Mohammed Seddik Ben Yahia University-Jijel Faculty of Letters and Languages
Department of English
A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the Requirements of a Master Degree in Didactics
Submitted by: Supervised by:
FatimaGHERBI
ZahraHAMZAOUI Dr. Mohammed.BOUKAZZOULA
Board of examiners:
Chairperson: Loubna KOIRA Mohammed Sedik Ben Yahia University, Jijel Supervisor: Mohammed BOUKEZZOULA Mohammed Sedik Ben Yahia University, Jijel
Examiner: Zahia BOUCHAIR Mohammed Sedik Ben Yahia University, Jijel -2018-
Narrative and the construction of Algerian University Teachers’ Professional Identities The case of of English Teachers at the University of Mohammed Sedik Ben Yahia, JIjel
DEDICATION
It is my genuine gratefulness and warmest regard that I dedicate this work to:
The light that eliminate my life, my beloved parents my father abd alhadi and my mother djamila for their endless support and encouragement in my entire life
My father and my mother in low for their support
My beloved and amazing sisters: mona and her husband ahmmed and her sweet daughters isra and aya, naima and her husband hessam, wafa and her fiance fouzi , haniya and assma
To my brother, ayoub
The love of my heart: my husband abd slam for his love, support and encouragement
To my grand father and mother
My special uncles, and their wives
My ants and their husbands
The beautiful person who showed me how life can have infinite moments my partner, roommate, and best friend: zehra
And my amazing friends: layla, ilham, nourhan
I cannot dedicate every one by name because it would take a life time but, I just want you all to know that you count so much.
Fatima
In the name of God, most merciful, most compassionate.
This work is dedicated to:
My dear mother who has supported me a lot in my life.
My father without whom I would not be who I am.
To my lovely brother, Ibrahim and his small familly.
To my sisters, Widad, Fatiha,and Chama.
To the angels, Marwa, Safa, Hassen, Abd lhay and Israa.
The beautiful person who showed me how life can have infinite moments my partner, roommate, and best friend: Fatima.
Zahra
Acknowledgment
In the name of Allah, the most merciful, the most compassionate all praise be to Allah, the lord of the worlds, and prayers and peace be upon Mohammed his servant and messenger.
First and foremost, we must acknowledge our limitless thanks to Allah, the ever-magnificent the ever-thankful for his help and bless. We are totally sure that this work would have never become truth without his guidance. Low a deep debt of gratitude to our university for giving us an opportunity to complete this work.
We are grateful to some people who worked hard with us from the beginning until the completion of the present research particularly our Supervisor Dr. Boukezyoula Mohammed, who has been always generous during all phases of the research and provided stimulating advice, encouragement, guidance and patience with us through this work.
Our sincere thanks go also to honorable members of the jury for accepting to take a part in evaluating this humble peace of research.
Finally, we would like to address our warm thanks and sincere appreciations to the participants who very kindly, collaborated in our Teachers.
Abstract
Forming a teaching identity is a long, complex, and multi-faceted process that starts a long time before getting a teaching job. In this regard, Alsup (2005) has proposed a framework for analyzing teachers’ construction of their professional identity ,which established a causal relationship between teachers ‘construction of professional identity especially in teachers preparation programs and teachers ‘effectiveness. The present study aimed at investigating the potential differences between the processes of professional identity development in teacher training school programs and general university courses in Algeria using Alsup’s framework .In order to achieve the aims of the present study, an interview was designed and implemented to a sample of five university teachers of English at the university of Mohammed sedik ben yahia in Jijel, two teachers were students at teacher training school whereas the other three graduated from a general university course. The analysis of the elicited narratives showed the existence of a number of essential differences in the process of professional identity construction between those who attended a teachers training course and those who attended a general university course.
List of Abbreviation and Symbols
%: Percentage
ENS: Ecole Normal Superieure
ENSET: Ecole Normal Seperieure en Technologhie EFL: English as a Foreign Language
i.e: That is To say
LMD: License Master Doctorate Q: Question
SLA: Second Language Acquisition
List of Tables
Table 1: Degrees's Names and years in the License and Old Classical System...20 Table 2: Training Modules (Adapted from Curriculum report(ENSC 2008)(As cited in Djouima, 2016, p.128)...28
Table of contents
Dedication...I Acknowledgments...III Abstract...IV List of abbreviations...V List of Tables...VI Table of content...VII
General Introduction...1
1. Statement of the Problem...1
2. Aims of The Study...2
3. Means of Reaserch...2
4. Structure of thesis...2
Chapter One and Two: Theoretical Framework Chapter One Section One: The linguistic Situation in Algeria Introduction………6
1.1. An overview of the Educational System in Algeria ………6
1.1.1. Background on Algeria...6
1.1.1.1. The country...6
1.1.1.2. The People...6
1.1.1.3. The language Profile in Algeria...7
1.1.3.1. Classical Arabic...7
1.1.3.2. Algerian Arabic...7
1.1.3.3. Berber...8
1.1.3.4. French...9
1.2. Education in Algeria before the French colonization in 1830...9
1.3. Education in Algeria during the French Colonization...11
1.4. Education in Algeria after the Independence...12
1.4.1. Dimocratisation...13
1.4.2. Algernization...13
1.4.3. Arabization...14
1.5. The Educational Reform Policy...14
1.6. The Status of English in the Algerian Education...16
Conclusion...16
Section Two: The Different Phases of Educational system in Algeria, Teacher Training, Pre-service Teacher Program Introduction………..17
2.1. The Different Phases of Educational System in Algeria...17
2.1.1. Primary Education...17
2.1.2. Intermediate Education...18
2.1.3. High Education...18
2.1.4. Higher Education...19
2.2. Teacher Training...21
2.2.1. The Concept of Teacher Training...21
2.2.2. The Evaluation of Teacher Training...21
2.2.3. Teacher Training Process...23
2.2.4. The Algerian Teacher Training Program...24
2.2.5. The pre-service Teacher Training Program...24
2.2.5.1. Theoretical Assumption about Pre-service Teacher...24
2.2.6. The Emergence of Teacher Training Schools (Ecoles Normales Superieures)...25
2.2.6.1. The Teacher Training Curriculum at the ENS of Constantine...26
2.2.6.2. Overall Presentation of the Curriculum...29
2.2.6.2.1. Domain 1: Language...29
2.2.6.2.2. Domain 2: Teaching Development & Professionalism...30
2.2.6.2.3. Domain 3: Culture...30
Conclusion………....32
Chapter Two
Section One: Identity and Second Language Acquisition
Introduction………34
3.1. Historical overview of Second Language Acquisition...35
3.1.1. Identity and Second Language Aquisition...37
3.1.1.1. The Concept of Identity...37
3.1.1.2. The Emergence of Identity in Field of SLA...37
3.2.1. Theoretical Framework...38
3.2.1.1. Post structuralist Theory of Language...38
3.2.1.2. Post Structuralist Theory of Subjectiity...39
3.2.1.3. Sociocultural Theories of Positioning...40
3.2.1.4. Sociocultural Theories of Language Learning...40
3.2.1.5. Motivation and Investment...41
Conclusion………..42
Section Two: Teacher professional Identity 4.1. The Concept of Professional Identity...42
4.2. Borderland Discourse...43
4.2.1. Borderland...43
4.2.2. Discourse...43
4.3. Characteristics of Teacher Identity...43 4.3.1. Nonunitary Subjectivities Are Essential For Holistic Identity Formation...43 4.3.2. Tension Between Discordant Subjectivities and Associated Ideologies Lessens The Chance of Developing a Satisfying Professional Identity...45 4.3.3. Educational Discourse Political, Ergo Teacher Education Must Also Be Political...45 4.3.4. The Telling of Positive Stories about Teaching and Learning seems to Result in More Positive Educational Experiences...45 4.3.5. Developing Teacher Identity Involves Embodying the Discourse of Teacher...46 4.3.6. Students Must Have the Opportunity to Speak as Teachers and Discuss their Developing Professional Identities With Informed and Interested others...46 4.3.7. Students who engage in Borderland Discourses are able to Begin the Development of Teacher Identity...46 4.3.8. Metaphors Help Students Critically Evaluate and Reflect on Internalized Beliefs about Teaching and Learning...47 4.3.9. Traditionally Defined Statements of Philosophy often Serves to Solidify Unexamined Position rather than Encourage Critical Examination of Ideologies and Personal Pedagogies...47 4.3.10. Apprenticeships of Observation Postpone Cognitive Dissonance and Borderland Discourse...48 Conclusion………...49
Chapter Three: Field Work
Introduction...51
3.1. Narrative Inquiry...51
3.2. The Aim of the Interviews...52
3.3. Administration of the Interviews...52
3.4. Description of the Interview...52
3.5. Introducing the participants...54
3.6. The Results... ……55
3.7. Discussion of the Results...92
3.8. Conclusion………..104
3.9. Recommendations...105
3.10. Limitations………...…106
3.10. General Conclusion...107
3.11. Refrences...108 Appendices
Résumé ﺺﺨﻠﻣ
1. Statement of the Problem
The study of the interrelationship between second language learning and identity has recently attracted increasing attention from a large number of second language acquisition researchers.
(for example Norton & Toomey 2002; Ricento 2005; Mc Kinney & Norton 2008; Norton 2010;
Morgan & Clark 2011). In a marked shift from the structuralism theories of motivation which account for individual differences in second language learning (L2) in terms of fixed laws and classify learners in term of categories (motivated vs. unmotivated, introverted vs. extroverted, inhibited vs. inhibited), an identity approach to language learning adopts a poststructuralists’
perspective that approaches identity as being a site of struggle, multiple, ambivalence, and symbolic (Block, 200, p. 867 ). The advocator of this approach view the study of the learners life narrative as being the best methodology for accounting of the relationship between identity and second language acquisition. (Pavelenko, 2007)
Forming a teaching identity is a long, complex, and multi-faceted process that starts a long time before getting a teaching job. In this regard, Alsup (2005) has proposed a framework for analyzing teachers’ construction of their professional identity ,which established a causal relationship between teachers ‘construction of professional identity especially in teachers preparation programs and teachers ‘effectiveness.
In the Algerian context of higher education, university teachers of English embark on a teaching career after graduating either from a teachers’ training school or from a general university course.The present study seeks to answer the following major question:
-Are there essential differences between the processes of professional identity construction between Algerian university teachers of English who attended a teachers’training school and
those who attended a general university course?
2.Aim of the Study
The present study aimed at investigating the potential differences between the processes of professional identity development in teacher training school programs and general university courses in Algeria using Alsup’s framework.
3.Methodology and Means of Research
In order to achieve the aims of the present study, an interview is designed and implemented to a sample of five university teachers of English at the university of Mohammed sedik ben yahia in Jijel, two teachers were students at teacher training school whereas the other three graduated from a general university course.
4. Structure of the Dissertation
The dissertation consists of three chapters. Chapter one reviewed the linguistic situation in Algeria with specific reference to the changes that occurred in the Algerian education system and the teacher training programs. The second chapter discusses the literature related to teacher professional identity construction. The third chapter presents the analysis of narratives generated by the interview.
Chapter One
Section One: The linguistic Situation in Algeria Introduction
1.1. An overview of the Educational System in Algeria 1.1.1. Background on Algeria
1.1.1.1. The country 1.1.1.2. The People
1.1.1.3. The language Profile in Algeria 1.1.3.1. Classical Arabic
1.1.3.2. Algerian Arabic 1.1.3.3. Berber
1.1.3.4. French
1.2. Education in Algeria before the French colonization in 1830 1.3. Education in Algeria during the French Colonization
1.4. Education in Algeria after the Independence 1.4.1. Dimocratisation
1.4.2. Algernization
1.4.3. Arabization
1.5. The Educational Reform Policy
1.6. The status of English in the Algerian Education Conclusion
Section Two: The Different Phases of Educational system in Algeria, Teacher Training, Pre-service Teacher Program
Introduction
2.1. The Different Phases of Educational System in Algeria 2.1.1. Primary Education
2.1.2. Intermediate Education 2.1.3. High Education
2.1.4. Higher Education 2.2. Teacher Training
2.2.1. The Concept of Teacher Training 2.2.2. The Evaluation of Teacher Training 2.2.3. Teacher Training Process
2.2.4. The Algerian Teacher Training Program
2.2.5. The pre-service Teacher Training Program
2.2.5.1. Theoretical Assumption about Pre-service Teacher
2.2.6. The Emergence of Teacher Training Schools (Ecoles Normales Superieures) 2.2.6.1. The Teacher Training Curriculum at the ENS of Constantine
2.2.6.2. Overall Presentation of the Curriculum 2.2.6.2.1. Domain 1: Language
2.2.6.2.2. Domain 2: Teaching Development & Professionalism 2.2.6.2.3. Domain 3: Culture
Conclusion
Chapter One
Section One: The Linguistic Situation in Algeria Introduction
This section represents an overview on the linguistic situation in Algeria .It gives a historical background of the Algerian education system before the French colonization, during colonization, and after independence. In addition to this this chapter will represents the language profile of Algeria and the status of English language in Algeria.
1.1. An Overview of the Algerian Education System 1.1. Background on Algeria
1.1.1. The Country
Algeria is officially designated locally as Al Jumhuriyah al Jaza'iriyah al Dimuqratiyah ash-sha'biy (The People Democratic Republic of Algeria), with Algeria (in Arabic, Aljaza'ir) as its capital it is part of North Africa or The Maghreb. It is midway along the Mediterranean coastline and bounded by Mediterranean sea to the north, Marocco to the west, Mauritania and Mali to the southwest, Niger to the southeast, Libya to the east and Tunisia to the northeast. With an area of 2,381,741 square Kilometer, it is the largest country of The Maghreb. Abd Aziz Bouteflika has been President since April, 1999 (CIA World Factbook, 2015).
1.1.2. The People
On a statistical basis in 2018, the population of Algeria is 42, 008, 054 million inhabitant. (Worldmeters, 2018)
Customarily, the Algerian population has been divided into two ethnic groups, Arab and Berber. However, these terms are not used in racial sense; rather, they refer to groups of people who are raised in the Arabic or Berber language respectively and who grow up in an environment where Arabic or Berber tradition customs prevail. (Haddadou, 1997, p.
81)
1.1.3. The Language Profile of Algeria
The main used languages in Algeria are Arabic, Berber, and French.
1.1.3.1. Classical Arabic
The national language of 22 countries which is spoken in one form or another by more than 200 million people (Comric et al, 1997; Elkhafaifi, 2002: 254) Literary or standard Arabic is essentially a modernist from of classical Arabic known as al'arabiyya alfusha. It is the written language of the Koran. Classical Arabic grew out of the ancient poetic language of Pre-Islamic Arabic. (Dalby, 1998: 30, Girandguillaume, 1996: 40;
Kaye, 1987:673) Since Algerian independence in 1962 and the constitution promulgated in 1963 Algeria used Arabic as its official language.
1.1.3.2. Algerian Arabic
The language that depreciated by the majority of Algerian population, it refers to the colloquial language known as amma, darja or lahja. The colloquial varieties number in the
hundreds. Being spoken and not written, they are distinguishable from Classical Arabic as a result of a general grammatical categories (Kay, 1987: 667). Algerian Arabic is the first language of 80-85% of the population, is spread over four major geographical areas each with its own linguistic features. (M Benrabah, 2005, p. 402)
1- Western Algeria Arabic used in an area which extends from the Moroccan border to Tenes
2- Center Algerian Arabic spoken in central zone which extends to Bejaia and includes Algiers and its surrounding.
3- Eastern Algerian Arabic spoken in the high Plateaus around Setif, Constantine, Annaba and extend it to the Tunisian border.
4- Saharan Algerian Arabic spoken by around 100,000 inhabitants in the Sahara Desert.
(Ethnologue, 2004; Queffélec et al, 2002:35; Taleb Ibrahimi, 1995: 31) 1.1.3.3 Berber
Berber or Tamazight language is primarily is the spoken language of the oldest inhabitant of North Africa, who called themselves Imazighen (Dolby, 1998; El Aissat, 1993: 92; Haddodu, 1997: 72 -3). The existence of Tamazight language in the northern part of Africa back to the at 2000 years BCE, this languages are closest to the oldest form of the Afro-Asian language.(Hetzron, 1987: 648; Weber, 1987: 12).In Algeria the Berber languages are in the minority, there are four major languages of the Berber branch in Algeria .
1- Tamashek is the language of the Tuargs of the Sahara.
2-Kabyle or takbaylit is the language of Kabylians.
3- Mzab is the language of the Mozabites.
4- Shawia is the language of the Chaouias. (Dolby, 1998: 89; El Aissati, 1993: 92)
In January 2016, The Algerian government declared Berber as a constitutional, official, and national language. (Aidi, 2016)
1.1.3.4. French
French, a language worthy of consideration, has been introduced in the Algerian linguistic landscape as a result of the French colonization for more than a century. Despite the fact that French is not recognized as an official language in the country, it remains an important language because it is taught as a compulsory subject starting from the third grade in primary education. It has also its place in secondary education as a second language, and in higher education, it remains the key language especially in scientific streams such as medicine, biology and technology studies. (Benrabah, 2007)
Different varieties of French are spoken among different social classes. The first variety is Standard French; it is identical to native French speakers, and it is described for being prestigious. The second one is Standard Algerian French; it is formally used by educated people, and mainly used for educational instructions, or administrative documents. The third and last variety is Colloquial Algerian French; it is locally spoken by people who received poor education in French. (Chebchoub, 1985).
1.2. Educations in Algeria before the French Colonization in 1830
Most accounts which had been written about the Algerian education before the French invention of 1830 is that Algeria had an independent education system out of the Turkish administration, relying on the Islamic revenues collected from the Algerian population. It was estimated that 40% of the population were educated. It was obvious that Algerian was not illiterate, and it was reported by the French General Daumas that:
“The primary education was spread enough in the whole of the country in a way which exceeded our imagination, and our relations with the local people in the three provinces (Constantine, Algiers, and Oran) gave us evidence that the percentage of the males who have the the knowledge of reading and writing -were at least equal to those in our countryside.”
(Turin, Y. , 1971, p. 127)
Three types of educational institution in Algeria has survived until 1830.The Mosques which has two functions first a place for Muslims to pray, second a school for explaining and telling the main historical Muslime events. Algeria alone had in 1830 about 109 Mosques. (El-Mandi, E, 1972) Zaouis are other cultural centers for education. Again the role of these institutions is devoted to Islamic education alongside prayer and fanatical
way of Islamic explanation. For instance, The Zaouia of Tidgania in Tlemcen (Torki, R, 1975, p. 17). The third type of educational institute was the Ribat established for Muslim youth which thought them principles of Islam and military training. The function of such institutions is to protect the country from foreign raid. Classical Arabic was thought in all these institutions. (Morthad, Abdelmalek, 1972)
Moreover there were three phases through which Algerian students went in their studies.
Pupils were first required to enroll the primary school or what was called "Msid"; it main role was to teach them the Whole Quran. In the secondary level, the pupils studied alongside Quran new other subjects such as; Geography, Mathematics, History, Astronomy and Medicine. Moving to the third phase which is Higher education, the students used to travel to other countries to continue their studies; for instance, Zitona, Cairo and Karaouiyine universities. (Benrabah, 1999)
As seen, the Algerian education was flourishing before the French conquest as the General Valzé had reported: "The status of education in Algeria was good before the French presence and all the Algerian Arabs knew how to read and write: "(The Algerian school through the stages of its development, 2011).
1.3. Education in Algeria During the French Colonization
French invaded Algeria in 1830s under the pretense that the Algerian government that insulated the French consul in Algiers (Benrabah, 2005). Before the French invention Algeria had an independent education system, it was estimated that 40% of the population were educated. (Turin, Y., 1971, p. 127).On the other side, from 1848 until independence the French colonial education system was imposed on Algerian, this aimed to change the
Algerian identity through a direct attachment with the French culture. (Benrabeh, 2005) Twenty years after the seizure of Algiers, the literacy rate had been almost halved.
(colonna, 1975; 30). Turin describes the deterioration of the situation in Algiers as follows: before 1830, primary schools [mcids] were numerous with many pupils, in 1840, out of a population of 12, 000 Moors, there were 24 mcids with 60 pupils, in february 1846, there was no more than 14 mcids for the teaching of 400 children (1983:130).
The situation worsened during the last quarter of the 19th century. According to some statistical the number of Algerian student in French secondary schools was: 216 students in 1877, 198 in 1882, 111 in 1888 and 69 in 1892. (Djeghlaul, 1986:53)
At the primary level there were 32oo native students in 23 schools in 1883. (Heggoy, 1984:101)
As a result of the rise of the nationalist movements by the end of the 1920s some Koranik schools and zawiyas appeared across the country to provide education in Arabic (Smati, 1999: 185- 7) for example between 1931 and 1947, there were 174 medrases employing 274 teachers (Bennoune, 2000: 169; Gordon, 1966:32). Ben Badis declared:
“Algeria has its own religion and linguistic unity, its culture, its traditions and characteristics, both good and bad like any other nation. We than say that this Algerian nation is not France even if desired ,so, on the contrary, it is a nation that is completely different from France, by its language, its customs, its ethnic origins, and its religion. It rejects assimilation”.
In his declaration, ben Badis empowered the importance of Islam and Arabic
inseparable parts of the Algerian identity. In clear opposition to the French assimilation, the association of Reformist Ulama opened clandestine Quranic schools in order to teaching Arabic.
1.4. Education in Algeria after The independence
After independence in 1962, Algeria was left with a completely French Educational System.
The French knew that school happened to be the most effective tool they could use to transform a society through teaching French language to the indigenous Algerians. “Transform the young indigenous into faithful and obedient subjects by teaching them our language, history and geography to give an idea of the extent of the civilization of our country” (Magali Morsy, 1984).
As a result French replaced with Arabic as the medium of interaction.
Algerian authorities set out to redesign the system to make it more suited to the needs of a developing nation.
1.4.1. Democratization
Algeria established a democratic system which keeps the right of free education for all children who have reached the school age. Accordingly, Benrabah (2005) claimed that an urgent need is felt to open a great deal of schools, and employ new more teachers. As a result of the former policy, there was a various increase in enrolments on one hand, and a lack of teachers and instructors on the other. This lack was mainly caused by the resigned of most of the French teachers. From a total 27, 000 educators, almost 25, 000 departed from the country. In 1964, the president Ben Bella ordered to hiring 18, 000 Arabic and French teachers to fill the needs; 3200 of the total number were Syrians and Egyptians. Needless to mention the enormous expansion of
pupils, which was doubled in merely four years. In 1962-1963, the number was nearly 777,336;
though, in 1965-1966, the number rose to 1,332, 203. Dealing with such trouble, pupils had to attend classes once a day, so that teachers would be able to teach mainly two groups.
1.4.2. Algerianization
After the French departure, the government had to gain back everything that once belonged to Algeria through the process of Algerianization. In 1952, almost all French children (colons) enrolled in schools, whereas only 14 percent of Algerian children did.
Also, it estimated that 1 million Algerians spoke French, while a fewer number of 300,000 could read Arabic. By 1974, a great deal of procedures was at play in order to Algerianize the Algerian school. In doing so, almost all children of six years old enrolled the schools, the first two years of the primary phase were purely in Arabic. While French was taught only as a second language to third year pupils, and all teachers were Algerians, even if the subjects being taught were in French. (Beer, W., &
Jacob, J., 1985, p.137) 1.4.3. Arabisation
In reaction to French cultural and linguistic imperialism, the Algerian leaders of Independence committed themselves to raise Arabic and Islamic cultural values and to introduce Arabic as the national language. The aim was to create a suitable national identity for the new state and population. This goal was translated into an official policy called "Arabisation". (Benrabah, 2005)
In Algeria, the aim of the Arabisation policy was to move away French as the language
of education and instruction, and to substitute it by the Arabic language, as correctly assessed by Derni (2009: 285): “The selection of Arabic in language planning in Algeria has always been considered as an anti-colonial act against French, which was solely taught at primary, middle, secondary and university levels from 1830 to 1962”.
Three important elements contribute to the motivation of the Arabisation policy. First, the Arabic language represents the cultural side of independence: French is the language imposed by the colonizer. Secondly, Arabic is the language of Islam: Islam was a shelter during colonization when Algeria had not an identity. Finally, Arabic is the language of the Arab nation. (McDougall, 2006: 338).
1.5. The Educational Reform Policy
Since independence, Algeria has given a primordial to the educational system. The Algerian Ministry of education was created in 1963; it was the unique authority to design and supervise the whole Algerian education system such as curricula, textbooks, teachers' training .The immediate aim was the formation of citizens respecting three dimensions:
The Islamic religion, the Arabic language within the Algerian country.
The National Commission for the Reform of Education System was created in March 2000 (CNRSE, acronym of its French name) after the Algerian government has come to agree that education is a ‘failure’.(Benrabah,2007:226).The Algerian educational system consists of three cycles which have been redesigned over the last decade from a
“6+3+3”architecture to an alternative model of “5+4+3”: Five years of primary school, four years of middle school, and three years of high school, which was instituted in 2003.
Together, primary, middle, and secondary schools represent the basic education. Then
comes the higher education, or the so-called ''Tertiary education, under the supervision of the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research.
At the end of the five primary school studies, and after an official exam, pupils could be awarded by the Primary school Certificate which promotes them to access to the next level. At the end of the Middle School stage, pupils who are successful on the official exam could be awarded by the Middle School Certificate, which permits them the access to the first year of the secondary school. The general objective of the secondary school studies is to prepare pupils for further studies, mainly the higher studies, after the baccalaureate exam success. Since its independence, Algeria's higher education has undergone two major reforms. In 2004, it progressively adopted the LMD (License Master Doctorate) system under Bologna Process. LMD stands for "License", "Master", and "Doctorate": the first phase is composed of three years, the Master's degree is two years, and the Doctorate is composed of three years. Applying this new reform will promote inward and outward mobility of the students during their academic studies.
1.6. Status of English in the Algerian Education System
In Algeria, the power of the English language and its spread is clearly noticeable. In fact, it is the most important foreign language taught after French, which is actually regarded as a second language in the Algerian society. As a matter of fact, Hamer (2001:1) states that English is "a language widely adopted for communication between speakers whose native language are different from each other's and where one or both speakers are using it as a second language ".
From the end of 1970 to the early 1990, English was the second language introduced in
the middle cycle. In 1993, it was introduced as a competitor to French from the part of ministry of primary and secondary education. Thus, fourth grade pupils of the primary cycle had to choose either French or English as the first foreign language to study.
Today English is taught as the second language starting from the first grade level in the middle school. (Benrabah, 2005)
Conclusion
Despite the policies that Algeria has established to get free of French. The latter is still used in many spheres of the Algerian life either in its spoken or written form. The process of Arabization in almost all domains was not enough to prevent the use of the language of the former colonizer.
Section Two: The Different Phases of Educational System in Algeria, Teacher Training, Pre- service Teacher Program
Introduction
2.1. The Different Phases of Educational System in Algeria
The 1976 ordinance organizes education into five cycles: Preschool, Fundamental (nine years of compulsory education), Secondary, Higher Education, and Vocational training (Ferroukhi 1994).
2.1.1 Primary Education
The first nine years of schooling, comprising the basic education cycle, is compulsory for all children of schooling age.
The first five years of schooling are compulsory for all children of school age (usually age six and above). In the primary school, pupils are instructed by using the Arabic language. They learn Math, Physical, Environmental studies, Islamic studies, Civics, History, Geography, Science technology. In the third grade they start studding French as a foreign language.
In the first years of basic education students attend class for 27 hours a week. Students are assessed on the results of their coursework, and progression between grades is based on these results. Students who perform poorly in key subjects are required to take make- up classes, or to retake the year if they have an overall average below 50 percent.
Promotion to the next stage of education is based exclusively on student performance in
the final exam in the fifth grade. ( as cited in Djouima,2016) 2.1.2. Intermediate Cycle (Middle Education)
Since 1976, The Intermediate Cycle was consisted of three years, at the end of which pupils are examined nationally in order to pass into the following cycle, and get their certificate (B.E.F) grade to another. However, from 2003, this cycle consists of four years (1ère Année Moyenne to 4ème Année Moyenne), at the end of which a national exam (B.E.M.) is held.
In middle school, students continue to learn by using Arabic different modules in addition to the introduction of both French and English as foreign languages
2.1.3. High Education
At the beginning of this phase, the students have to choose which branch they want to study either letters or science and technology.
Three main courses are included in the first year of secondary education: languages and social studies, sciences and technology. These three main streams give access to other streams in the second and third year.
1) Philosophy and literature
2) Literature and foreign languages 3) Sciences
4) Mathematics
5) Economy and Management
6) Chemistry
7) Mechanical technology 8) Electrical technology 9) Civil technology
Students are streamed according to their personal preferences, their results at the end of their first secondary school years, all in all promotion to successive grades is based on students’
performance through the year.
Students sit for the baccalaureate examinations at the end of the third year of secondary education, and admission to tertiary-level institutions is based on student performance in these exams. Students are examined in each subject studied during their final year and get the baccalaureate if they score a combined average of over 50 percent in all subjects
2.1.4. The higher Education
Higher education in Algeria is offered at 27 universities, 13 university centers, 6 national schools, 6 national institutes, 4 teacher-training institutes and 2 university annexes. Universities and university centers are centrally administered by the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, while specialized schools and institutes generally fall under the portfolio of the ministry to which its specialization is most closely related.
The Algerian’s higher educational system had received some pedagogical changes as a response to the new challenges. Since 2004/05, a new university system is developing called L.M.D an acronym for Degree/Master/Doctorate. Initially designed in the Anglo-Saxon countries, it is
spreading nowadays everywhere, and Algerian authorities decided to apply it in partial replacement of the current system. This degree changes the length of the studies, too: it reduces the degree from four to three years. The instructors want to deploy it aiming at students' mobility and recognition of the degree in every part of the country and even abroad.
Design of the studies in Algeria is articulated around three main grades:
•The license, granted after three years of study (corresponding to 180 ECTS).
•Master's degree conferred after two years of study (corresponding to 120 or 300 ECTS credits earned).
•The doctorate conferred after the completion of research for at least three years and defending a thesis.( As cited in Lakhal, k. p, 123)
Table 01 Degrees’ names and years in the License and old classical system
Name LMD Former System Doctorate
Master
Bechelor
≥3 2
3
≥ 5
Magister
4
2.2. Teacher Training
Training is about developing people to become more confident and competent in their lives and in their jobs(Pont 2003). Teaching is one of the jobs that can be acquired thought a series of training programs .It is usually believed that some people are borne teachers : “ They have the ability and the which to transfer knowledge or skills from themselves to others ’’Hill and Dobbyn (1979). On the other hand there are some who are experts on a subject but helpless at teaching.
Finally, teacher training can help both those who are borne teachers and those who are not by providing them with the right techniques.
2.2.1 The Concept of Teacher Training
According to Richards and Farrell:'' Training refers to activities directly focused on a teacher’s present responsibilities and is typically aimed at short-term and immediate goals.
Often it is seen as preparation for induction into a first teaching position or as preparation to take on a new teaching assignment or responsibility. Training involves understanding basic concepts and principles as a prerequisite for applying them in the classroom, usually with supervision, and monitoring and getting feedback from others on one’s practice''. Training consist of two types the theoretical training and the practical training, the first one occurs the courses and the second is the application of theories a trainee learned in the real world. This training, either theoretical or practical, provides the trainee with the necessary abilities, skills he needs. (
2.2.2. The Evaluation of Teacher Training
According to Gauthier and Tardif (1996), before the 17th century in Europe, teaching did not require any kind of training. At that time education had not yet been formalized. For example,
anyone who can read could teach reading and set up as a school master without any other form of preparation. Teaching was defined by a random series of personal initiatives with no requirements apart from knowledge of the subject being taught. Teacher training did not exist and was not at all required. Teachers used to teach their students in the same way they was thought using the old tradition methods from the simple to the complex.
The first attempts to provide a clear insight about teacher training began in the 17 century As a result of the new demands (Gauthier and Tardif 1996). Therefor new methods and approaches to teaching were founded to suite with the learners and the teacher needs at the same time. (As cited in Djaoumaa p. 89)
In the 19 century and the early 20 century, criticism started to be addressed to traditional methods of teaching, for instance, the teacher center approach has being criticized and new method has being introduced. Another change knew at that time was the emphasis on the important of science in the discussions about teaching, and the need to promote a learner centered approach. This reform has led the psychologies to control the debate of the 20 century, in France, the first university chairs of pedagogy was established. Pedagogy started to be defined "science of education" with an attempt to make pedagogues scientist, the claim behind that was that science could correct the mistakes in the tradition pedagogy.
In second language teacher education, some training programs began to emerge which was designed to give the pre-service teachers the classroom skills they need to teach. This knowledge was presented in the courses of the Master Programs which contained course in language analysis, learning theory, methodology and sometimes a teaching practice. Therefor the relation between practical teaching and academic knowledge has being offered ever since.
Since the appearance of teacher training different approaches to the education and training was introduced for the preparation of pre-service teacher. Pennigton (1989) identified three approaches; the competency-based approach, the holistic approach, and the attitude adjustment approach each one of those approaches has his own characteristics. For instance, according to Smith the competency-based approach the certification of teacher takes place through observation of their teaching rather than on the basis of the completed courses. ( as Cited in Djaouma 2.2.3. Teacher training process
According to Anderson (1989), it is important to understand that a certificate in a particular field of study is not enough to prepare a person to be a teacher; rather, it is the knowledge alone that makes somebody a teacher. The process of teacher preparation needs to be guided by experts for developing the construct of teacher as a professional. The teacher profile, that is expected to be developed, requires the engagement of country’s profile since it depends on the level of development and the local constraints. In fact, the teacher is a learner who is actively constructing ideas based on personal experiences, for that target culture is needed to be included in the initial training program and introduced by means of need analysis.
Many people hold the idea that any individual can be a teacher and with a little sincere effort can become a good teacher. In fact, this is not easy as it seems from the first glance. According to Diller (1985) the professional teacher of English as a second language needs pedagogical training to be a teacher, and academic training in English language and linguistics to be a professional in our field (as cited in Richards,1998, p.318).The teacher beliefs about education, his relationships with students, colleagues, and his motivation degree …etc. All these factors are more easily caught than taught, and teacher educators are role models for that (Cross, 1995). Concerning the
development of teacher education in social and cultural theory, “theorists have framed teacher education in terms of the development of a teacher identity, where identity references individuals’ knowledge and naming of themselves, as well as others’ recognition of them as a particular sort of person” (Clarke, 2008, p.8). In here, the process of learning to teach can be either learning the skills and knowledge or it can be developing a sense of oneself as teacher. In the former, one is ‘being the teacher’, whereas in the latter, one is ‘becoming a teacher’ (Clarke, 2008). According to Mayer (1995) these distinctions have significant implications for the design and conduct of teacher education programs (p.5) (as cited in Clarke, 2008, p.8).
2.2.4. The Algerian Teachers Training Program
The Algerian teacher training program generally contains three years for training teachers, to earn the Diplôme de Maître d’Enseignement Fondamental and to be able to teach in middle school. The final year of these programs is normally reserved for practical teacher-training placements combined with pedagogical and theoretical training. In the first two to three years of the teacher-training program, students generally take classes in their subject area specializations.
Secondary school teachers are required to train for five years to earn the Diplôme de Professeur d’Enseignement Secondaire. As with the training for basic education, the final year of training for secondary school teachers is generally reserved for practical and theoretical methodology classes and practical in-school training. (2018 World Education Services).
2.2.5. The Pre-service Teacher Training Program
2.2.5.1. Theoretical Assumptions about Pre-Service Teacher Training Programs
Previously, the teacher training program was called teacher education. This program was related to the development of teacher proficiency and competence that would help him to meet the professional requirements and undergo encountered challenges. From1956 the program became known as the teacher training program.
The practical nature of pre-service training program accompanied the American philosopher John Dewey’s theory of experience. In his book “Experience and Education”, Dewey claimed that learning must be based upon individual experiences of real life that are interactive, experimental, and purposive in nature. In the context of pre-service teacher training programs, different opinions have been proposed. According to Grave (2009), the teacher education program is “an interdependent situated set of educational processes and tools whose aim is teacher training” (p. 116). During the period of training programs, teaching practice goes side by side, while teachers are getting knowledge about theory papers. With relation to curriculum in the training program, Grave claimed that the curriculum must be a dynamic system made out of three components: educational aims, a plan for achieving those aims and teaching experiences to meet those aims, and evaluation of program effectiveness (2009). Moreover, Cross (1995) suggests that the components of the curriculum should be sequenced within the syllabus, and their relationship should be taken into consideration.
“Good education requires good teachers” thus, the purpose of the pre-service training program is to prepare individuals’ personal and professional skills needed in schools and other learning contexts. Also, it offered opportunities for trainees to upgrade their knowledge and abilities over
the full length of their career.
2.2.6. The Emergence of Teacher Training Schools (Ecoles Normales superieures)
The ENS of Constantine was created in 1981 in order to help student teachers from eastern and southeastern part of Algeria. The teacher training curriculum of English as a foreign language is the result of many years of ongoing development, evaluation and reform. From 1999 up to 2013, the curriculum has been a matter of three versions seeking to respond to the major aim and policy of the teacher training school: quality training (as cited in Djouima, 2016, p.126). The first version of the training curriculum dates from 1999/2000. The second took place in 2011, where the ENS teachers have worked on a proposal for a curriculum based on the LMD format. In September 2013, the third version of the curriculum represented by the ministry of higher education became what is known today as the national curriculum for teacher training (as cited in Djouima, p.127).
The teachers’ Training School provides its learners a practical training in order to prepare them for their professional setting. In general, the last year of students who would be teaching in the primary, middle, and secondary school is mainly devoted to a practical training. It aims at equipping the soon-to-be-graduated students with the necessary needed skills that would help in their professional life. This strategy helps the student teachers to know what happens inside the classroom, the steps of the lesson and the way both the teacher and learners deal with the teaching-learning process. In fact, the opportunity given for learners to be mingled with the teaching in the form of taking part in the lesson activities or taking the full responsibility of the teaching process sometimes enable the trainees to pass the challenges of teaching and engage successfully in the professional life.
2.2.6.2. Overall Presentation of the Curriculum
The teacher training curriculum based on particular assumption stating that: for reaching a successful teacher training curriculum, it needs to cover three main domains naming, language, teaching development and professionalism, and culture (Djouima, 2011). In addition, the curriculum should include cross-disciplinary subjects, French and ICT. The following table represents the different modules taken by the trainees during their learning process.
Table 02: Training Modules (Adapted from Curriculum Report (ENSC 2008) (as cited in Djouima, 2016, p. 128)
1st year common core
2nd year common core
3rd year common core
4th year MSE Profile
4th year SE profile
5th year SE profile
Writing Writing Writing &
gramma
Applied linguistics
Applied linguistics
Applied linguistics
Grammar Grammar Speaking, listening
&phonetics
TEFL TEFL Syllabus
design
Speaking & Speaking & Linguistics Materials Materials Pedagogical
listening listening design &
development
design &
development
trends
Reading techniques
Reading techniques
TEFL Textbook
evaluation &
syllabus design
Textbook evaluation &
syllabus design
Legislation scolaire
Phonetics Phonetics Pedagogical trends &
educational systems
Educational psychology
Psychology of the child
&adolescent
Training
Introduction to linguistics
Introduction to linguistics
Communicatio n & attitude preoccupation s
British &
American literature
British &
American literature
Issues in culture
Introduction to western
civilization &
literature
Introduction to western
civilization &
literature
Introduction to psychology
British &
American civilization
British &
American civilization
African
civilization &
literature
French French British &
American
African
civilization &
African
civilization &
Extended essay
literature literature literature
ICT ICT British &
American literature
Legislation scolaire
Research methodology in Education
ICT Research
methodology in Education
2.2.6.2.1. Domain 1: Language
It is generally acknowledged that promoting teacher quality is a key element in improving education of second and foreign languages. In this regard, teacher language is an indisponsible part of teaching which reflects his/her competence in a real EFL context. In fact, Teacher language is of crucial importance, not only for the organization of the classroom but also for the processes of acquisition. In other words, it is through language that teachers either succeed or fail in implementing their teaching plans. In term of acquisition, teacher language is probably the major source of input that learner is likely to receive. For that, a teacher needs to reach proficiency in the target language in order to be able to teach effectively. Canagarajah (1999) pointed out that most of the world’s English teachers are not native speakers of English and this does not mean that they will fail in their teaching process because they do not have a native-like fluency, but it is necessary for them to consider the language-specific competencies an EFL teacher needs to teach effectively. These include the ability to provide good language models, to
