W O R L D H E A L T H O R G A N I Z A T I O N
ORGANISATION M O N D I A L E D E LA S A N T E
EB81/27
10 November 1987
EXECUTIVE BOARD Eighty-first Session Provisional agenda item 20
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EFFECTS ON H E A L T H Report by the
OF CHEMICAL W E A P O N S1
Director-General
The T w e n t i e t h , Twenty-second and Twenty-third World Health A s s e m b l i e s and the thirty-ninth and f o r t y - f i f t h sessions of the Executive B o a r d adopted resolutions on the need for international agreement oil the p r o h i b i t i o n of use of c h e m i c a l (and b i o l o g i c a l ) weapons ( W H A 2 0 . 5 4 , W H A 2 2 . 5 8 , W H A 2 3 . 5 3 , EB39.R36 and E B 4 5 . R 1 7 ) . S u b s e q u e n t l y , the issue of c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s and the d i s a s t r o u s consequences for h u m a n h e a l t h
resulting from their u s e w a s raised at the T h i r t y - s e v e n t h , T h i r t y - e i g h t h , Thirty-ninth and Fortieth W o r l d Health A s s e m b l i e s . At the severity-fifth session of the Executive B o a r d , in 1 9 8 5 , reference was m a d e to c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e and it w a s requested that c o n s i d e r a t i o n be given to u p d a t i n g the 1970 WHO p u b l i c a t i o n , Health aspects of c h e m i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l w e a p o n s . At the Fortieth World Health Assembly the subject of h e a l t h effects of c h e m i c a l weapons was referred to the Executive Board for preliminary e x a m i n a t i o n at its eighty-first s e s s i o n . A c c o r d i n g l y , the f o l l o w i n g report has been p r e p a r e d , r e v i e w i n g the different classes of c h e m i c a l weapons and implications of their u s e .
M a n y countries h a v e c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s or the capability to produce and use them - whether against civilian populations or to damage the
environment and destroy food crops and a n i m a l s .
CONTENTS
Page
I . Introduction « 2
II. Chemical w e a p o n s 2 III. Some characteristics of c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s 3
I V . Risks to h u m a n populations 3 V . Psychosocial and psychological consequences 4
V I . Disposal of chemical w e a p o n s 5
V I I . Concluding remarks 5 Annex: Chemical w a r f a r e agents 6
1 The Director-General acknowledges w i t h appreciation the c o n t r i b u t i o n to the
p r e p a r a t i o n of this document of Dr Virginia M u r r a y , Poisons U n i t , New Cross H o s p i t a l , L o n d o n , United K i n g d o m .
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I . I N T R O D U C T I O N
1 . A c h e m i c a l w e a p o n can be d e f i n e d as a c h e m i c a l s u b s t a n c e t h a t is i n t e n d e d f o r u s e in m i l i t a r y and n o n - m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s to k i l l , s e r i o u s l y i n j u r e or o t h e r w i s e i n c a p a c i t a t e h u m a n s or to h a r m or d e s t r o y the e n v i r o n m e n t and n a t i o n a l e c o n o m i e s .
2 . The h i s t o r y of c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e g o e s b a c k to a n t i q u i t y w h e n s u l f u r — p i t c h m i x t u r e s w e r e b u r n t to p r o d u c e c h o k i n g f u m e s • M o d e r n c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e b e g a n in W o r l d W a r I w h e n c h l o r i n e w a s u s e d as a f r o n t - l i n e w e a p o n o n 22 A p r i l 1 9 1 5 . O t h e r c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s d e v e l o p e d and u s e d w e r e c h l o r o p i c r i n , m u s t a r d g a s and p h o s g e n e . T h e r e w e r e m a n y c a s u a l t i e s f r o m g a s s i n g ; 85% of d e a t h s w e r e d u e to p h o s g e n e . In W o r l d W a r II the c o m b a t i n g p o w e r s h a d e x t e n s i v e s t o c k s of c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s , i n c l u d i n g n e u r o t o x i c a g e n t s , b u t t h e r e a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n h a r d l y a n y u s e of t h e m . S i n c e t h e n c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s h a v e b e e n used s p o r a d i c a l l y i n w a r f a r e to a t t a c k m i l i t a r y and n o n - m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s .
3 . T h e first c h e m i c a l w e a p o n to be u s e d to c o n t r o l c i v i l u n r e s t w a s e t h y l b r o m o a c e t a t e ( E B A ) , in 1912» The h i g h l y i r r i t a n t v a p o u r w a s i n t e n d e d to t e m p o r a r i l y d i s a b l e m o b s . U r b a n u n r e s t and a m a r k e d i n c r e a s e in the c r i m e r a t e led to a n e x p a n s i o n in the u s e of a n t i - r i o t c h e m i c a l s d u r i n g the m i d - 1 9 2 0 s , and their u s e is n o w w i d e s p r e a d .
4 . The first i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n i t i a t i v e to p r o h i b i t the use of c h e m i c a l (and b i o l o g i c a l ) w e a p o n s w a s the 1 9 2 5 G e n e v a P r o t o c o l for the P r o h i b i t i o n of the Use in W a r of A s p h y x i a t i n g , P o i s o n o u s or O t h e r G a s e s , and of B a c t e r i o l o g i c a l M e t h o d s of W a r f a r e . The p u b l i c a t i o n b y W H O in 1 9 7 0 of H e a l t h a s p e c t s of c h e m i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l w e a p o n s , the report of a g r o u p of c o n s u l t a n t s p l a y e d a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t in p r o m o t i n g U n i t e d N a t i o n s a w a r e n e s s of the s e r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r h u m a n h e a l t h of the use of c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s . The U n i t e d N a t i o n s 1 9 7 2 C o n v e n t i o n on the P r o h i b i t i o n of the D e v e l o p m e n t , P r o d u c t i o n and S t o c k p i l i n g of
B a c t e r i o l o g i c a l ( B i o l o g i c a l ) and T o x i n W e a p o n s and o n t h e i r D e s t r u c t i o n h a s n o w b e e n r a t i f i e d by o v e r 80 s t a t e s , and the U n i t e d N a t i o n s C o m m i t t e e o n D i s a r m a m e n t has b e e n a c t i v e in
p u r s u i n g a d h e r e n c e to the C o n v e n t i o n . T h e r e h a v e b e e n a n u m b e r of United N a t i o n s G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y resolutions-^- r e l a t i n g to the c o m p l e t e and e f f e c t i v e p r o h i b i t i o n of the
d e v e l o p m e n t , p r o d u c t i o n and s t o c k p i l i n g of a l l c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s and t h e i r d e s t r u c t i o n . 5 . T h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s C o n f e r e n c e o n the R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n D i s a r m a m e n t and D e v e l o p m e n t , r e s u l t i n g f r o m G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y r e s o l u t i o n 3 9 / 1 6 0 of 17 D e c e m b e r 1 9 8 4 , i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h a l l w e a p o n s of m a s s d e s t r u c t i o n . C u r r e n t l y , it is w o r k i n g o n a c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s t r e a t y w h i c h w o u l d i n c l u d e p r o v i s i o n s for i n s p e c t i o n to e n s u r e that c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s a r e n o t b e i n g m a n u f a c t u r e d or s t o c k p i l e d .
I I . C H E M I C A L W E A P O N S
6. C h e m i c a l w e a p o n s a r e c l a s s i f i e d in t e r m s of their t o x i c p r o p e r t i e s . (Known c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e a g e n t s are l i s t e d in the A n n e x . ) The g r o u p s a r e :
(i) N e r v e a g e n t s ( l e t h a l ) w h i c h act by i n h i b i t i n g the e n z y m e c h o l i n e s t e r a s e , r e s u l t i n g in a c c u m u l a t i o n of a c e t y l c h o l i n e at r e c e p t o r s w i t h b l o c k a d e of n e r v e t r a n s m i s s i o n . D e a t h is d u e to r e s p i r a t o r y p a r a l y s i s .
( i i ) L u n g - d a m a g i n g a g e n t s ( l e t h a l ) w h i c h s e v e r e l y d a m a g e the r e s p i r a t o r y t r a c t e p i t h e l i u m , c a u s i n g lung o e d e m a , i m p a i r e d g a s t r a n s f e r and d e a t h d u e to a s p h y x i a .
( i i i ) C y a n i d e a g e n t s ( l e t h a l ) p o i s o n the c y t o c h r o m e , o x i d a s e e n z y m e system and i n h i b i t
c e l l u l a r r e s p i r a t i o n • The c e n t r a l n e r v o u s s y s t e m i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s e n s i t i v e to h y p o x i a , w h i c h l e a d s to r e s p i r a t o r y f a i l u r e , c o m a and d e a t h .
( i v ) V e s i c a n t a g e n t s (tissue d a m a g e ) are c o r r o s i v e to t i s s u e s . The e y e s , s k i n and
r e s p i r a t o r y t r a c t e p i t h e l i u m are the p r i m a r y t a r g e t s . M u s t a r d s a r e a l k y l a t i n g a g e n t s w h i c h d a m a g e D N A , p r o d u c i n g e f f e c t s s i m i l a r to t h o s e of i o n i z i n g r a d i a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g l o n g - l a s t i n g
1 U n i t e d N a t i o n s G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y r e s o l u t i o n s 2 4 5 4 A ( X X I I I ) of 20 D e c e m b e r 1 9 6 8 , 2 6 0 3 B ( X X I V ) of 16 D e c e m b e r 1 9 6 9 , 2 6 6 2 ( X X V ) of 7 D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 0 , 2826 and 2 8 2 7 A ( X X V I ) of
16 D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 1 , 2 9 3 3 ( X X V I I ) of 29 N o v e m b e r 1 9 7 2 , 3077 ( X X V I I I ) of 6 D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 3 , 3 2 5 6 ( X X I X ) of 9 D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 4 , 3 4 6 5 ( X X X ) of 1 1 D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 5 , 31/65 of 10 D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 6 , 3 2 / 7 7 of 12 D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 7 , S - 1 0 / 2 of 30 June 1 9 7 8 , 3 3 / 5 9 A of 14 D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 8 , 3 4 / 7 2 of 1 1 D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 9 .
e f f e c t s in the bone m a r r o w and lymphoid t i s s u e s . Effects can be delayed ； damaged tissues are extremely susceptible to i n f e c t i o n , and healing is s l o w . Lewisites are vesicant
a r s e n i c a l s w i t h m o r e rapid effects on exposed body surfaces and systemic a r s e n i c a l poisoning due to a b s o r p t i o n . Halogenated oximes cause severe tissue c o r r o s i o n and n e c r o s i s .
(V) Psychotomimetic agents (behavioural d i s t u r b a n c e ) are highly potent chemicals intended to affect the c e n t r a l nervous system and p r o d u c e behavioural d i s t u r b a n c e s by either
stimulation or d e p r e s s i o n . The depressants c a u s e m e n t a l c o n f u s i o n and self-destructive b e h a v i o u r , whereas the stimulants lead to h a l l u c i n a t i o n s , paranoia and g r o s s changes in b e h a v i o u r .
(vi) Riot control agents (incapacitating) are either irritant g a s e s or aerosols intended to produce irritant effects on e y e s , skin and lungs but w h i c h a r e otherwise of low acute
t o x i c i t y , or vomiting agents designed to incapacitate by inducing severe n a u s e a and v o m i t i n g . (vii) Anti-plant agents act by killing vegetation directly or sterilizing the soil so that nothing w i l l g r o w .
7. There is 110 information in the public d o m a i n to indicate that any new group of c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s has b e e n d e v e l o p e d , and the current listing of agents (see A n n e x ) shows surprisingly little change since 1 9 7 0 . H o w e v e r , it is quite possible that in a l l these groups there are c h e m i c a l agents w h o s e identity and actions h a v e not b e e n d i s c l o s e d . At the United Nations Conference on the Relationship between Disarmament and Development reference has been m a d e to a further 11 c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e a g e n t s , but these are not n a m e d .
8. M a n y industrial chemicals are toxic to humans and the e n v i r o n m e n t . H o w e v e r , the m a j o r i t y would not be used as chemical w e a p o n s because they are not sufficiently t o x i c , efficient or p e r s i s t e n t , and may be d i f f i c u l t to m a n u f a c t u r e and store• Some industrial chemicals w h i c h could be used as c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s are a r s i n e , a m m o n i a , h y d r o g e n s u l f i d e , p h o s p h i n e , phosphorus o x y c h l o r i d e , p h o s p h o r u s t r i c h l o r i d e , and sulfur d i o x i d e .
I I I . SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF CHEMICAL W E A P O N S
9. Chemical w e a p o n s are relatively easy to m a n u f a c t u r e and do not require complex
industrial i n s t a l l a t i o n s . They can be used against targets of w i d e l y ranging c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and s i z e s . The intention may be to cause death or incapacitation of military personnel and/or civilians； to d e n y access by m a k i n g b u i l d i n g s , equipment and roads unusable and so c o n t r o l m o v e m e n t of population g r o u p s； to destroy c r o p s , v e g e t a t i o n or animals w h i c h are used for food； to contaminate food stocks and m a k e them unusable； to strike targets of economic i m p o r t a n c e； to hinder or exhaust m i l i t a r y and c i v i l defence personnel by m a k i n g them wear protective clothing； to cause terror and panic in civilian populations and place excessive demands o n health c a r e , transport and administrative r e s o u r c e s .
1 0 . Chemical w a r f a r e agents (gas or a e r o s o l ) c a n be delivered directly by m e a n s of projectiles (shells, g r e n a d e s , a e r i a l bombing or m i s s i l e s ) , by spray or aerosol equipment mounted on v e h i c l e s , ships or a i r c r a f t , or by c o n t a m i n a t i o n of water or food s u p p l i e s .
1 1 . Binary weapons are s h e l l s , bombs or m i s s i l e s which may carry either two chemical w a r f a r e agents held in separate parts of the same a r m a m e n t , or two or m o r e less toxic precursor agents that combine to m a k e the highly toxic agent during w e a p o n d e l i v e r y .
1 2 . The terrain and type of environment influence the type of c h e m i c a l w e a p o n used and the e f f e c t s . M e t e o r o l o g i c a l factors w h i c h influence the e f f e c t i v e n e s s , spread and persistence of a c h e m i c a l w e a p o n are w i n d , r a i n , t e m p e r a t u r e , atmospheric s t a b i l i t y , and fluvial and t i d a l f l o w .
IV. RISKS TO HUMAN POPULATIONS
1 3 . Any target is vulnerable to a t t a c k , large areas can be s a t u r a t e d , and chemical w e a p o n s are highly damaging in terms of the number of casualties in relation to the quantity u s e d . In military o p e r a t i o n s , military personnel w i l l be at risk; civilians w i l l be at similar risk under the following circumstances : if they are subject to a direct attack intended to produce civilian casualties on a large scale; if they are w i t h i n the area of a military a t t a c k ; as workers manufacturing c h e m i c a l weapons； if they are exposed following a c c i d e n t a l
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l e a k a g e d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n , s t o r a g e , transport or d i s p o s a l ; if they are exposed to c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e a g e n t s or their b r e a k d o w n products during intentional d i s p o s a l ; as m e d i c a l or
p a r a m e d i c a l w o r k e r s caring for v i c t i m s of c h e m i c a l attack; or as employees in politically or s t r a t e g i c a l l y important i n s t a l l a t i o n s .
1 4 . M a n y c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e agents c a n be absorbed systemically by m o r e than one route and also c a u s e d a m a g e to exposed s u r f a c e s . The speed of onset of the toxic effect depends o n the r o u t e of e x p o s u r e and rate of a b s o r p t i o n as w e l l as factors such as environmental c o n d i t i o n s , c o n t a m i n a t i o n of ordinary c l o t h i n g , protective c l o t h i n g , and presence of dirt or sweat on the s k i n . The d u r a t i o n of action w i l l be related to the persistence of the c h e m i c a l a g e n t . Primary intentions of the u s e of c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s m a y be to: k i l l ; c a u s e damage to body s u r f a c e s and promote skin a b s o r p t i o n w i t h possible death (e.g., v e s i c a n t agents)； damage the r e s p i r a t o r y system by inhalation w i t h p o s s i b l e d e a t h (e.g., lung-damaging agents)； irritate the e y e s and respiratory system ( e . g . , riot c o n t r o l agents)； and cause systemic poisoning by a n y of the a b o v e r o u t e s , by direct i n g e s t i o n or by ingestion of contaminated food or w a t e r . 1 5 . G i v e n the rapid onset of effects from m a n y chemical w e a p o n s , m e d i c a l and paramedical p e r s o n n e l should be a w a r e of the range of l o c a l and systemic e f f e c t s . Psychological stress m a y m i m i c some of the toxic e f f e c t s of c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s . It is o f t e n extremely difficult to r e c o g n i z e c l i n i c a l l y the victims of c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s and d i a g n o s e the a g e n t ( s ) i n v o l v e d , and m a n y c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e a g e n t s c a n n o t be e a s i l y detected or m e a s u r e d in b i o l o g i c a l m e d i a . The d e f i n i t i v e d i a g n o s i s of toxic effects from c h e m i c a l weapons w i l l o f t e n require other evidence d r a w n from e n v i r o n m e n t a l m o n i t o r i n g .
1 6 . Combined injuries w i l l o c c u r if a v i c t i m is exposed to a c o m b i n a t i o n of
c o n v e n t i o n a l and c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s . A d d i t i o n a l diagnostic and c l i n i c a l m a n a g e m e n t problems a r e likely to occur w h e n m i x t u r e s of c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s or binary armaments are e m p l o y e d . In the g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n , the y o u n g9 the o l d，p r e g n a n t w o m e n , and üíie sick, w i l l be at h i g h e r r i s k .
1 7 . If c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s w e r e to be used against civilian populations they would cause a l a r g e n u m b e r of n o n - f a t a l c a s u a l t i e s and saturate m e d i c a l s e r v i c e s . Good initial m e d i c a l c a r e together w i t h f u l l life support care w o u l d be c r u c i a l for the m a n a g e m e n t of the m a s s c a s u a l t i e s resulting from e x p o s u r e to c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s and it would be impossible to provide t h i s for large n u m b e r s . To enable overstretched m e d i c a l services to c o p e , a system of triage w o u l d be e s s e n t i a l in order to treat only those c a s u a l t i e s w i t h a good c h a n c e of r e c o v e r y . T h e use of specific a n t i d o t e s is relevant to only a few c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e a g e n t s . Effective c i v i l d e f e n c e w o u l d need basic m e d i c a l k n o w l e d g e on the part of everyone to help them survive a c h e m i c a l w e a p o n a t t a c k . H o w e v e r , the p l a n n i n g , practice and d e v e l o p m e n t of the n e c e s s a r y t r a i n i n g programmes and facilities needed to d e a l w i t h a c h e m i c a l w e a p o n a t t a c k h a v e not been u n d e r t a k e n in m o s t c o u n t r i e s .
1 8 . D e c o n t a m i n a t i o n is complicated by the v a r i e t y of chemical w a r f a r e agents； there is a n e e d for d e c o n t a m i n a t i o n m e t h o d s w i t h a broad spread of a c t i v i t y but avoiding the use of h i g h l y c a u s t i c or dangerous s o l v e n t s . Large quantities of w a t e r could be used but w o u l d c a u s e c o n t a m i n a t i o n problems for the w a t e r run-off a r e a s . Fuller's earth is a n effective a b s o r b e n t , but can- subsequently release the absorbed c h e m i c a l . F l o u r , talcum p o w d e r , w e t tissue p a p e r and many other household products h a v e b e e n tested for their effectiveness in d e c o n t a m i n a t i o n , but no single substance in c o m m o n use has been found to be an ideal a b s o r b e n t w h i c h w i l l retain c h e m i c a l s and not recontaminate the e n v i r o n m e n t . H o w e v e r , d e c o n t a m i n a t i o n has a n important part to p l a y in reducing toxic e f f e c t s .
1 9 . It is evident that a sudden m a s s i v e c h e m i c a l attack on ail untrained c i v i l i a n p o p u l a t i o n w o u l d result in m a s s i v e c a s u a l t i e s , panic and b r e a k d o w n of the m e d i c a l and administrative i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . The situation w o u l d be c o m p a r a b l e in some degree to that following n u c l e a r a t t a c k .
V . P S Y C H O S O C I A L A N D P S Y C H O L O G I C A L CONSEQUENCES
2 0 . The effects of war on c i v i l i a n s , m e a s u r e d by various p s y c h o s o c i a l i n d i c e s , show a
d e c r e a s e in suicides and m i n o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l illnesses but an increase in crimes of v i o l e n c e , s u c h as rape and m u r d e r , and in the n u m b e r of m a j o r p s y c h o s e s , such as schizophrenia and m a n i c d e p r e s s i o n . Post-traumatic stress in war causes anxiety symptoms and f l a s h b a c k s , w h i c h r e p l a y the traumatic e v e n t . Anxiety has b e e n reported a considerable time after a
l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g e v e n t , and c i v i l i a n s - i n c l u d i n g c i v i l d e f e n c e , m e d i c a l a n d p a r a m e d i c a l p e r s o n n e l - a r e at r i s k of d e v e l o p i n g i t . In the m i l i t a r y c o n t e x t , c o m b a t s t r e s s m a y b e m o r e f r e q u e n t in c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e t h a n c o n v e n t i o n a l w a r f a r e , and the e f f e c t s m a y be d i f f i c u l t t o d i s t i n g u i s h f r o m the t o x i c e f f e c t s of a c h e m i c a l w e a p o n ,
2 1 . N e u r o p s y c h i a t r i e c o m p l i c a t i o n s in c a s u a l t i e s i n c l u d e a g i t a t i o n , i n s o m n i a , d e p r e s s i o n , and m u s c u l a r w e a k n e s s p a r t i c u l a r l y in l o w e r l i m b s . S h o r t - t e r m s i g n s a n d s y m p t o m s i n c l u d e h e a d a c h e , v i s u a l a n d a u d i t o r y d i s t u r b a n c e s , d e c r e a s e d t h o u g h t c o n t r o l a n d m e m o r y , f a t i g u e a n d w e a k n e s s ; l o n g - t e r m e f f e c t s a r e i n c r e a s e d f a t i g u e , r e d u c e d m e m o r y a n d c o n c e n t r a t i o n .
H o w e v e r , t h e s e s y m p t o m s a n d s i g n s a r e r e l a t i v e l y n o n - s p e c i f i c and c o u l d b e a r e s p o n s e to a n y m a j o r s t r e s s . W h e r e i n d i v i d u a l s h a v e m a d e a n i n i t i a l r e c o v e r y f r o m e x p o s u r e to n e r v e a g e n t s , f o l l o w - u p r e p o r t s h a v e s h o w n that they a r e l i k e l y to d e v e l o p p r o f o u n d d e p r e s s i o n .
22. C h e m i c a l w a r f a r e a g e n t s m a y b e i n t e n d e d to h a v e d i r e c t p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s • A n u m b e r of c h e m i c a l s c a p a b l e of d i s t u r b i n g b e h a v i o u r a r e k n o w n a n d t h e i r u s e in w a r f a r e h a s b e e n the s u b j e c t of d i s c u s s i o n and r e s e a r c h , b u t the l i k e l i h o o d of t h e i r u s e a s c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s is n o t k n o w n .
V I . D I S P O S A L O F C H E M I C A L W E A P O N S
2 3 . L i t t l e is k n o w n in the p u b l i c d o m a i n a b o u t m e t h o d s of d i s p o s i n g of d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of the m o s t m o d e r n c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s . H a z a r d o u s c h e m i c a l w a s t e d i s p o s a l m e t h o d s a r e a v a i l a b l e a n d m a y be s u i t a b l e f o r s o m e c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e a g e n t s . T h e m a i n m e t h o d s u s e d a r e h y d r o l y s i s or h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e i n c i n e r a t i o n , or a c o m b i n a t i o n of b o t h . The m e t h o d u s e d d e p e n d s o n t h e t y p e of a g e n t : m u s t a r d g a s is u s u a l l y b u r n t , w h i l e n e r v e a g e n t s a r e g e n e r a l l y h y d r o l y s e d b e f o r e b u r n i n g . D u m p i n g a t sea h a s b e e n e m p l o y e d i n the p a s t , b u t is n o w r e g a r d e d a s v e r y d a n g e r o u s . D i s p o s a l c a n b e d a n g e r o u s if i n a d e q u a t e l y c a r r i e d o u t . E f f e c t i v e c h e m i c a l w e a p o n w a s t e d i s p o s a l r e q u i r e s s a f e t y and s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s at a l l s t a g e s to g u a r d a g a i n s t l o s s d u r i n g t r a n s p o r t , s t o r a g e and d i s p o s a l . W o r k e r s h a n d l i n g c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e a g e n t s d u r i n g s t o r a g e , t r a n s p o r t or o n s i t e , n e e d m e d i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n , a n d m e d i c a l m o n i t o r i n g , s u c h as c h o l i n e s t e r a s e l e v e l s for t h o s e e x p o s e d to n e r v e a g e n t s a n d h e a l t h e d u c a t i o n . E n v i r o n m e n t a l m o n i t o r i n g and e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n a r e n e e d e d i n the a r e a of the s i t e . C o n v e r s i o n of r a w m a t e r i a l s , c h e m i c a l i n t e r m e d i a t e s or c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s as a m e t h o d of d i s p o s a l is t e c h n i c a l l y f e a s i b l e but u n l i k e l y to b e u s e d f o r s a f e t y a n d e c o n o m i c r e a s o n s .
V I I . C O N C L U D I N G R E M A R K S
2 4 . A n u m b e r of c h e m i c a l s w i t h d i f f e r e n t t o x i c e f f e c t s h a v e b e e n u s e d in w a r f a r e . T h e y c a n be u s e d to k i l l , m a i m or i n c a p a c i t a t e h u m a n s and to d e s t r o y the e n v i r o n m e n t a n d f o o d
s u p p l i e s . In a d d i t i o n to c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s w h o s e i d e n t i t y is k n o w n t h e r e a r e o t h e r s f o r w h i c h t h e r e is no i n f o r m a t i o n . There a r e a l s o i n d u s t r i a l c h e m i c a l s w h i c h c o u l d b e u s e d in c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e . C h e m i c a l a g e n t s a r e u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y for c r o w d and r i o t c o n t r o l . It is n o t e a s y to d e t e r m i n e from h u m a n b i o l o g i c a l m e d i a the i d e n t i t y of the a g e n t ( s ) u s e d . S p e c i f i c a n t i d o t e s a r e a v a i l a b l e for o n l y a f e w c h e m i c a l w e a p o n s ; f o r the r e m a i n d e r , s u r v i v o r s c á n o n l y be t r e a t e d s y m p t o m a t i c a l l y . C h e m i c a l w a r f a r e w o u l d p l a c e i m m e n s e d e m a n d s o n the m e d i c a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e of a n y c o m m u n i t y a t t a c k e d .
EB81/28 Page 6 A N N E X
T o x i c i t y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n N e r v e a g e n t s
L u n g - d a m a g i n g a g e n t s
C y a n i d e - t y p e a g e n t s
V e s i c a n t a g e n t s
C H E M I C A L W A R F A R E A G E N T S
C h e m i c a l w e a p o n
S a r i n [ 0 - i s o p r o p y l m e t h y l p h o s p h o n o f l u o r i d a t e ] S o m a n [ o - p i n a c o l y l m e t h y l p h o s p h o n o f l u o r i d a t e ] T a b u n [ o - e t h y l N , N - d i m e t h y l p h o s p h o r a m i d o c y a n i d a t e ] V X , [o-ethyl S - 2 - - d i i s o p r o p y l a m i n o e t h y l m e t h y l p h o s p h o n o - t h i o l a t e ]
P h o s g e n e C h l o r o p i c r i n D i p h o s g e n e C h l o r i n e
H y d r o g e n c y a n i d e C y a n o g e n c y a n i d e C y a n o g e n b r o m i d e
S u l f u r m u s t a r d s : M u s t a r d g a s ( H ) / ( H D )
[bis ( 2 - c h l o r o e t h y l ) s u l f i d e ] S e s q u i m u s t a r d ( Q ) ,
[1,2-bis ( 2 - c h l o r o e t h y l t h i o ) e t h a n e ] O - M u s t a r d ( T ) ,
[bis ( 2 - c h l o r o e t h y l t h i o e t h y l ) e t h e r ] N i t r o g e n m u s t a r d s： H N - 1 , [ b i s ( 2 - c h l o r o e t h y l ) e t h y l a m i n e ]
H N - 2 , [ b i s ( 2 - c h l o r o e t h y l ) m e t h y l a m i n e ] H N - 3 , [ t r i s ( 2 - c h l o r o e t h y l ) a m i n e ] L e w i s i t e 1 , ( L ) , 2 - c h l o r o v i n y l d i c h l o r o a r s i n e
L e w i s i t e 2 , b i s ( 2 - c h l o r o v i n y l ) c h l o r o a r s i n e L e w i s i t e 3 , t r i s ( 2 - c h l o r o v i n y l ) a r s i n e
A n n e x H a l o g e n a t e d o x i m e s : P h o s g e n e o x i m e
D i i o d o f o r m o x i m e D i b r o m o f o r m o x i m e M o n o c h l o r o f o r m o x i m e
A g e n t s d i s t u r b i n g b e h a v i o u r ( p s y c h o t o m i m e t i c )
B Z , [ 3 - q u i n u c l i d i n y l b e n z i l a t e ] D F , [ m e t h y l p h o s p h o n y l d i f l u o r i d e ]
Q L , [ethyl 2 - ( d i i s o p r o p y l a m i n o ) e t h y l m e t h y l p h o s p h o n i t e ] T e t r a h y d r o c a n n a b i n o l
L S D , [lysergic a c i d d i e t h y l a m i d e ]
P s i l o c y b i n , [ O - p h o s p h o r y l - 4 - h y d r o x y - N , N - d i m e t h y l t r y p t a m i n e ] M e s c a l i n e , [ 3 , 4 , 5 - t r i m e t h o x y p h e n e t h y l a m i n e ]
R i o t c o n t r o l a g e n t s
L a c r y m a t o r s： C N , [ c h l o r a c e t o p h e n o n e ] С A , [ b r o m o b e n z y l c y a n i d e ]
C S , [ O - c h l o r o b e n z y l i d e n e m a l o n i t r i l e ] C R , [ d i b e n z o x a z e p i n e ]
V o m i t i n g agents： D M , a d a m s i t e A n t i - p l a n t a g e n t s
Herbicides： e . g . , p h e n o x y a c e t a t e s : 2 , 4 , 5 - T 2 , 4 , - D m e c o p r o p
( d i o x i n , a c o n t a m i n a n t ) b i p y r i d y l i u m c o m p o u n d s : p a r a q u a t
d i q u a t
S o i l s t e r i l a n t s : b r o m a c i l [ 5 - b r o m o - 3 - s e c - b u t y l - 6 - m e t h y l u r a c i l ] m o n u r o n [ 3 - ( p - c h l o r o p h e n y l ) - l , 1 - d i m e t h y l u r e a ] D e s i c c a n t s : C a c o d y l i c a c i d
Plant g r o w t h r e g u l a t o r s ; P i c l o r a m
