilit y o f foundation s fo r the interpretativ e proposition s encountered.

Therefore, accordin g to th e theoretical principle s retained , we hav e chose n to dea l wit h th e proble m o f craf t specializatio n no t i n term s o f degree s o f specialization o r factors responsabl e fo r it , but i n terms o f materia l traits whic h could presen t a univoca i relationshi p wit h th e attribut e "specialization" . 2.2. O b j e c t i v e s

The objective s o f thi s stud y ar e twofold—synchroni c an d diachronic : 1. T o construc t a n ethnographi c fram e o f referenc e tha t m a k e s i t possibl e

to infe r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f specialist s o n th e basi s o f cerami c facts . 2. T o presen t a descriptiv e syste m o f ceramic s tha t make s i t possibl e t o

d e s c r i b e t h e p h e n o m e n on o f craft s p e c i a l i z a t i o n a t the loca l level , i.e. ,

according t o th e individua l cas e tha t eac h archaeologica l sit e represents .

By craf t specializatio n w e m e a n : t he t a k e o v er b y par t o f t he p o p u l a t i o n

of a craf t activity , t he p r o d u c ts of w h i ch ar e c o n s u m ed b y t he c o m m u n i t y .

The communit y i s considere d her e i n th e broades t sens e o f th e w o r d : villag e

or regiona l community . Thi s definitio n i n n o w a y judge s th e economi c statu s

(full-time, part-time ) o r socia l statu s o f th e craftsmen . I t onl y describe s th e distribution o f activitie s occurrin g withi n a community . Th e p h e n o m e n o n o f specialization shoul d therefor e b e understoo d a s th e p h e n o m e n o n o f settin g up o f specialist s an d no t a s evolutio n toward s full-tim e specialization .

Recourse t o ethnoarchaeolog y fo r thi s researc h mad e detectio n o f th e significant materia l trait s easy . Indeed , i t ma y b e note d tha t w e hav e her e a n ideal situation wherein th e attribute s o f the observabl e materia l facts ar e known . The tas k o f th e ethnoarchaeologis t is , firstly , t o identif y th e propertie s whic h are significan t t o th e attribute s sough t and , secondly , t o defin e th e condition s or the contex t i n which th e propertie s retaine d presen t a univoca l relationshi p with th e attributes . Th e definitio n o f thi s contex t i s essential . I t enable s u s t o define th e contex t o f applicatio n o f th e regularity , i n othe r w o r d s , o f th e property/attribute relationshi p t o archaeologica l facts .

2.3. Craf t s p e c i a l i z a t i o n a m o n g p o t t e r s

Our stud y o f craf t specializatio n focuse s o n potters , a s ceramic s i s th e archaeological materia l pa r excellenc e fro m which craf t specializatio n i s infered . The result s obtaine d ar e specifi c t o th e p h e n o m e n o n o f pottery . However , th e method per se i s applicabl e t o th e stud y o f othe r crafts , an d othe r researc h of thi s typ e wil l n o doub t follow , ensurin g a multipl e approac h t o th e urba n p h e n o m e n o n .

2.4. T h e I n d u s p o t t e r s

Data o n th e ceramic s o f th e Indu s archaeologica l sites , especiall y thos e fro m the Chalcolithi c period , present seriou s difficultie s fo r analysis , keepin g i n min d the natur e o f th e publications . Th e dat a ofte n c o m e fro m ol d excavation s and , therefore, do no t presen t th e informatio n sought : technique s o f manufacturing , criteria fo r recognizin g th e techniques , an d percentag e o f eac h typ e o f po t per period . Moreover , criteri a ar e no t ye t clearl y defined , tha t permi t th e distinction t o th e nake d ey e b e t w e e n th e differen t technique s o f fashionin g : fashioning b y hand , wit h a tournette , wit h a wheel . I n particular , i t i s difficul t to distinguis h th e us e o f centrifuga l forc e o n pot s w h o s e fabricatio n w e a r s ca n be attribute d t o a fashionin g o n tournette , a s wel l a s t o a partia l fashionin g on a fast wheel. Researc h ar e conducted a t the momen t (b y M.A . Courty ) whic h aim at characterizing macro-wear s significan t i n the fashioning techniques use d during pre - an d protohistori c periods . Th e definitio n o f thes e macro-wear s wil l allow u s t o stud y cerami c assemblage s an d t o analys e th e shape s an d th e proportions o f wheel-throw n ceramics / hand-mad e ceramics . Onl y suc h a n analysis wil l permi t th e applicatio n o f ou r ethnographi c observation s ont o archaeological material .

3. S T R A T E G I E S O F S T U D Y 3.1. W o r k i n g h y p o t h e s e s

Working hypothese s ar e th e o u t c o m e o f a confrontatio n betwee n archaeo -

logical an d ethnographi c data .

Given th e dat a presente d b y th e sit e o f Amr i (publishe d b y Casal , 1964) , ceramics o f the 4t h an d 3rd milleni a of the Indu s civilization exhibit the followin g characteristics:

— Appearanc e o f th e wheel-throwin g technique ;

— Progressiv e master y ove r thi s techniqu e marke d b y a gradua l increas e in po t size ;

— Progressiv e replacemen t o f th e coilin g techniqu e b y th e wheel-throwin g technique.

Ethnographic dat a revea l t w o points :

— Apprenticeshi p i n wheel-throw n potter y i s marke d b y a n increas e i n po t size, indicatin g progres s i n master y o f th e technique ;

— Apprenticeshi p i n wheel-thrown potter y i s longe r an d mor e comple x tha n apprenticeship i n coile d pottery .

O n th e basi s o f thes e archaeologica l an d ethnographi c data , w e ma y formulate th e followin g hypotheses :

1 . Theoretical hypothesis

The stage s o f technologica l developmen t o f wheel-throw n potter y durin g the 4t h an d 3r d milleni a s e e m comparabl e t o th e stage s fo r apprenticeshi p in wheel-thrown potter y today . Consequently , i f i t i s a s s u m e d tha t th e w h e e l - throwing techniqu e ca n b e practise d onl y b y specialists , an d i f i t i s demonstrated tha t i n th e fourt h milleniu m coile d ceramic s wer e mad e domestically, i t shoul d b e possibl e t o describ e th e p h e n o m e n o n o f craf t specialization b a s e d o n a diachroni c stud y o f wheel-throw n ceramics . Le t u s note tha t thi s hypothesi s doe s no t refe r t o th e hypothesi s phylogenesis - ontogenesis : i t i s onl y a matte r o f describin g a for m o f techno-economi c organization o n the basi s of criteri a one ca n infe r from materia ! data. The factor s responsable fo r c h a n g e o f organization , tha t i n n o cas e on e ca n infe r fro m these criteria , wil l hav e t o b e highlighte d locally . Thes e factor s wil l illustrat e the diversit y o f cultures . So , wil l d o th e modalitie s fo r integratin g th e technica l choices mad e b y thes e cultures .

2. Working hypothesis (whic h translate s th e theoretica l hypothesi s int o observational language )

It i s possibl e t o bas e th e "wheel-throwin g technique/craf t specialization "

relationship o n a c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n th e learnin g processe s witnesse d i n the wheel-throwin g techniqu e an d th e coilin g techniqu e respectively . Th e comparison relate s t o th e degre e o f moto r difficult y an d complexit y inheren t in eac h o f thes e techniques .

To stud y th e "wheel-throwin g technique/craf t specialization " relationship , we collecte d observational dat a (ethnographi c observations ) an d experimenta l data (perceptua l moto r tests) . Thes e dat a ar e presente d i n th e secon d par t of thi s stud y i n th e followin g manner :

1. Observationa l data : descriptio n o f th e differen t stage s o f apprenticeshi p

in th e wheel-throwin g techniqu e a n d i n th e coilin g technique .

2. Experimenta l data : stud y o f th e moto r skil l difficultie s whic h aris e durin g the different stage s of apprenticeshi p i n wheel-thrown pottery . Compariso n with th e difficultie s peculia r t o apprenticeshi p i n coile d pottery .

To appl y th e theoretica l hypothesi s t o archaeologica l dat a an d t o describ e the p h e n o m e n o n o f craf t specializatio n a t a particula r site , w e ascertai n th e intrinsic characteristic s o f potter y w h i c h ar e significan t i n th e differen t stage s of apprenticeship . Thes e ar e presente d i n th e thir d part .

The basi s o f ou r interpretativ e proposition s i s define d i n th e conclusions . 3.2. T h e f i e l d , o r e t h n o g r a p h i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n

The investigatio n w a s conducte d mainl y i n Utta m Nagar , a subur b o f Ne w Delhi, abou t 3 0 k m west o f th e capital . This subur b include s a colony o f potter s comprising mor e tha n a hundre d families of the Khuma r caste (traditiona l cast e of potters) , originall y fro m village s i n Haryan a an d Rajasthan . Ever y hous e regroups a nuclea r o r join t famil y whic h o w n s on e o r tw o wheel(s) , place d under ope n shelters , a n d on e furnac e locate d i n th e courtyard . Th e clay , conveyed b y truck , i s store d i n th e courtyar d o r i n th e street , dependin g o n room. Generally , th e w o m e n help s fo r preparin g th e clay , fo r moldin g (technique w h i c h i s als o practised ) a n d decoratin g th e pots . Th e m a n i s i n charge o f throwin g a n d paddlin g (thi s operatio n i s don e afte r throwin g an d aims a t obtainin g pot s wit h a roun d botto m an d pot s o f bi g dimension s wit h thin walls) . Th e cerami c productio n i s mad e u p wit h container s o f differen t shapes an d flowe r pot s w h i c h ar e sol d eithe r directl y o n markets , o r throug h middlemen. I t constitute s potters ' mai n income .

The choic e o f Utta m Naga r a s th e sit e o f ou r investigatio n w a s dictate d by th e following :

1. Ou r informant , Ha r Kishan , live d here . A potte r b y cast e an d profession , he c a m e f r o m th e villag e Mandhaut i i n Haryana ;

2. Traditiona l manufacturin g procedure s w e r e practise d here : (a ) us e o f th e stick w h e e l , w h i c h rest s o n a w o o d e n stan d an d i s starte d b y mean s o f a stick ; a n d (b ) us e o f a n o p e n furnac e wit h a n ascendin g draugh t an d one firin g chamber .

Let u s not e tha t th e particularit y presente d b y th e stic k w h e e l i n term s o f subject's positio n (crouched ) a n d o f weigh t o f th e w h e e l i s not , a t th e outset , a proble m fo r studyin g difficultie s arise n i n genera l b y th e w h e e l throwin g technique. O n on e hand , the crouche d positio n i s adopted b y the Indian s sinc e childhood fo r a grea t numbe r o f dail y task s an d i s "natural " t o t h e m i n thi s regard. O n th e othe r hand , th e centrifuga l forc e necessar y t o th e wheel - throwing techniqu e i s functio n t o th e potter' s strengt h t o star t th e w h e e l , an d not t o th e m a n n e r use d t o star t th e w h e e l (b y mean s o f a stic k o r o f th e foo t in th e cas e o f kic k wheel) .

Let u s not e als o that th e differen t "chaîne s opératoires" , i.e . the operation s

before th e throwin g operatio n (preparatio n o f th e clay ) an d afte r i t (paddling) ,

are no t describe d becaus e i t appeare d the y w e r e element s whic h d o no t tak e

place i n ou r construct .

Part o f th e stud y (test s o f non-potters ' children , manufacturin g o f hearth s and silo s usin g th e coilin g technique ) w a s conducte d i n Mandhauti , Ha r Kishan's village , situate d abou t 5 0 k m northwes t o f Delhi .

The stud y o f moto r skil l problem s arisin g durin g apprenticeshi p i n w h e e l -

thrown potter y w a s conducte d b y D . Corbetta , w h o se researc h deal s wit h th e

problems o f t w o - h a n d e d skill s i n th e five-to-nine-yea r ol d child .

Study o f The Wheel-Throwin g Technique/Craft Specializatio n

Relationship

The hypothesi s o n whic h thi s stud y i s base d pertain s t o th e relationshi p between th e propert y "wheel-throwin g technique " an d th e attribut e "craf t specialization" (it s meanin g restricte d t o the definitio n give n i n the introduction) . The hypothesi s i s analyse d b y a compariso n i n term s o f moto r evolutio n o f the processe s o f learnin g involve d i n th e wheel-throwin g techniqu e an d th e coiling techniqu e respectively .

With thi s goa l i n mind , t w o categorie s o f dat a wer e collected :

1 . Observationa l dat a f r o m ethnographi c investigation s carrie d ou t i n northwest Indi a an d mor e particularl y i n Utta m Nagar .

2. Experimenta l dat a fro m analyse s o f th e evolutio n o f organizatio n o f two - handed gestures , an d o f perceptua l moto r test s applie d t o potte r an d non - potter subjects .

O B S E R V A T I O N A L D A T A

These dat a w e r e compile d f r o m interview s an d video s o n th e wheel-throwin g technique an d th e coilin g technique .

1. W H E E L - T H R O W I N G T E C H N I Q U E 1.1. L e a r n i n g c o n d i t i o n s

In Utta m Naga r an d othe r village s surveyed , childre n begi n t o mak e pot s o n the whee l a t th e ag e o f eigh t t o eleve n years . Th e tas k i s reserve d fo r boys . During thei r earl y childhood , they hel p i n clay preparation , beatin g operations , and i n movin g th e pot s durin g dryin g operations . Th e ag e a t whic h apprenticeship begin s d e p e n d s o n the famil y situatio n (greate r o r lesse r nee d for economi c help ; greater o r lesse r desir e o f parent s fo r their son s t o becom e potters). Apprenticeshi p start s a t th e earlies t a t th e ag e o f eigh t years , du e to physiologica l imperative s (lengt h o f arm s fo r reachin g th e centr e o f th e wheel).

Learning take s plac e throug h tria l an d error , durin g whic h th e fathe r give s advice w h e n require d t o hi s son(s ) abou t th e gesture s t o b e executed . Today ,

1 0

the duratio n o f apprenticeshi p depend s o n famil y an d schooling . Th e famil y allows th e chil d t o practis e mor e o r less . S o m e familie s prefe r tha t thei r chil d studies an d b e c o m e s a civi l servant .

The learnin g proces s itsel f i s a n unchangin g one . I t usuall y c o m m e n c e s in A u g u s t - S e p t e m b e r , a fe w w e e k s befor e th e festiva l o f DivalJ, whic h fall s in early November , an d for which numerou s fair y lamp s ar e sold . Thes e lamp s are traditionally place d i n front o f the door s an d w i n d o ws o f ever y hous e durin g DivalJ. Henc e th e chil d firs t learn s t o mak e littl e fair y lamps . Asid e fro m th e fact tha t thi s i s th e smalles t an d therefor e th e easies t vesse l t o produc e (i t can b e shape d ou t o f uncentre d lump s o f clay) , eve n i f th e littl e fair y lam p has bee n clumsil y executed , i t will b e sol d durin g DivalJ. Thu s th e initia l stag e of apprenticeshi p i n potter y involve s n o economi c loss . T o procee d t o th e following stages , the chil d ha s no t only t o maste r technica l difficulties , bu t als o show promis e o f economi c profitabilit y fo r eac h typ e o f newl y learn t pot .

The childre n lear n o n stic k w h e e l s tha t ar e slightl y smalle r (7 0 c m i n diameter) tha n thos e u s e d b y adult s ( 8 0 - 9 0 c m i n diameter) . Th e w h e e l i s affixed t o a w o o d en axi s an d launche d b y mean s o f a stic k inserte d i n a notc h on the wheel surface . Centrifuga l forc e keep s the whee l horizontal . The subjec t crouches whil e working , th e w h e e l a t th e leve l o f hi s ankles , an d hi s arm s extended toward s it s centre .

1.2. L e a r n i n g p r o c e s s

The learnin g process , i n indigenou s terms , comprise s si x stage s w h o s e markers ar e th e typ e o f po t t o b e made :

1. Smal l fair y lam p (i n Hindi , chota dJya)\

2. Smal l vesse l (larg e fair y lamp , smal l an d larg e lids , beaker — bara diya, dhakkan, sikori);

3. Flowe r po t 4 inche s hig h (1 0 c m ; i n Hindi , gamla);

4. Flowe r po t 6 inche s hig h (1 5 c m ) ; 5. Flowe r po t 8 inche s hig h (2 0 c m ) ; 6. Flowe r po t 1 2 inche s hig h (3 0 cm) .

The denominatio n i n inche s correspond s t o a n indigenou s designatio n peculiar t o a morphologica l categor y i n which th e dimension s ar e no t perfectl y standardized.

The orde r o f apprenticeshi p i s inflexible . Th e differen t type s o f pot s ar e given a s marker s o f stage s b y potter s themselves. Th e progressiv e knowledg e required fo r producin g increasingl y large r utensil s i s necessar y fo r passin g from on e stag e t o the next , an d sufficientl y enable s th e potte r to mak e al l type s of pots . Mor e precisely , th e determinin g facto r o f th e skil l o f a potte r i s hi s capability i n throwin g highe r an d highe r vertica l walls . Thi s explain s th e absence o f variet y an d th e simplicit y o f shap e o f marker-types .

In the field , however , w e w o r k e d wit h a slightl y differen t classification . Th e

six learnin g stage s wer e combine d int o three, o f whic h th e firs t tw o wer e s u b -

divided i n view o f th e similarit y o f difficultie s encountere d i n t h em respectively .

This classificatio n doe s no t tak e int o accoun t th e stag e o f apprenticeshi p fo r

6-inch pots , because th e problem s her e wer e ver y simila r to those encountere d at a highe r stag e (8-inc h pots) . Th e thre e stage s wer e organize d a s follows : Stage 1: M A N U F A C T U R I N G S M A L L V E S S E L S (children )

Sub-stage 1 A (smal l fair y lamps )

Sub-stage 1 B (larg e .fair y lamps , smal l an d larg e lids ) Stage 2: M A N U F A C T U R I N G F L O W E R P O T S (children )

Sub-stage 2 A (4-inc h pots ) Sub-stage 2 B (8-inc h pots )

Stage 3: M A N U F A C T U R I N G 12-INC H F L O W E R P O T S (adults )

1.3. A p p r e n t i c e s h i p o f m a i n m o t o r c o n t r o l s

The apprenticeshi p proces s i s describe d an d analyse d her e i n term s o f th e main moto r control s exercise d i n th e makin g o f vessel s durin g th e differen t phases o f fashioning : centring , hollowing , thinnin g an d shaping .

For th e purpos e o f th e study , 3 0 potter s wer e chose n accordin g t o thei r stage o f apprenticeshi p ( 6 subject s pe r stage ) an d filmed . O n th e basi s o f th e videos, th e patter n o f gesture s observe d w a s described , takin g int o accoun t the stag e o f apprenticeship , th e typ e o f po t bein g made , an d th e activit y performed b y eac h hand .

The ai m o f centering i s to mak e the cla y turn in the middl e o f the revolvin g table s o that , w h e n th e objec t i s subsequentl y hollowed , the inne r wall s immediately hav e a horizonta l sectio n o f a constan t thicknes s an d ar e equal i n heigh t (J . Colbeck , 1981:24 , ou r translation) .

Centring i s accomplishe d b y exertin g pressure s o n th e surfac e o f th e rotating piece o f clay. Thes e ar e horizonta l internal and symmetrica l pressures , executed simultaneousl y wit h th e palm s (Plat e 1) .

Mastery o f thi s operatio n i s lon g an d difficult . Indeed , ou r observation s showed tha t no t on e subjec t i n the initia l stages possesse d i t (se e Tabl e 11.1) . Small vessel s (lid s an d fair y lamps ) ar e generall y mad e fro m th e to p o f uncentred lump s o f clay ; thi s i s possibl e du e t o th e smal l siz e o f th e object . Once a t stag e 2 , th e subjec t mus t necessaril y acquir e master y ove r centrin g because, althoug h i t is possible to mak e 10-c m pot s out of badl y centre d lumps , such i s impossibl e wit h pot s 2 0 - c m high . Indeed , throwin g o f suc h hig h wall s can onl y b e don e o n centre d lumps .

Table 1 : Frequency o f successful centrings per stag e o f apprenticeshi p Centring

(n=6) 1A 1B

(n=6) 2A

(n=6) 2B

(n=6) 3

(n=6)

CENTRED LUMP 2 6 6

Plat e 1 : Centrin g Operation .

It ca n b e see n fro m Tabl e 1 tha t a t th e 2 A sub-stage , th e childre n begi n to maste r centrin g o f th e lum p (tw o o f si x children) , while a t the 2 B sub-stag e and i n stag e 3 , centrin g ha s bee n achieved .

Hollowing

The aim s o f th e hollowin g operatio n ar e t o determin e th e inne r shape , the thickness , an d th e widt h o f th e throw n base , the n t o se t u p th e initia l wall o f th e objec t (J . Colbeck , 1981:30 , ou r translation) .

This operatio n comprise s t w o essentia l steps , whic h ar e independen t o f the organizatio n o f th e t w o - h a n d e d gesture s required :

1. T o determin e a t w h at m o m e n t hollowin g th e bas e shoul d stop . Th e bas e should b e thic k enoug h tha t th e thread which detache s th e finished objec t does no t cu t throug h it , an d fin e e n o u g h tha t lon g trimmin g (scrapin g th e clay t o thi n d o w n th e bas e and/o r th e walls ) wil l no t b e required . 2. T o estimat e th e quantit y o f cla y require d fo r th e makin g o f a specifi c size d

vessel. I t is necessar y t o determin e w h e n th e quantit y o f cla y constitutin g the initia l inne r wall s suffice s fo r throwin g th e desire d pot .

During th e firs t sub-stage s (1 A an d 1B) , th e numerou s failure s an d variations i n size for a given type o f po t ar e essentiall y d u e t o hollowin g errors . From th e poin t o f vie w o f organizatio n o f gestures , hollowin g take s plac e generally wit h a n asymmetrica l movemen t o f th e hands , regardles s o f th e siz e of th e lump : the lef t han d support s th e cla y o n the oute r edg e o f th e lum p whil e exerting a n inne r horizonta l pressur e o f th e palm ; th e righ t han d meanwhil e carries ou t th e hollowin g operatio n b y m e a n s o f th e t h u m b an d d r a w s asid e the cla y wit h th e hel p o f th e pal m (Plat e 2) .

While th e organizatio n o f gesture s remain s th e s a m e irrespectiv e o f th e size o f th e lum p hollowed , th e forc e exerte d varie s accordin g t o th e mas s o f clay t o b e hollowed . Th e numbe r o f hollowing s d o n e varie s fro m on e t o two , depending no t onl y o n th e siz e o f th e po t t o b e made , bu t als o o n th e strengt h of th e potter .

Throwing

Throwing i s th e operatio n b y w h i c h th e wall s o f a bloc k o f cla y alread y hollowed an d centred , ar e presse d betwee n th e finger s i n a unifor m manner whil e th e t w o hand s ris e upward s togethe r an d a t th e sam e speed alon g thes e walls " (J . Colbeck , 1981:34 , ou r translation) . This operatio n ha s tw o objectives : thinnin g a n d shapin g th e walls .

Thinning

Thinning walls i s the operation whic h transform s th e initia l wall formed fro m hollowing an d give s th e fina l thickness t o the walls . Thi s i s the mos t importan t operation, a s i t determines th e basi c shap e o f th e pot . I t distinguishes stage s 1 an d 2 accordin g t o th e gesture s employe d fo r makin g th e vessel s characteristic o f eac h stag e (Figur e 1) .

In sub-stage s 1 A an d 1B , th e basi c t w o - h a n d e d gesture s require d fo r

making smal l vessel s alway s tak e plac e wit h th e arm s hel d i n their respectiv e

hemiplanes, eac h o n e actin g equidistan t o n eithe r sid e o f th e axi s o f rotatio n

Plat e 2 : Hollowin g operation .

Figur e 1 : Representatio n o f th e siz e o f th e po t throwe d i n relatio n t o th e two-hande d behaviou r practice d a s a functio n o f th e learnin g stage .

O/A l 30V± S 3IM Q 30V1 S

of the wheel. T wo type s of bimanua l coordinatio n rende r the thinning operatio n possible: eithe r a symmetrica l bimanua l m o v e m e n t (mirro r image ) i n whic h the two hand s execut e th e s a m e m o v e m e n t s a t the s a m e time , or a c o m b i n e d bilateral movemen t o f th e t w o hand s i n whic h eac h play s it s o w n particula r role. I n th e latte r case , th e lef t h a n d support s th e cla y b y exertin g a sligh t horizontal inne r pressur e o f the pal m an d the right han d raise s th e wal l (Plate s 3, 4 , an d 5) .

In the makin g o f smal l vessels , th e thinnin g operatio n i s don e b y exertin g a pressur e b e t w e e n th e t h u m b place d insid e an d th e inde x (o r secon d finger ) placed outside. This pressur e movemen t ca n b e accompanie d b y a continuou s displacement o f th e thumb/inde x finge r pressur e eithe r fro m belo w upward s (vertical displacement ) o r f r o m th e centr e toward s th e exterio r (horizonta l displacement) relativ e t o the centra l axi s o f th e w h e e l . These variation s i n th e thinning operatio n c o m e int o pla y accordin g t o th e typ e o f pot :

Stage I A: Smal l fairy lamps—thinnin g b y simpl e thumb/index finge r pressure . Stage I B : Larg e fair y lamps—thinnin g b y thumb/index finge r pressur e alon g

with vertica l displacement .

Small an d larg e lids—thinnin g b y thumb/inde x finge r pressur e along wit h horizonta l displacement .

The difficult y tha t mark s th e transitio n fro m sub-stag e 1 A to sub-stag e 1 B lies i n th e m o v e m e n t o f displacemen t whic h accompanie s th e thinnin g operation. Th e thumb/inde x finge r pressur e i s n o longe r localize d a s i n th e making o f a small fairy lamp , but ha s t o b e continuously an d constantly exerte d over a certai n distance .

From stag e 2 A o n w a r d s , th e chil d learn s t o thro w flowe r pots , whic h requires learnin g a ne w t w o - h a n d e d activit y relativ e t o thinning th e walls . Thi s operation take s plac e i n thre e successiv e phases , whic h includ e tw o phase s in whic h th e m o v e m e n t s unfol d wit h th e arm s stil l i n thei r respectiv e hemiplanes, an d on e phas e i n whic h th e t w o arm s ac t simultaneousl y i n th e right hemiplan e o f th e subject .

1) Th e cla y i s thinned first of al l by a two-handed complementar y movemen t in which th e right han d support s th e cla y an d the lef t han d stretche s i t vertically , from below upwards , b y pressin g it between the fingers an d thumb. Sometimes , in sub-stag e 2A , thi s firs t thinnin g i s don e b y mean s o f a symmetrica l two - handed movement , i n whic h bot h hand s simultaneousl y stretc h th e cla y vertically fro m belo w upwards , while pressin g i t between th e finger s an d t h u m b (Plate 6) .

2) Th e cla y i s thinned a secon d tim e throug h a symmetrica l bimanua l inne r horizontal pressur e o f th e palm s o n th e oute r fac e o f th e wall , movin g fro m the bas e toward s th e to p (cone-lik e ascent) . The cylinde r i s thereby narrowe d and th e wall s raise d (Plate s 7 an d 8) .

3) Finally , th e cla y i s thinne d a thir d tim e b y a two-hande d movemen t i n

the righ t hemiplan e o f th e subject : th e righ t han d work s o n th e oute r fac e o f

the wall, the lef t han d works o n the inne r face, and the wal l i s pressed betwee n

the tw o ben t inde x fingers , whic h ris e simultaneousl y i n a continuou s manne r

and a t a stead y pac e fro m th e bas e u p t o th e to p o f th e cylinder . Th e interna l

Plat e 3 : Symmetrica l bilatera l movemen t wit h hand s carryin g ou t th e sam e movement s a t th e sam e time . Th e subjec t i s a t stag e 1A .

Plate 4 : Symmetrical bilateral movement. Th e subjec t is at Stage 3A .

Plate 5: Combine d bilatera l movement o f the hands with each han d having a specific role. For

the small size vessel, the position of the arms i s symmetrical in relation to the axis of

rotation of the wheel .

Plat e 6 : Thinnin g b y a combine d two-hande d movement .

Plate 7: Thinnin g by symmetrical bimanual pressures of the inner palms, placed horizontally, on

the external wall s o f the cylinder, goin g from the bas e up to the top.

Plat e 8 : Th e cylinde r i s narrowe d int o a con e an d th e wall s ris e up .

and externa l pressure s respectivel y o f th e tw o inde x finger s mak e th e cla y rise upward s whil e tracin g a spira l movemen t tha t w i d e n s th e uppe r par t o f the pot . Th e thir d phas e o f th e thinnin g operatio n i s a decisiv e on e i n th e manufacturing o f flowe r pot s a n d othe r larg e containers , becaus e thi s ne w activity enable s th e raisin g o f hig h walls . I t i s ver y difficul t t o perfor m sinc e not onl y doe s th e asymmetr y o f th e gestur e cal l fo r a greate r firmnes s o f th e hands s o tha t th e po t remain s centred , bu t i n additio n th e pressur e whic h displaces th e cla y f r o m the botto m upward s mus t b e absolutel y constant . Th e other difficult y o f thi s m o v e m e n t lie s i n exertin g sufficientl y stron g bimanua l pressures t o thin the clay , while takin g care no t t o pres s too firml y a s this curb s the rotar y moyemen t an d lead s to irregularit y i n thickness. Moreover , th e hand s must simultaneousl y ascen d a t a ver y stead y rat e t o effec t a unifor m an d progressive thinnin g alon g th e entir e heigh t o f th e bod y (Plat e 9) .

Once thi s skil l ha s b e e n acquired , transition t o the subsequen t stage s (2 B and 3) i s just a matte r o f strength : the simultaneou s an d sequentia l organizatio n of th e m o v e m e n t s alway s remain s th e s a m e , bu t th e amoun t o f strengt h deployed varie s accordin g t o th e quantit y o f cla y t h r o w n . Thi s differenc e o f strength involve s a renewe d apprenticeshi p a t eac h stag e i n determinin g th e amount o f bimanua l pressures .

Shaping

This i s th e operatio n b y w h i c h th e fina l shap e i s give n t o th e inne r walls . It is distinguished fro m th e operatio n o f thinning insofa r a s the pressur e exerte d on th e wall s i s less , thoug h fir m an d steady .

This operatio n i s no t necessar y i n makin g th e smal l fair y lamp , whic h i s why i t is only performe d from the 1 B sub-stage . Fo r small vessels , i t is execute d by a symmetrica l m o v e m e n t o f th e hand s (mirro r image) . I n manufacturin g flower pots , shapin g i s d o n e a s i n th e thir d thinning , wit h th e tw o hand s i n the righ t hemiplan e o f th e subject . Th e wal l i s lightl y presse d betwee n th e tw o extended inde x finger s (th e righ t insid e th e po t an d th e lef t outside) , whic h ascend simultaneousl y an d steadily .

For bot h flowe r pot s a n d smal l vessels , thi s operatio n tend s essentiall y to reduc e irregularitie s an d t o straighte n th e walls . Th e numbe r o f shaping s depends therefor e o n th e succes s o f th e las t thinnin g or , mor e precisely , o n its regularit y (Plate s 1 0 an d 11) .

Fashioning the Rim

Fashioning th e ri m o f flowe r pot s i s a supplementar y operation , detaile d here simpl y t o cove r th e rang e o f primar y moto r activitie s involve d i n th e production o f th e pot s unde r study .

1) Th e ri m i s fashione d wit h bot h hands , eac h situate d respectivel y o n either sid e o f th e axi s o f rotatio n of th e w h e e l. The righ t t h u m b fold s th e uppe r edge o f th e cylinde r outward s a n d the n d o w n w a r d agains t th e oute r fac e o f the po t b y m e a n s o f pressur e f r o m th e fingers . Th e lef t han d remain s o n th e left edg e o f th e po t throughou t th e entir e operation .

2) Shapin g th e ri m i s don e wit h bot h hand s i n th e righ t hemiplane . Th e

right inde x finge r i s placed horizontall y o n the uppe r edg e o f the ri m and exert s