part thesis

WORK TRANSITION OF THE NON-POSTSECONDARYHIGH SCHOOL GRADUATE

by John Russell

A thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Masters of Educatic'U

Department of Educat:l.on Memorial Universityof Newfoundland

1995

St. John's Newf o u n d l a nd

ABSTRACT

The purposeof this studywa s to clarifythe role of the BeH system in the work transition process ('If high school qr-aduat.e swho did not participate in post-seccndary training fo:'lowing graduation. Sp eci fically, the roleof the possible self in the immediatewor k history wa s explored.

The work transition precess is best conceptualized as a gradual li fe -longprocess. It includes even ts, activities, an d decisions that influence individuals a s they attempt to realize their pez-eonaLgo a l s inthedevelopmentof a satisfyi ng li f e style . po ss i b l e se l v es ar e a key component in thewo rk transition . Theyare futu reviews of self that have yet to be re a l i ze d tf.u . goals, aspirations, or fears). Possible selves are the link betwee n self-concept and motivation. The more elaborate, vivid, andspecific th e possibleself, themore likely tha t this possible self will be re ali zed , th u s he l p i ng to facilitate the work transitionprocess.

The sample used in this study ccnaisted of 13,93 non- postsecondary graduates (high school graduates wi t h no post- secondary training). These respondentswere part of the You t h Transit ioninto the Labour Market (YTLM) sbudy which began in 1909 in Newfoundla n d, and tracked an enti re cohort of high school gradua tes for several yea r s .

This re s earch re vea l e d that the possible selves of the respondents di din d ee d playan instr ument alrole in theirimmediate wo r k histo ry, andthe car eertr ansition as a who l e. A possible se l f related to a definite intention to wo r k appeared to be par t i c u l arl y importantto greater degrees of work engagement. In addition, gend er and geography we r e shown to be in fl u en t i a l on immediate work his t ory. Femal es living in rural areas tended to work for shorte r peri ods of time than males living in ur b a n centres. Ind ividua ls not holding "I as U.I. recipient" as a possible self we r e more li kely to have greater degrees of work engagement and were less likelyto work onlyfo r a period of time necessary forU. I. ma intenance and / o r qualification. In d i vid ual s who ha d the lowestpe r c e p t i o n of their academic potential tended to wo r k for shorter perio d s of time. In contras t, in di v i dual swith career aspira t ions that required hig h er levels of intellectual abil i t y tended to havehi g h erle vel s of wor k eng a g e me n t.

Reccmmeilda t i o ns arisi n g from this research included proaramming for thedevelopment and elaborationof the possible self ; programming toad dre s s apparent gender differences as the y rel ated to pursui ng postsecondary tr a i n in g ; a recommendationto address the boundaries associat ed with the pursu ancc of post secondary trainin gI andfin a lly , the presentationof a lte rnat i.vc means of sustainedincomebey ond dependenceon the U. I. syGtem.

TABLEOFCONTENTS

Page

Abstract ii

Li s t of Tables v

Li st of Figures vii

Ack no wledgements.... .. . viii

Ch a p te r I

In t.roduc tion .

Statement of Purpos e .

Significance of theStudy . . .

Rationale .

Overview .

The Wo r k Trans i tionModel .

Self-Representations .

The POssibleSelf .

Socia l Con t e x t an d Boundaries . WorkSki lls /Attributesand

JobSearch Skills ... . .. ... . •... 11

Res ea rch Questions 12

General 13

Specific 13

Limi t a t i ons 14

Cha p t e r I I

Literat ur egevfev 16

Int. r o d uc tion 16

wo r k 16

Meaningof Work 16

WorkOutcomes •••••• .• •• •. • ••••• .•• •• •.•••.•••.•••• Ii Na t u r e, Purpose, and Importa nce of Work 19

Summary 21

The Processof Transition 21

The Natureof Trans!.tion 21

The Context of the Tr ansit i o n 22

Potentia lProblemsin the Trans ition 23

ASuccessful Transition 24

Summary 25

Self-Concept 26

Hist ori c a l Perspective .. .. . .. 26 Cur re ntVi e wof Self in Career Dev elopmen t 27

Sel f Redefine d 29

Source s of Self-Re presentations 31

Pos s ib l e Sel ves 32

Summary ••••.•••• • • ••• • • •. .• ••••••••. .•• • • •• • • 3S

i i i

TheRede fLned Self in Context Self-EfficacyTh~ory Self-ccncepeContext VocationalContext

36 ... 37 38 39

53

5.

56 5G 5G 58

. 41

. .. 41 42

.6

Procedures .

Introduction . The YTLMStudy .

The StudySample .

TheDe pen de n t Variable . Developmentof the WorkHistoryCategories

The Independe nt Variable ~; .

The Developmentof theMax i mum Perceived Academic PotentialCategory : . TheDe v e l opme n t of the GeneralEducationa l Devel opmentand SpecificVoc:atio nal Preparation Categories

De mo graphi c s of the Sample .

Gender .

Geography .

DataAnalysis Pro c e dur e ChapterIV

Analysis of Data .

Sample .

WorkHis t o ry .

WorkHistoryby Gender andGeography FutureInt e nti o ns . .. . Seasonal Worke r/U. I. Recipient .. ..". per ceptionofAcademic Pe r for manc e andPoten tial

Perception of Academic Performance .....

Perception of Potential for Improveme nt Maximum Perceived Academic Potential General Educational De v e l opme nt and SpecificVocational Preparation....

General Educationa l Development SpecificVocationalpreparation

59 59

"

GO

6' 6'

8.

ChapterV

Discussionand Recommendations . ResearchSummary .

ResearchQuestions .

The WorkTransit i o n Model ." . Recommendations .

Programming .

Fur therResearch

91 93 9' 106 10 9 109 111

References 113

Appendices .,.. 119

iv

Table

LIST OF TABLES

Page Distribu tionof EducationalStatus by

Gender and Geography ₅₇

liork History Distribution by Gender- and

Geography.. .... . ... . . .•... .• •. . . .•...•. . .•..61 Respondents Future Intentions fo r the Upcom ing ye a r .... .. . . . ... .. . ... ... ... 63 FutureIn t e n tion s by No r k History 65 Future rnt.ent Lcns by Gender and Geography .•. 67 Distribut ionof Thos e IndicatingSeasonal Work and U.I. Collection as a Possible Self 69 U.I.Expectatio nby WorkHi s t o r y . . • . • .• • • ••. . ..•. . 70 SeasonalWork/U.I. Expectation by Gender and Geography ... . . ..•••.•.. .•... ...• . .•. ...•••• . . . 71 Percept ionof AcademicPerformanceofNPG Sample and 'fotalLevel III Sample ..•... . .. .• ...••. . . ... 73 10 Perception of Academic Performa nce (PAP) by Work

History .•.. ...•.• •.... ....•..••.•..•.... ... . . • •. .. 74 11 Percepti onof AcademicPerforma.nce (PAP) byGender

andGeography ...• . . . ...•• 75 1:2 Perceptionof Potentialto Imp r ov e of NPG

Sample ..•... . 77

13 Perceptionof Potential Aca de mi cImp r ov e me n t (PPAI) byWork History ..•• ..• . .•. .. .. . . . .• ... 78 14 Perceptionof Potential Academic Improvement

(PPAI) byGe nd e r and Geography •..• .. . . .... .• . •• . . . 79 15 MaximumPe r ce i v e d Academic Potentialof NPG

Sample ... • .. . . . .... . •.. ....•..• .. . . .•. •• .. 81 16 MaximumPercei vedAcademic Potential by

Work His t o r y ... . . .... .. . • ...••. . .• •.. .. .. •. .. . .••. 8:2

17 Maximum Perce i v ed Academi c Potent.ia l byGender

and Geography 83

18 General Educat i ona l Devel op me nt byNPGSample... 85 19 General Edu cationalDevel o p me n t by

WorkHis t.o ry 86

20 Gene ral Ed uc a t i onal Dev elo p me nt by Gender and

Geography 87

21 Speci f icVo cationa l preparation of NPGSa mple .. , 89 22 Spec if icVo c a t i o na l Deve lopmentby

workHistory 90

23 Specif icvccacrcnat pre para tionby Gende r and

Ge ogra p hy 91

vi

Figure

LI STOF FIGURES

Page WorkTrans itionModel

Non -postsecond a ryGraduate 4S

Gainfu l En gagemen t .. .. .•• • • . • •••. • . • • •• •• . . . 47

Po ssibleSe lfQue stions 52

Se lf-nepre e e n uecIcnat Que s t ion s 53

vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The support and cooperation of a numberof individuals and groups have broughtthis project to fruition.

First and foremost, I wo ul d like to thank my the si s supervisor, Dr. William H. Spain. His guidance, patience , encouragement, and countless hours of work were instrumental inthe completion of this project.

Aspecial thank-youto Phyllis Mullowney whohas been a real friend and confidant, and aninte g ra l part of this work. Thank.-you also to Jennifer Robinson for her editing expertise.

Thanks to the Canada Newfoundland YouthEmp l oyme nt Strategy and the Depa rtment of Education, Government of Newfoundland and Labrador, for their support of theYTLMstudy, from wh i c h all the data for this studywa s drawn.

Thank-you to my girlfriend Pa u l a fo r her patience and love throughoutthis proceaa,

Finally, a special thank.s to my parents Gerry and Cavell Russall, wh os e constant love, support, wisdom, andencouragement continues to be areal strengthand solace.

viii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCT I ON Stat e ment of Purpose

The purpose of thisstudywas to clarify and explain th e role of the self systemin the work transitionprocess of high school graduates who do not participate in post-secondary tr a i n i n g following graduation. Specifically,the role ofthe possibleself in the imme d i a t e wo r k history of the non - po s t s e c ond a r y graduate (NPG) was explored, and subsequently placed in the conte xtof a worktransition model.

Si gni f i canceof the Study

The importance of work to the individualandto societyas a wh ole has lo ng been recognized. From an indiv i dual perspective, Branson (1988) believedthat "Work ...is the most meaningf ulstage of our lives" (p. 95). Herr&Cramer(1988) noted th a t meaningful wo r k meets a variet y of individual needs, including ec o n omi c , social, and psychological. Theyexpandedon thi s id eabystat ing th a t ".. ac c e s s to work is crucial to the ab il i t y to move effectively from adolescence to adulthood" (p, 71). Froma societal perspective, the economicwellbeingof a na t i on is very muchre l a t e d it'swcc-xforce. In fact, Herr (1990),points out that

"the key factor in the nat ion's ab i lity to compete in the growing gl o ba l economyis the quality of i t ' s workforce.. . " (p.1) . Given the relati ve importanceof the concept ofwork , an individu al's

transition into the world of work becomes very significant.

Understanding the worktr a n s i t i on process provides the potential to facilitate this transition in a more successful and efficient

A significant proportion of students leave secondary school and do not pursue post-secondaryeducation. This dec Ls ron is made despite clear indications that furthereducation would afford them a much more competitive position in the labour market, greater job security, and a higher income (Sharpe&Spain, 1991). It is also wo r t h noting that a significant number of individuals find themselves in this category not by choice, but because of boundaries which restrict their ac c e s s to the poac -eeccndcrv system. These boundaries include rising costs associated with the pursuance of post-secondary education, rising academic prerequisites, and limited capacity. The rationale behind restricting the analysis to include only the non-postsecondary graduate was based on the assumption that the work transition of those who attend postsecondary in:::titutions is different from the wo r k transitionof those who do not. This assumption was supported bySpain(1993a)who discovered that dur ingthe transition process, students appeared to be much more industrious overall then individuals classified in categories related to working. The Commission on Skills of the American Workforce (1989) articulat ed some of th e challenges faced by individuals who enter the wo r k force immediate lyfollowinghigh school:

Ther e is no curriculum to meet the needs of th e non- col l e g eboundyouth,nore a l emp l oyment service forth o s e who go right to work,few guidanceservices forthem, no certificat ionof theiraccomplishmentsand .. .nore wa r d s int.he workplace for ha r d work in school (p. 47).

GloverandMa r s h all (19 9 3) point directlyto the link between higher educati on levels and greater succes s in obtaining and retainingemp l o yme nt . Asthe new global economycontinues to place greate remphasis on communicat.ionandth e exchangeof inf o rma ti on , one might as s ume that the work tra nsi tion of the indi vid ua l who doesnot pursue poat. seconda ry educa ti on isbecomin g progre s s ively morepr e carious.

Theis o l a t i o nof the NPG samplewillpro vid e a cl e are r picture of eb e wcz-k transition behaviour of this group. Thi-l ha s both pract.ical and theoretical implicat ions . Discovering and understandingthe factorsthat influenceth e immediate wo r k his t o ry of the NPG group cou ld leadt.oimportant progralTllllin g suggestions that would facilita te entry into the workforce, andaid in th e transitionprocessas awho l e. Fr oma theoreticalprospective.the self-syst em(pa rt i cu l arl y the possible self) ha s often been linked theore tica lly to issu es as s o ciated with mot i v a tion (Markus &

Nuri u 8 , 1986; Marku s & Ruvo lo, 198 9). Th e Eco nomic Rec o very Commis si o n(1992 ) ha spoint ed di rect l ytothe role of motiva tio nin ayou n g person's life as a possible solution to the labourfor c e devel o pmen t prob l emsintheprovinc e of Newf oundland and La b r a do r. Thus , focusing specifically on th e NPG sampl e may al so provide further theoretica l insight into the work tr a nsit i o n proc es s.

Rat i onal e

~

The work transition process th rou g h which individuals move into the world of work is thoughtto be con t r o l l e d by a number of different elements. The process of transitionis a rather complex concept. It includes events, activities, and decisions that influence the ad j u s t me nt s made by indivi du a ls in an attempt to achieve their personal goals in the development of a satisfying lifestyle (Spain & Sharpe, 19 90). This transition is best conceptualized as a gradual life-longprocess. Most individuals make transitions throughout their working lives, moving from one job to another as theircareer develops (Rosenthal&Pilot, 1966). Transitions may involve periods of work, the combination of educational pursuitsand part-time work, leaving formal education fo r a time and returning Lacer, or any combination of these different pathways (Sharpe & spain, 1991b). From an individual perspective, a successful transition into the labour market might be one which allows for both personal satisfaction and economic in d epe n d e nc e. Increasingly, however, success in transit ion is viewedin terms of thele v e l of participation in the labourmarket, rather than achieving individual satisfactions (W.H. Spain, personal communication, July 12, 1994). While many individuals may be involved in activitiesduring thetr a ns i t i o n process thatwo u l d be considered succe ss ru l and gai nf u l, paid employment has been afforded a rath.:..r high status. Therefore, for the purposes of this study, the level of paid employment was thoughtto be an

appropriate demonstration of a successful work transition in progress and was, thus, the focus of the investigation.

The Work Transition Model

According to t.he work transition model used in this study (Russell, Cahill, & spain , 1992), the transition process is directly influenced by the possible self (future view of self)and theactual occupational boundaries(ob s t a c l e s or circumstances that may impact on the individual's occupational future, such as an economic recession) that exist in the individual's system. The work transitionis also influencedby thewo r krelate d at t r i bu te s and skills th a t the individual bringsto,or developsduringthis transition process, as well as job search strategies. These skills and attributes not onlydirectlyinfluence the transitionprocess itself, but may also impact on self-r e pre s e n t a tio ns , causing changesin the self system (see figure 1) .

The individual's self-r e p res e nt a t i on s (sel f-knowledge), the social context (c o mmuni t y , school, family, and pee r s ) in which thes ese l f-r ep r e s e nt. a t i on s develop, and the individual's perception of the occupat ionalboundaries allinteract in an idiosyncrat icway to influence the developmentofthe possibleseLf, This studywi ll attempt to provide evidem.:e that the possibl eself is ake yel e me nt in the transi tion behaviourof a young person. The more fully

deve~oped the possible self, the greater the likelihood of a

success fu lcareertra nsit ion.

Wor kT Figurerans!ti on1 Model

self-Rep r e s entatioos

Accordi ng to Russell, Cah ill, and Spain (1 9921, sel£- repre sentations ar e basicall y self -cognitions (in form at i o n about oelf) . Th e y are formed on the basis of cognitions, behaviour, emotions , mo t i vat i ons , andphysiolo g i c a l arousal. Asanindiv idual engagesinself-eva l ua t i on and asse s s me nt,sel f - re p r esentatio ns can bemodifi e d . In addition, cbeseself - r epresentationscan serve to self- regulate the ind iv idua l. S0cialcomp arison andfeedb a c kfr o m various sou rces are thou ght tobe very importan t inthedeve l opment of self-knowledge (Rus se ll , cahill, andSpain, 1992).

Se lf -re pr es e nt a t io n s ca n bebroken down intothreetypes;core or ce nt ralselve s , working selve.., andpossiblese lve s (Ma r kus and Wur f. 1987 ). The possible se lf develo ps as a fun c t ion of the working sel f. The coreor centra l self is the mos t elabo ra t e d , power fUl ,va lued , and resistantto change, and is mos t influent ial indirecting behaviourand processinginformati o n (Russe l l,Cahill ,

&:Spai n ,1992). Theworkingself-conceptisthe ac ti ve partofthe

self-sys t e m. Itmightbe conc e p tua l i ze d as theself - co n c eptofthe mome nt;ac t ive and shift ing self-kno wledge. It changes de per: ding onthe parti c ular activi t yor circumstanceinwhichthe individua l isinvo lved. The wo r ki ng - s elf ca n pr ompt a chan ge in th ecore-sel f ifth e appropriate connectionisma dein thesel f- s yst e m(Ma r kus&:

Wurf, 1987).

The Possible Sftl f

The possible self is a necessary and influentialcomponent in the work transition process. According to Markus and Ruvolo (1989), possible selves are future views of self that have yet to be realized. These views of self include things that individ uals think they might become,wha t theywo u l dlike to become, aswe l l as those thingswhi c hthe y wish to avoid. "They ar e the manifestation of one' sgo~ls,as p i r a t i o n s , moti ves, fears and threats" (Markus"

Ruvolo, 1989, p , 212).

Possible eetvee are parti cularl y important to the work transition process in thattheyprovidet.he crucial link between self <concept; and motivation. Markus and Ruvolo (1989) conceptualize possible selves as "thepe r s o na li ze d carriers of an individual'smotivation"{p.212). They function asinc e nt i ve s for futurebehaviourand p rcv Lde an evaluativeand interpretivecontext for the currentviewof self (Ma r kus andNur i us , 1986). In other words, pos s i b l e selvesserve as the impetus ordrivingforce whi c h influence one'scurrent co u r s e of actionin the pursuit of a given goal. The successofthi s action mi gh t then be evaluatedon the basis of these establishedpossible selves. Insomerespects, the possible self might even be conceptualized an the goal Lt.ec If ,

Possibleselves". .impac t onbehaviourto the extent that an individual can pers o na li z e it by building a bridge of self- representations betweenone's currentstate andone's desired or

hoped-forstate" (Marku s &Ruvolo, 1989 , P.211). It appears that the "personalizing "ofagiven goal 01'aspiration is instrumen tal in the realiza tion this goal. In terms of the wo r k transition p roceas, this might be thought ofas the personalization of selfin a particular career/ occupation or in a state of employment. According to Markus and Ruvolo (198 9) , the task of goal representat ionandse l f-r e pr e s e nt a t i o n mergeint o one, bringingthe cur rent state and the desired state closer together, thereby forminga possib leself. Presumably,the morecompetent on e is at constructingthese possible selves, the moreelaborate, vivid, and specif ic th ey become. This, in turn , facilitatesthe reali zation of these possible selves and imp a c t s positively on the work transitionprocess.

SocialContext and Boundaries (Per ce ived/Ac tuall

The socialco nt e xt in whi chindividuals findthemselves exerts a tr emendous influence on the formation and de ve Lcpment; of the self-system (s e l f.r e pr e e e nt ations). Factors such as the family uni t , the educa tional system, the peer group, and, inde e d , the communityand cu lture as a whole , inte r act with one another to directly inf lu ence the formation of self-representat ions (sel£- knowledge) foral l individuals.

An individual function s in a variety of different social contexts, andwi ll consequentlydevelopa multip l icityofworki ng selves. These working selves have the potential to promote the

10 development of re l a t e d possible selves. It is likely that the influence of social context determineswhichpossible selves will be elaborated and subsequently re alize d (W.H. Spain, personal communication,JUly 12, 1994). As one engagesinsocial comparison and recei v es fee dba c k frO"1var iouselements found wit hin the socia l context, sel f-representations are formed and modified. The relative impor tanceof eachelemen t in the social context vari e s fromindividual to individual, though it appears that cbe family playsa significant role in thisprocess.

The social context,whichis fundamental in the formationof

self-representations, is also impo r t an t in terms of the

considerable influence it exertsonthepe r c e p t i on of occupationa l boundaries. As was previouslystated , boundaries might be best conceptualized as obstacles orci rcumsta nce s that impact in aome wa y on an iod!vidual'a occupational future. The social conte x t directlyinfluences the way in which th e occupationalboundaries areinterpret e d andperceived bytr.eindividual . It is cle arth at not all bo undari e s are perceived similarlybyeveryo ne. What is viewed as an Lnsurmountebl,e obstac lebyone indi vid ua l, mightbe litt lemore than"anct her step alo ng theway" toano t he r. It is the socialcontextthat is chieflyresponsibleforthis diffe r ence.

To the extent that a boundary actually ex i s t s, it impacts independentlyon thewo r k transition. The individual's perception ofan oc cu pa tio nal bounda rydictateshowhe or shewilldea I with tha t bound ary. This ac tion impactsdirect lyon the transi tion to

11 wor k. This is notto say that there are no actual occupa tional boundaries. In fa c t , theun e mp l oyme nt rate, economic trends, and labo urmarketrequirementswillexert infl u e n c e on al l tho~<;'wh o engage in the work transition process. It might be argued, howev e r , th a t these boundaries directly affec t each iod i vidual equally. The var ianceobserved between individualsthen,would be due to th e pe rce p t i o n of these boundaries, as opposed to the boundariesthemselves.

Work skillslAter;buCcaand.TOb searchSki 119

Wo rk skills and other attributes, such as emplOyability skil ls. might be best conceptualized as the skills and knowledge nee de dby individuals to secureand retain employment (we n t ling , 1987 ). Theseskills can be brought to the tra nsitionprocess, or developed du r i ng the process through experie nce, education, or training . They mi ght alsobe conceptual izedasthos e skil lsthat emp Icyere desire their entry-level employees to possess. These skills might include basic re a ding , wr it i ng, and cOI..putational skills; good communication skills; effective reasoningand proble m- solvin g ability; interpersonal skills; leadership skills; the abilityto cooperate andwo r k as partof a team; a wil lingnessand ability to learn; and independence , flex ibility and creativity (As c he r, 1986;Ime l,1969 ; Harrison, 1986; Junge,1983) . According toth ework transitionmodelused in this study, the s e work skills and at t r i butes not only i.mpactdirectlyon thewo r k transition

12 itself. but also influence the further development of self- representations.

Job search skills are those skills specifically re l a t e d to lo c a t i n g employment and gaining entry into the job market. These impact directly on the wo r k transitionprocess, According to Yates (1987), job search skillsshouldin c l ude the following:

Ii Self-awareness of one's values, interestn, aptitudesand personality.

2) Occupational informationabout the world of work 3) Job huntingstrategies

4) Knowledge of educat ionalandtr a i ning information 5) Decision-makingskills

ResearchOuestion s

It is hypothesized then, that the possible self forms the basis for the transition behaviour of the young person. Th e more fully elaboratedthe possibleself in occupation-related areas, the more likely a successful care er transition becomes. Mo r e specifically, it is assumedthat the immediatewo r k history of the indi v i d u a l is indicative of the wo rk transition in progress.

Individuals reporting a longer work history are assumed to be handling thewo r k transition process more successfully than those falling into shorter workhi s t o r y categorie s.

13

1. What is therela ti o nship of the se1f ~syst em. part i c u larly the poss iblesel f, to the con c ept of gainful enga gemen t?

1. Are pos sible selve s based on futur e intentions related to ga inf ulengageme n t?

2.Are ge nder andgeographyrelatedto possible selve s ?

3.Aregend e r and geography rela t e d toimmed iatework history?

4. Are there diff erenc e s in the profil e of the po s sibl e se lf be t we e n persons inthe variouswork history catego r i e s ?

5.Is apossible selfrelated tofut u repar tici p ation inthe U.I. systemrelated tothe immediatework hist ory of the responde n t.and isthis relat.e dto gender andgeography?

6.Areindi vidu a l'sper ceptions oftheiracade micpotentialrel ated tothei r immediat ework hi s t ory?

7. Are spe cif i ccareerasp i rations (occup at ional pos sibleselvesl relat ed to th eir immed i a t e wo rk his tory, andis this relate d to ge nder and ge ography?

Limitationa

A limitat:ion inherent in all studies of this kind has to do with generalizability. Can the findings of this study be applied to other popu lations? A number of factors have been identified that could impact on the generalizability of this study.

1. The current provincial economic climate is considerably depressed now than i t was atth e time that this data was gathere d.

These findings may applymore accuratelytotce wt ou n d t a nd .ar s liVing in an economic climate that is more favourable than is currently being experienced. It is important to recognize, however, that more favourable conditions were nonetheless characterized by re l a t i v e l y highprovincia l unemployment,a high level of dependence on federal tr a ns f e r payments, and a seasonal, resou rce-ba aed economy.

2. Individuals who remained<it home during the longitudinal study were considerablyeasierto track for the purpose of participation in fo.l Low-up surveys. This mayha v e resulted in aEo.lLcw-cupsamp l e in whichstudents who chose to leave ho me were under-represented.

3. There was a -end e ncyfo r rea p_ond en t s living in rural ar e as to pa rticipa temorere=Jdily inthe follow-upprocess thantheir urban counterparts. This may have resulted in a follow-up sample in which uxban-ceaed studentswe r e under-represented.

15 4. This studyis basedon a secondaryana l ysi s of a data se t . The origina l data was notobtained with this part icular wor ktransit io n model in mind. Consequently, the fit betweenthe data and the theoreticalmodelis an imperfect one. Thisimpos e s limitations in terms of the available data as i trel ates to the posed research questions.

16 CHAPTERII

LITE RATURE REVIEW Intr odu ct i o n

The mo d elus e d in this study proposesthat the po ss ible sel f is cen t r al to the transit i on pr ocess an d is de pend e nt on the Indd vidual 's self-representat ions (s el f<know.Ledqel , the soc La I conte xt (co mmuni t y, school, family, peers,etc . l in which t.hese self-representati on s de velop, and theindi vi d ual's pe r c ep t i o n at boundaries (obs t a c l e s/circums ta nc e s that may impact on the individual 's occupatio na l future ). The transition proc e s s is dire c t ly influe nc ed by thepossiblesel f (f utu r e view ofself).the actu alboundariesthat exis t in the indi v i du al'ssys t e m, the vcrk related attributes and skill s that the indi v idua l brings to, or develops duri ng this process, and jobse a rchstrategies.

Gi v e n that. thefocu s of thisstudyisto ex amine the impactof theindiv idu a l' s possib leselves on theimme d ia te wor k transi t i on, the fo llowingdiscussionwillcentr-e ar ou n d the conc ep t of work, the worktransition process, self-concept. and thepossi bleself.

Work Me a ni ngof Wo rk

"Work is a term havingmu Lt Lp Ledefinitions and meaningsthat shif tac r os s time, and hierarchical el e men tsth atdiffe r wi thinand between societies" (Herr & Cr a me r, 1988, p. 45 ) . Super (19 76) defines work as follows:

17 the systematic pursuit of an objective valued by oneself (even if only for survival) and desired by others;

directed and consecutive, it requires the expenditure of effort. I t may be compensated (paid work) or uncompe naated (volunteer work or an avocat:ion). The objective may be intrinsic enjoyment of the work itself, the structure given to life by the work role, the economic euppcc-c which work makes possible. or the type of leisure whichitfacilitates (p.:20).

Sears (1982) defines work as a conscious effort, other than having as it's primary purposes either coping or relaxing, aimed at producing benefits for oneself and/or otbe ra . Branson (1986) viewed work in the following way:

Work iswhat we orient ourselves towards in childhood and adolescence, and whe ':we must compensate for when we are forced to leave it in retirement. In ideological terms, it is the most meaningful stage of our lives. If we don't wo r k we are assumed lazy, parasitic, disabled, sti l l in childhood, still being educated for work, resting in our dotage after the fulfilment of work, or a housewife. Work is public work, labour that secures financial reward in the pubic world

(p. 95).

Work Outcomes

The interaction between individuals from varied backgrounds and diverse work settings makes it highly unlikely that there is only one meaning for work. In de e d , the preceding de f i n i t i o n s demonstrate considerable variation. It has been suggested that the mC.:1ning of work should not relate to the nature of work. The nature of work is in a constant state of flux as new technologies are developed and subsequently introduced into the wo r k place. According to Baude, (1975) work needs to be understood within a context of people, position, and purpose. In order to understand

the tr u e meani ng ofwo rk for each indi v i d ua l , it is ne c es s a ry to consider it' s meaning interms of work outcomes. The impo r t a n c e of the work outcomewillva r ybe t wee n individuals.

wo r k outcomes for the ind ividu. almay include income,quali ty of wor k, occupatio na l sa tis f action,andjo b satisfaction {Harpaa, 1985). The rel at i ve importance of these outcomes to the indiv idual, and how th e seoutcomes are interp r eted, depend to a largedegree on the fo r matio n of self. In this context,elements inthe sel f- sy s t em may inclu de the perception of "me as work e r ".

importance of wo r k , lei su re . and family, as we ll as wo r-k and economic values. These variousaspects of the se lf-sy stem wi ll dictat ethe outcomes impo r t an t to theindividu a l, and thu a cr e a t e a unique meani ng ofworkforeach person.

Haz-paz (1985) identified4wo rk outcomes for thewo r ke r : a. the income tha t indi vidual s re c e ive rrcm theirwo r k b. thequa li tyof their work in terms of thepe rcei ved level of lea rn ing opport un i t y, autonomy , respo n s i b i li t y andvariet y exis t i ng inthe i r pr e sent wo rk situation.

c. the occup a t ion al sa t i sf a c t i o n of the indivi d ual exp re s s e d intermsofwh e the r or nothe/shewoul d choose th e same worki fthe y could be g i nwo r k again. d. the job sat isfac t ion of th e individual expr e ssedin termsof stati ngthatthe y wou l d continue towor k:inthe same jobve r s u s not workingor continuetowo rk butwi th changed conditionsgiventheyhad sufficient money and couldlive comfort a bly for theres t oftheir lifewi t ho ut wor k (p.38).

19 Nature Pu r p os e and Importanr;eof Work

The nature of wo rk and wor k preparation has chang e d cons iderab l y ove r ti me as technol og ical advancements al a ee an incre as ing impor tanceon inform a tion , knowledge,and communication.

Inthepa s t , a persontrain e dfo rworkbyworking. The family wa s an in tegra l par t of th i s process, as trade s and work ski lls we r e pa sse d down th r ou g h generations. Forma l ed u c a t i o n was restri ct ed tothe elite and th e wealthy . In recentyears,however, increasi ng indu s t ri a l i z a tion and advanci ng technology has altered this pattern . Tra i ning in a formal educat i onal set:.tinghas become a ne c e s s ary par tof workprep a r a t i on. The se cha ng es haveplacednew demandson the worker. Ind e e d, the econ omic success of a societ y is related to the "preparedne ss " of itsworkforce. Herr (1 99 0), point s out :

the key factorin thena t i o n'$ ability to compete in the growinggloba l economy is the quality of i t 'sworkforce as de f i n e d by literacy , numeracy, flexibility , and tea c h a b i lit y which cha r a ct e r ize s i t (p.11.

Therefore, from a societa lprospective,workmustmeet the demands of a changing economy. Socie t y requires a workforce with the skillsnecessary to competein the global economy.

Th e import anceof worktosocie tyand totheind i vidua l canbe exploredin bot heconomicand non-economic terms. Employed people spen da signif i c an t portionof theirwakinghoursin work -related activities (t r aini n g, lookingfor work,or actually working). For most adults and their famil ies , working is the major source of

20 economic well-being, Work also provides individuals with economic benefits, Harpaz (1985) reported that 65\ to 95\ of individuals in the national labour force samples state that they would continue to work even if they had enough money to live cornsoz-t.abLy for the rest of their lives. In addition to the economicvalue, there are social and psychological values attached to working as well.

From a societal perspectiveI work can allow the individual to become a self-sufficient economic asset, striving toward greater independence and flexibility in the workplace. For the individual, work may serve several needs: economir:, social and psychological (Herr and Cramer, 1988). From an economic perspective, work provides the financial means to obtain goods and services.

Socially, it may serve as a place to meet people and develop friendships. Psychologically, i t may help build self-esteem and develop a personal identity. The type of work and the work environment often dictate the degree to which these various needs are met. Ifan individual's work outcome does not meet the needs and expectations of the society in which he or she lives, the individual may be considered unproductive. Ifthe work outcome does not meet an individual's personal needs and expectations, then personal development in these areas may be Lnhdbdted .

21

The meaning,nature, and importance of work must bevi ewe d in the context of the individual as he or she functions wi t h i n a social ir a mewo r k. The importanceof various work outcomes to the individual will dependlargely onthe interpretation and evaluation of these outcomesinthe contextof the self-system. The success of the work outcome may be meaauxed in termsof the fulfi l mentof societal expectationsandtheachievement of perso na lsatisfaction.

The Proce ssofTr ansi t i o n TM Natu reof Transition

Thetransitionprocess through whichindividualsmust pass in orderto moveinto thewo r l dofwo r k is influenced or controlledby a number of elements. Th e process of transition is a rather complex concept. In fact, Dr i er&Ciccone (1988) suggestthat "one of the most difficult transitions that takespl a c e inlif eiswhen a yo ung personmoves fr om school to thewor k plac e" (p. 8).

The school towo r k transition includesevents,ac t i v i t i e s , and decisionsthatinfl uenc e theadjustments made by individualsin an attempt to achieve theirpersonalgoals in the developmentof a satisfyinglifestyle (Spain&Sharpe, 1990).

The Ontario Teacher'sFederation (198])defines the school to wo r k transitionas follows:

Thebreak with school andentry into employmenthas come to be re gardedas partof a longer phase in the livesof

22 you t h s whichbeginwhil e theyarestillin school - with developmentof expectationsandaspirations about school and wo rk - and extends we ll int o their first yea r s at work, includi ng their adjustmenttoworki nglif e . It is this pha s e that re p r es e n t s the transi t ionalyearsbecause the young individuals proceedthrough a series ofstages and decisions, eachentailing implications for thenext, fo r m full-timeeducation to full-timeemployment (p.2).

Sharpe and spain (1991b) expandthi side a toconceptualize the tra n s it i o n as a gradual li f e-l ong process. Mos t individuals continue to make transitions throughout their wo rki ng lives as the}' move from onejo bto anotherasthei r career develops (Rosenthal&.

pilot, 19 8 8) . It may involve periods of wo rk for some, the combinationof edi catLonajpursuitsandpart-time work for others , le a v i ng formal education for a time and returning later, orany combinationof thesedifferentpathways (Sha r pe &Spain , 1991b) .

TheCOnte xtof the Transition

The worktr ans i t i o n takes place within the socialcontext of the developingindividua L This context provides opportunity, and in fl u e nc e s the perception that peoplehaveof these oppor tunities.

The number of jobsac t uall y available to young people,and their beliefsconcerningopportunitiesin thela bou r marketinflue ncethe tra nsit ion process.

According to Spainand Sharpe (1990) , the context ofthe work tr a n sit i o n is th e real world witn which a person must deal in makingth e move fromsc h oo l to work. It is multi-f aceted , and is often beyond the controlof the individualsinvolved. The macro

23 con te xt is co mp r i s ed of majo r. wi despr e a d in fl ue nces th a t dis t anc ed from indivi d ua l s. These are the economic trends , the major policy cha nge s of governments, and the in troduction of radi":al innovations lsuchas ne wtechnology).

Potent ia l pro b l em s in the Trans i tion

Ac c ord in g toSt e ve nson (l!:l78). most young worke r s ente r the labou r for c egradually followi ng the comp letionof high sc ho o l. Cur ingth e wo rk transitionprocess , large numbersof teenagersand young adu ltscombi ne wo r kand school due tothe opp ort unitiesfo r pa r t· t ime emplo yme nt. However,Adams and Mangum (1 97 8) notedth at beyonda pre di c t ab l e periodof experi me n t a t i on , job l essnessamong out-af-schoolyo u t h carrieswi t hita-h angov er effec t "that may be presentfor anext e nde d periodof time. Garraty (1978 l , pointsout -tho s e who have unfavourableea rlylabour marketexperiences are less like l y than ct hexe to have favourable experiences later, education and other bac k.gro und characteristics held co nstant.

Thus, earlylabour market experiences are rela t e d to su b s e qu e nt measuresof la bo u r market eueceas- (p.1321 . According to the Grant Founda tion(19881ncn vc oLl eqeboundyouthwho comp l etehighsc hool have been saddle d withtheex pectatLen tha t the y wil l readil y find aplaceinthelabour market , and ne ednot be offurther co n c e r nto societ y. Howe v e r , Dole {19 90j point s out tha t man y non-colleg e bound you thspendyears tr y i ngto co ns tru c t ive l y enter and rema i n inthe Leuour fo r c e,and man y nev ersucceed. Dol e (1990) goes on to sa yth a t the lac k of a st ruc tu redtrans i t i o n frnm schoo l to the

24 work place, leaves many young people without a planfo r entering thela bo ur market or for continuingthei r education.

A Successful Transition

A successful transition into the labour market might be conceptualizedas one wh i ch allows for both personal satisfa ction and economic independence. Ac c o r d i ng to gpadu and Sharpe (1990), the work transitionwould be regarded as successfulby societyif the individual was engaged1.0 activities that would lead to the acqui e Leron of skills and aptitudes that contributeto the goal of economic independence. The y further state that in our society, education is a universally va l ue d activity because it ge ne r a lly leads to greatersuccessin obtaining employment. Numerous studies have attested to the factthat the highestle v e l s of employmen tare enjoyedby the morehighly educated sector in our society. Glover and Marshall (19 93 ) state that "fewpeople1..1:'.1obtain a good job that pays well without significant learning beyond high school"

(p.GO).

Ac c ord i ng toWh i t fi e l d(1 98 8 ) , the ccmpet.enc Lee necessary fo r a success fultransitioninto the occupationalworld ought to serve as the fo c al point of.l n y high school career guidance program.

"Competencies expected of studentsmustbethose that allowthem to adjust,mature, and succeed in theworld of work and allow themto satisfy the multiple rolestheywil lhave throughout their career"

(p.19).

25

Final l y, Glover and Marsh a ll (1993) proposed the following pr incip l es as aba s i s for a systema ticyet flexib leandsuc c e ss f u l worktransi t i o n model:

1. Conn ect. achievement in school to rewards in the labour marke t.

2. Beawa r e thdt no program or training approachca n meet the needs of all yout hs or of all employers.

3.The system must be madeavailable to all youths. rather than a ser ies of short term de mons t r a tio ns for specia l popul ations.

4. The sys tematicprovision of informationis th e ke y el ement ofany pro posedsystem.

S. If ado le scen t s are expect e d to be in a positi o n to make deci s ions abo u t caree r s , prov i d ing bet ter and earlier oc cup a t i o na l informa t i on and guidance ises s ential. 6. Vocational options in the syste mneed to have a st ro ng academicconte nt.

7. The system sho u l d not foreclos e th e optio n for highe r ed ucation (p. 597- 598).

The wo r k tra ns i t i o n process is best co nc e ptu a li z e d as a gradual life- long process. It includes events, activities, and decisions th a t influence individuals as they attemp t to rea li z e theirpe r s o n a l goalsinth ede v e l op me nt of a satisfyinglifestyle. The transi tion pr o c e s s takespl a c e'"ith i nthe socialcont e xt wh i c h exerts a vari e t y of influences tha t are often beyond an individual' s personalcont ro l. Asucces sful transit ion into the labou r market migh t be conc eptua li zed asonewhichal lowsfo r both personal satisfa c t i onand econ o mi c indep endence.

26 Self Concept

Hist o ricalPe rspectiv~

The conceptua lizationof selfand itsrelativeimp ortancein governing various aspects of the indi v i d u a l such as emotions , cognitions,and behaviourshas undergone nu me r ou s chanqes ove r the years. Wit hthe emergence of modern ps yc ho l og y came a decrease in the belie f thata solelyspiritual componentwas respons ible for the various as pe c t s of self. Wi ll i a m James (1890) might be considered a forerunner in this conceptuali zationof self, as he divided self into spiritual, materia l, and social aspects. In addition, James ascribeda dynam icqua l i tyto the understand ingof self. Freud (1943) ga ve attention tosel f underthe conceptof ego de v e l opme n t and func t i on . Egowa s an integ ral part ofhistheo ry of persona lity deve l o pment, and was said to serveas the exec utor of the personality, cont ro lli ng the actions of a he al t hy ind i v i d ual. Me ade (1934) placed self in a social context, as an ob jec t of aware ne ss. He aeae rt.ed that individuals became more self-aware asothers respon ded to the m. Lewin (1936) believed a

"life space"regio n determinedone's presentbe li efabout self. He pro posed tha t allaspectsdi rec ti ng thebehaviour of anindiv idual cou ldbe fo und in that individual's life epace. Thi s lif e space was viewed as central and relativelypermane nt, gover ning one'G ent ire per sonal ity. Golds t ein(l939) analy zed the process of self- ac t uali za t i o nandwas a forerunnerofMaslow's (1954,19621wor k in thisar e a. Rogers (19 51) vie we d selfasacentral compo ne ntofthe human personality, and suggestedthatone'spercep tio nof self is

27 unique to the individual (phe n o me no l ogic al) , and is of key importance to governing behaviour and adjustment. Combs andsna gg (1949)believed thatmaintainingand enhancingthe selfwas a basic drive of the in d ivi d u a l. They asserted that an individual's behaviour is a di rec t result of his or her perception of a situa tio n, and the perception of hi mself or herself in that situa tion. Purkey (1970 ) summarized what he thought were the importantch a r a c t e r i s t i c s emerging fromthe historical development of the concept of self.

(1) th atth e self is or g a n i z e d and dynamic; (2) that to the experiencingindividualthe se lf is the centreof his personal universe; (3) that ev e rythi n g is observed, interpreted, and comprehended from his persona l vantage point; and (4) that humanmot ivat i on is the product of the universal strivingto maintain,protect ,and enhance self (p. 13 ).

The Current View of Self in Ca r e erDgvelopme nt Donald Super (1951, 1953 , 1957, 1980 , 1988) ha s written extensively in the area of car e e r development . Super's developmental approach to the provis ion of career counsel ling relies heavily on the contribution of the self-concept to the process. He envisioned self-conceptas a construct that developed and continuallychangedthroughout chi l d hoo d as a re sul t of the social interaction encountered in various env ironme nt s. This construct was confirmed, elaborated and solidified during adol e s c e nc e and adulthoo d . According to Supe r , individuals choose occupationstha t allowthemto functionin various rolesthat are consistent withthe self-concept.

2.

Ginzberg (1984) stated, "occupational choice is a lifelong process of decision making for those who seek major satisfactions from theirwork. This leads them to reassess repeatedly how they can improve the fitbetween their changingcareer goalsand the realities of the world of work" (p.180). In this view, self is thought to develop in the economic and family context . An individual's career choice balances the view of self and related constructswh i l e taking into account opportunities and the cost of pursuing them.

Tiedeman and Miller-Tiedeman(1984) advocated a view of career development that incorporated concepts of self. decision making strategies, and personal values. In this view, the development of setr- c c n c e p e and a career concept occur gradually as nlany small decisions are made.

Gottfredson (19Bl) stressed the importance of self-concept in vocational development. In her view,"peop Ie seek jobs compatible with their images of themselves. social class, intelligence, and sexare seen as importantde terminantsof both self-conceptand the types of compromises people must make.. . • {p . 546). She goes on to say that some aspects of self arc more important than others, and that individuals set pri.orit iesas to which aspects of self they wish to emphasize.

2.

SelfRe d e fin e d

The workof HazalMarku s inthe areaof self representations and the relative funct i on of self to the individual was most in flue n t i a l tothe concep tualization of self in thisstudy. The views ofMa rk us and hercollea g u es arebestrepresen tedin Ma::kus and Wurf 's 1987 review. They explai n se l f - c o n c e p t as ady n a mi c int e r p r e t i v e struc t ure that mediatesmost si g n i fi c a n t interpersonal processes.

Self concept does not ju st reflect ongoingbehaviourbut insteadmediatesandregulatesbehaviour. It interprets and organizesself-relevantactionsand experiences...i t adjusts in response to thech a l l e n g e from the social env i r onment. (Ma r k u s&.Wurf, 1987,pp.299-300)

In this view, self- c on cept is characterized as dynardc, int e r a c t i ve, experiencing, int e r p r e t ing and mediating. Self concept develops, not in a vacuum,but within cbe systemin which the individualfunctions. This dynamic self-conc e pt isinfl u e n c e d by the environment and, intur n , influences the environment.

According to Markus and Wurf (1987 ) the self co nc e pt is composed of several types of self-representations: (1) ~ ce ntr a l selves are those which are most elaborated, valued, and most powerful indirecting behaviour and processing information;

(2) Possible se lves are those which arenot yet realized. Some selvesar e realizedwhile others arefu turis t ic (pos sible sel ves- feared or hoped foz-!. "These selves function as incentives for behaviour, providing ima ge s of the future self in de sir ed or undesi red end - s t a t e s. Theyalsofunctionto pr ovidean eval u a tiv e

30 and interpretive context for the current view of self" (Markus&

WurE, 1987, p.302); (3) Working selves are a third type of representation. Markus and WurE (1987) state that:

i tis no longer feasible to refer to thes~lf-concept.... The idea is simply that nat all self-representationsor identities that are pa r t of the complete self-concept will be accessible at anyone time. The working self- concept, or the self-concept of the moment, is best viewed as a continually active, shifting array of accessible self knowledge Ip.307).

In this view, the core self is considered quite stable and resistant to change. However, around this core there are self- vi ews which are prone to change and shift, depending on the social context; or activity in which the individual is participating.

various aspects of self may be accessed through memory and thought, which then become the focus of attention-related processes. These can become background schemas for other situations which illuminate different aspects of self.

It would seem that activated states which become part of the working self have the potential to change the core self i f a connection is made to the self-system in a particular way. An individual may behave in different ways, but may continue to hold self-viewswh i c h no long e r representthe present view of self in a behavioral sense. Once this connection is made, m..,dification of the core self may begin tota k e place. Fo r example, although an individual continues to hold a view of self as non-assertive, the potential is there to altercognition and feelings. A possible self (a future view of selfl at one point in time may become a

31 working self in th efut ure, withnew possibleseLve a emerging. In boththe sh o rtand long term, the re is a developmen t from one self to another; from possible self to working self, and then from working selfto core self.

~esofSe lf ~Representations

Russell, Cahill, and Spain (1 9 92) suggest that information about self may be derived froma variety of sources , including cognitions, behaviour, emotions, motivations, and physiological arousal. They go 0:1to say that social interactionand fe e dba ck from others is an Lmportarit; so ur c e of self-knowledge. The influence of social interactionson the self and the influence of the self on social int era cti o ns is of a reciprocal nature. The self-conceptprovidesa framewor kfor boththeinte r p r e ta t i o r. and selection of socia l experiences, but the experiencesalsomodify, and are instrumental, in the formation of new or al t e red sel£- views.

Eac h aspectof theself-conceptisimpo r t a n t to the formation of an occupational id e nt i ty or schema. Howeve r, give n the importanceof possible selvesas a redefin itionof aspirationsfor career-related be h a viour,and the importance of thepossibleself to this study, fu r t he r dis c ussi on of thisaspect ofself-syste mis wa r r an t ed.

32 Possibl eSelve s

Whil e invest i gation of the topic of possible selves is z-eLa tLv eI'ynew ,di v e r s e preliminarystudies havebeen conduct e dand conside rab le theoretical discussion has ta ken place (Cross &

Mar kus , 1991; Ba rk o....'s ki , Day, Saenz, Dietmeyer, Es tr ada::: &

Groteluschen, 1990; Day, Bor ko ws ki, Dietmeyer, Ha ws e p i a n 6<Saenz, 1991; Ing l e ha r t ,Mal:k u5&Brown, 1989;Ma r ku s &Nu r i u s , 1986,19B1;

Oyserman & Markus, 1990a; Oyserman & Markus, 1990b; Markus &

Ruvolo, 1989: Ruvolo&Markus, 1992 ;Ma r k u s , Cross&Wurf,1990),

This research has foc u s e d on such is s ue s as the functions of possibleselves, pos si ble selvesacross a life span,the gene ratin g of posuible selves inpa r t i cu l a r l y troubling con texts, and theus e of imagingincreat.ingpossibleselves.

Two functionsof po s s i b l e selvesin the mot.ivationalprocess are th e structur ingorfo c us i ng aspect ,and the energizing function towardpursuinggoals. As outlinedby Ingelhart.Markus andBrown (1989), thest r uc tu r i ng or focusing fu nctio n allows individuals to conce p t ual i z e a desired goal, resulting in the initiation and st r uc t u r i ng ofth e ir activitiestowards achievi ng this goal. In thecase of a feared goal , it may involve avoiding that wh i c h is feare d . Th e ene rgi z ingfunctionof possiblese lves in v o l ve s tho affective state. Wh en imagi n i n g a possibleself, individuals may ex pe rie n c e varied emo tio n s whichenergize themto take wha tever actionnecessary to achieve or avoid an end-ut ace. In focusing on a specific prof essiona l poss ible self and in pe rceiv i ng a

33 satisfyingpossiblecareer, theindi v i d ual is mctLv a t ed to achieve thisca r e e r-r elate d possible self. As in d i c a t e d by Markus and Nu r i uB (1 98 7) , -it is the possible ee Lf that puts the self into action , 'wha t outlines the likely course of action " Ip, 159).

possibleselves workto regulate behaviour and motivatea personto re a li z e oravo i d possibl e end-states. Motivation, as examinedby Markus and Nurius {l987l, is perceived "a s a ref l ectionof what individua ls hope to accomplishwi t h the ir lives and the kindof pe o p le they woul dlikeandnot like to become" rp . 162 ).

Un lesspossibl eselvesar e well-elaborated, firmlyroote d,and affirmedby others':hr oug h socialinteraction, they maybecome less impo rtan tand , as stated by Markusand Nurius (1987), "they may easily slip ou t of the working self-concept to be replaced by negativepossibi lities" Ip.164 ) .

A study by Cross and Markus (1 9 91) lo o ke d at how possible selvesvary across a lif e span. As people age, they ma yhave to restructurecognitive sch e ma s in revising possibleselves. The results of th i s studyin d i c at e d that well-educatedpeople of all ageswho ha ve high self-esteem can construc t newpossible sel ves wi t hou t perce ivi ng unrea lized possible selves as indica tionsof fail ure. Younge r respon de n t s we r e le s s commi t te d than older re spondentsto be hav i ou r s which would pr o du c e ade s i r e d end-state pe r ha p s because the yhad more possibleselves to contendwi t h . The aut ho r s found that the morecomp l e x a person's self -represent ations

34 are . the less likely he or she is to experience loss when discardingselves. Itwouldappearthat the s eindi viduals possess many othe r selves to co mpensa te fo r those which ha v e been discarded.

Ind i vidual s are most likel y to de ve l op possib l e selvesfor gu iding behav i our in domai n s th a t are centra l and have wel l - elaborated self·schemas (Ma r kus & Ruvo l o , 198 9 ) . These arethe domains to whic h the re is commitment and th e need for soci al validation. This allows people to ignor e nesative acpecta associated with a job (such as long hours ) and focus on the pos i t i v e aspects (suc h :LS financi a l rewards and a sense of ecccmp.ttehmenc j . Accordi ng to Markus andRuvol o (198 9).

Possiblese tve sare ac tion -o r i entedstruct u r es...In the cour s e of constr u c ting, recru itingandde p l oy ingtheir parts of th e req ui r ed seque n ce s of ac tions wi ll be primed,part iallyacti vated,or"run. - Whe n this typ e of mental and somat ic pract i ce or antici pation occurs, per f o rma nce is enha nced. To the extent that we can de velop methods for mea s u ringthe degree of elaborat i o n of the poss ible self , we sh ou ld be able to predi ct pe rformance mor e pre cisely th an me as u re s of level of aspirationor achievement mot iva tio n , whichassess only one aspe ct ofthe indivi d ua l '5 orienta t ion to the goal

(p.2361.

Accordingto Markus andNurius (1986), th e pos s i b l e self is pote n t iall y most importa ntfor changi ng self-re presen t a t i o ns asit is a motivational force in directing action towards goa l s. The mor e elaborate the possible self, including etr-ece-atee for achie veme n t, the more lik.elythat it wil l be actua li z e d. In othe r wo r ds , the closerth epo ssibleselfistothecore,themor e like l y

35 it is to be realized. There is a shifting from one aspect of self (c o r e , working, pdssibleito the other as the individual grows and develops .

Markus, Cross and wurf (1990) define the self-concept as: "a set of knuwledge structures which summarizes and facilitates processing of an ind! vidual's information about the self in a particular domain (s e l f ~ s c h e ma )" (p. J). Markus (1~77) defined se Lfcnchema s as "cognitive generalizations about; the self, derived from past experience, that organize and guide the processing of self-related information contained in an individual's social e:<perience" Ip . 631. According to Russell. Cahill, and spain (1992), self-schemas are developed by individuals so that they are able to organize, summarize, and explain their own experiences.

Once self-schemas established, they influence the interpretation of subsequent behaviours and experiences encountered in the socia.l context.

Markus and Wurf (1987) describe a dynamic self-concept in terms of self-representations; the "core self" (well established and resist.ant to change), the "possible self" (futuristic view of selfj an aspiration), and the "working self" (s e l f knowledge of the moment;continually active and changing). possible selves

"are specific representations of one's self in future states and circumstances that serve to organize and energize one's actions. These thoughts, images or senses of one's self in the end-state or in the intermediate

"

at.auea -me wearing a red shirt or me doing rounds at the hospital, or me being made fun of by co-workers, or me as a bored and underpaid clerk - are viewed as the individualized carriers of motivation. They are the manifestation of one's goals, aspirations, motives, fears and threats" (Markus«Ruvolo, 1989,p. 212).

l\ccording to Byrne (1964), "self-concept is considered a critical variablein education and educational reee arcr;' (p.427), Byrne cites a plethora of studies concernedwith self-conceptas related to students' functioning in a variety of educational settings. Gloverand Marshall (1993) point directly to the link between higher education levels and greater success in obtaining and retaining employment. This link between self-concept, education, and employment success is consistent with convent Lonc l wisdom which suggests that one's view of self plays a significant role in the schoolto work transition. One mightlog i c a l l yas s ume that as the Mindividualized carrier of motivation" and the

"manifestations of one's goals and eeprrac rons- (Markus &Ruvolo, 1989, p. 212), the possible self becomes a very important element in the work transition process.

The Redefined Self in Context

In order to clearly understand the context in whi c h the

"redt.:fined self" should be viewed, it is important to consider it in the frameworkof the self-conceptand ne Lf^ceffLc acy literature, especially as it relates vocational concerns.

37 Self_Efficacy Th e q r y

According to Bandura' s (1977) self-efficacy theory, self- efficacy expectations"are the convictionthat on e can successfully execute the behaviour requ i red to produce the outcome" (p. 19]) . Efficacy ex pec t a t i ons exert considerable influence on an individual's choice of activi ties , ho w much efforthe or she will exert, andhow long theeffortwill be sustained . The stronger the perce ivedself-efficacy , themo r e activethe effort.

Hackett andBetz (1 98 1) extendedthi s theory to vocat ional behaviour whentheystated that persona l efficacy help determi ne career decisions and achieve ments . They hypothes izedth atefficacy beliefs are related to people's rtlnge of ca r e e r opt i o ns, and to persistence and success inthe i r cho s e n field. Self·efficacyhas been shown to be related to a number of indi c e s of careercnctce behaviour. These includetherange of percei vedopt ions,expresse d interests , and oc cu pa t i on a l preferences. In particular, perceptionsof lowself- e ffica c ymay bean impo r t a nt facto:~in an individuals ' elimination of possible career options.

t.ene , Brown, and Larkin (1986), sug gestedthatse l f ~ e f f i cac y expectations appear to be rel a t ed to the prediction of academic achievement , pers istence , and the ra nge of career options considered . They went on to suggest tha t self-efficacy may be an impo rtant cogn itive factor mediating educational and vocational behaviour (p. 269).

3B According to Markusand Nurius (1 98 6 ), the possible self is the mechanism for motivation. There is a cognitive distance between the possible self andcor e or workingself. The closer the possib le self isto the coreor workingse lf , the more likely it will be realize d. Within this framework , se lf-ef fic a c y is the perc e pt ion of the dis ta n c e betwee nthecurr e nt view ofsel f andthe elaborated possibleself. In addit i on, it is als othe per cep ti on of one's abil ity to accomplish the proced u ra l aspect s of the pos s i ble self.

Self-Conce ptCo n t e x t

Sha v el so n , Hubner, and Stant on (1976) noted tremendous variability in definitions in their review of the self-concept literature. So much so in fact. that they wereabl e to cla s s i f y the s e def initionsintoseventeendifferentconcept.uaI dimensions.

Construc t validationwasused in an attempt to drawtogetherthese diversestudies. Theyconcluded that se tf- cencepe mi g h t well be divided in to a numberof differen t.dime nsions.

In their review of datagathered fromfive different eelf- conc e p t instruments, they suggestedthatscore s were related to fou r gen eralareas of experience: academic,social ,emotionalan d physical. A hierarchical arr angeme nt of thi s data led them to hypothesis thatgeneralself-c onc e p t;(a t theapex ofthe hierarchy) was stable, whereas situation-speci fi c se lf-c o nc e p t wasunstable.

Their con c e p t u a liza t i on of gen e r al self-concept has obvious

39 simi lari t ies to the core self, while situation-spe ci fi c self- co nc e p t may be equatedwi ththeworkingself.

Voegti9nal Context

Super believed in the stability of the self-concept as establis hed in childhood and cla r i fi e d , and/or confirmed during ado l e s c en c e (19 5 1/198 8) . This view corresponds to the most enduring aspects of self , the coreself, bu t does not: seemto address the issueof an ever changingand developingself-concept as defined by the working self (Ma r kus &Wurt, 1987). However, Super also referredtothi s stable notionof self-concept as the

"ac t u al se l f" (1 957, 196 9, 1970 , 1951 /1988 ). The working self (Ma r k us&Wurf,1987 )mightbeconsi d e r e d ason e of several "actual selves". Markus and Wurf (1987 ) conceptualizethe core self as stable, yet shifting and dyna mic . It seems likely that this developme nt is accomplished as various working selves are elabora ted and eventual lyassimilated into the core se l f over a period of time. Super'sview of the "ac tu a l self" solidifying durin g adolescence and early adulthooddoes notse e m to allowfor the co nt i n ou s development of a dynamic self-concept as concept ualizedby Markus and Wurf (19 87 ) .

Super also ma de freq uen t references to the "ideal self " as what one would really like tobe (1957 , 1969, 1970, 1951/19 88) . One might co ns i d e r this similar toan un e labor a t e d poss i ble self, wit hl ittle con s i d e ra t i o n of the ways and meansfor moving fromthe

40 present to the future state. Accordi ng to Supe r. anind i v i du a l tries out differentrole sin an attempt to narrowthe gapbe tw een th e ideal selfwhich repres ents ro l e aspiratio ns and the actual self. The greater thedi f f e r e nc e betweenthe actual self and the ide al self, th elowe r thele v e l of job satisf action (1970).

Twoaspects of Gottfredson's (1981)approachare relevantto thisdiscussion:her idea of the centralityof various aspects of the self, and the fut ureorientation of self. In terms of the centralltyof selfI she believed tha tone's gender self-c o uc e p t; was most strongly pro t e cte d . fol lowedcloselybyone'sconce ptof class and abilities. This viewis somewhatconsistentwi t h the id eaof a core self, but morerigid. Shealso refersto self-co nceptbei ng projectedint o the future, inc luding who one expec tsorwould like to be. This is so mewhat ana l ogous to the co nc e p t of thecoee ibte selfd explicatedby Markus and he r colleagues.

41 CHAPTER :r:II

PROCEDURE S Intr o du ction

This study explored the effect. of the possible self on the immediate work history of a group of high school graduates who did not pursue postsecond3ry training in the year immediatelyfol lowing graduation. The career transition model which provided the direction far this studywas developed by Russell, Cahill, and Spain (l992) (s e e figure 1, p. 6). The original data for this study was not gathered for the purpose of this particular work transition model, making this a secondary analysis of this data set.

Information regarding the possibleself(i nd e pe nde n t variable) extracted from data provided in "Youth Transition into the Labour Market (YTLM): The Class of '89: Initial Survey of Level III (Grade 121High School Students" conducted by Spain and Sharpe (1!J!Jlb) . This wa s subsequently explored in re l a t i o n to the immediatewo r k history of non-postsecondary graduates (dependant variable I . This information was extracted from data gathered in

"Ycuth Transition into the Labour Market (YTLM): Second Follow-up Study" alae conducted by Spain and Sharpe (19!J3).

4'

TheYTIM Stud y

The "Youth Transitioninto theLab o u r Market (YTLM): The Class of '89: Initial Survey of Level III (Grade 12) High School Students" conducted by Spain and Sharpe (1 9 91bl iden tified an d surveyed a ful lcohort of students who were nearingthe camp let ion of level III in198 9 in the province of Newfoundland. The YTLM study was longitudinal in design. intended totr a c k the school to work tr a n s i t i o n over a number of years.

Th.... followingsummary of the YTLM procedures wastaken from reports on the initial study (Sh a r pe and Spain, 1991bl and the report on the second follow-upstudy (S h a r p e andSpain. 1993l.

Schools were asked to identify all students wh o we r e classified as Level III(ha v i ng earned 23 or more credits). Given a required 36 credits for graduation and an averagewo r k load of 13 creditsper year,graduation at the end of this academic yearwa s a feasible prospect for all those fulfilling thiscriteria.

The questionnaireswere distributed atthe end of April,1989.

Th i s occurred shortly after the students returned to school following the Easter break,yet several weeks prior to final exa ms.

The in t e n t i on was to be as least disruptive as possible to theend of the school year,yet provide an accurate picture of the students at the time of high school graduation.