CONTENTS General introduction: the political role of ethnic minority organisations in Brussels

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6 The Brussels case, the ethnic civic community index of the networks of interlocking directorates 6.1 Results based on the 2003 data on the Moroccan and Turkish network of interlocking directorates 6.2 Organisational and associative density of ethnic minority associative life in Brussels anno 2009 6.3 Analyses concerning the dyad level...194

6.3.1 The level of direct relations in the Belgian Moroccan, - Turkish and - Congolese network 6.3.2 Analyses of direct relations in the co-leadership network...195

6.4 Visualisatoin of the 2009 networks of interlocking directorates...196

6.5 Analyses concerning the subgroup or component level...198

6.6 Analyses of subgroups in co-leadership network...200

6.7 Analyses on the triadic level...200

6.7.1 Descriptive structural measure discussing triad-structures...200

6.7.2 Triad structures in the co-leadership...201

6.8 Evolution in the structural characteristics of the networks of interlocking directorates...202

7 Discussion: bringing the different structural measures together...205

7.1 Calculating the outcomes for the Brussels case on the Fennema and Tillie index... 7.2 Adding information to the ethnic civic community index on the triad level...206

7.3 A similar index for the co-leadership network...207

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8 Remarks in regard to the method...208

8.1 Using an aggregate measure...208

8.2 Testing the Fennema and Tillie hypothesis: discussing the aggregate effect by the individual effect Chapter 2: Introducing heterogeneity in the structural analysis of networks of interlocking directorates 1 Attributional characteristics on the dyad level...212

2 Attributional characteristics on the subgroup level...214

2.1 Attributional characteristics of the five largest components of the Belgian Moroccan network 2.2 Attributional characteristics of the largest components in the Belgian Turkish network ...218

2.3 Attributional characteristics of the five largest component in the Belgian Congolese network220 4. Discussion: networks of interlocking directorates taking into account attributional characteristics...223

Chapter 3: The independent factor: other forms of collaborations within and outside the own community 1 Complementing the picture on interlocking directorates...225

2 Frequent contacts within and outside the ethnic minority associative field...226

2.1 Difference between the Turkish network of interlocksand the contact network in Amsterdam and Berlin 2.2 Frequent contacts within the Belgian Moroccan, Belgian Turkish and Belgian Congolese associative field 2.3 Frequent contacts outside the Belgian Moroccan, Belgian Turkish and Belgian Congolese associative field 2.4 How do different forms of frequent contacts relate?...230

3 Contacts with Brussel majority associative field...231

4 Conclusion: studying the aggregate effect by looking at the individual effect...237

Part 5: studying the political dimension of Belgian Moroccan, Belgian Turkish and Belgian Congolese associative life...239

Chapter 1: The research design...239

1 Testing the Fennema and Tillie hypothesis on the aggregate effect of the degree of ethnic civic community 1.1 Introduction: some deviations of the original design...239

1.2 Verifying the aggregate effect on the degree of ethnic civic community by the individual effect 1.3 Verifying the aggregate effect of the presence of other types of collaboration by the individual effect... 2 Alternative perspectives on political participation...242

2.1 Attributional characteristic of the organisations...242

2.2 A contextual perspective on political participation...243

2.3 Different social capital discussions according to the type of political activity...243

2.3.1 A difference in resourcefulness between bonding and bridging collaborations...244 ix

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2.3.2. The symbolic value of collaborations...244

3 The empirical analyses that are not performed...245

3.1 Still other indicators for social capital left out...245

3.2 Leaving out specific examples...246

3.3 The control variables that did not make it through the selection...246

3.4 No empirical verification of the intermediary process...246

4 The Statistical background to the empirical analyses...248

4.1 Integrating structural data and survey data...248

4.2 Statistics to discuss bivariate associations...248

4.2.1. The X² test: association between two nominal variables...249

4.2.2. The phi-coefficient: association between two dichotomous variables...250

4.3 Logistic regression analysis...250

4.4 Statistical background to understanding binary logistic regression...251

4.4.1. Interpreting the regression coefficient and deciding on its statistical significance...252

4.4.2. Interpreting model statistics and deciding upon their statistical significance ...253

4.5. Assumptions associated to logistic regression analysis...254

4.6. Direct logistic regression...256

4.7. Multinomial logistic regression...256

4.6. Interactions in logistic regression...257

5. Conclusion: discussing the aggregate effect by looking at the individual effect...258

Chapter 2 Institutional political participation: an involvement n the electoral process...259

1. Introduction: a strong descriptive representation of the Belgian Moroccan population in Brussels 2. Univariate Analyses: the level of electoral participation...260

3. Bivariate analyses: the factors underlying the electoral participation of ethnic minority organisations...261

3.1. Identifying the individual effect of the different forms of social capital...261

3.2. The individual effect of instrumental and expressive resources...262

4. Multivariate analyses on electoral participation...264

4.1. the predictor selected for the models...264

4.2. Missing values and checking assumptions...265

4.2.1. No significant association between variable on missing values and dependent variables 4.2.2. Verifying four assumptions associated to logistic regression analysis...266

4.3. A first series of logistic regression models: a focus on the embeddedness in the network ...267 4.4. A second series of logistic regression models: discussing the relevance of more everyday collaborations...

4.5. A third series: the discussion on the relative importance of actors of Brussels mainstream associative life

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4.6. Discussion: multivariate analysis leaves us with more questions than answers...271

5. Discussion: contextualizing the results for the Brussels case...272

5.1. The absence of a structural link between the electoral sphere and ethnic minority associative life 5.1.1. The absence of a systematic recruitment of candidates in resourceful organisations. . .272

5.1.2. The absence of a systematic recruitment of candidates of Moroccan origin in the associative field... 5.1.3. A stronger link between representatives of Turkish and Congolese associative life . . .274

5.1.4. What factors can strengthen the electoral political role of ethnic minority organisations? Chapter 3: Participation to consultative mechanisms...276

1. Introduction: high expectations, weak opportunities...276

2. Univariate observations: the absence of a consistent rank order between three groups...277

3. The Bivariate analysis: rejecting the individual effect of an embeddedness in the network ..279

3.1. Bivariate analyses for the social capital indicators...279

3.2. Bivariate analyses on the control variables...280

4. Multivariate analyses: the strong influence of public funding and support by majority associative field... 4.1. Discussing Missing values and checking assumptions...282

4.2. A first series of logistic regression models: the individual effect of being embedded in a network 4.2.1. The model including the control variable on the size of the organisation...285

4.2.2. The model including the control variable on public funding...285

4.2.2. The model including the control variable on the affiliation to a federation...285

4.2.3. The model including the control variable on an intrinsic political motivation...286

4.2.4. The model including the control variable on the presence of religious activities...287

4.2.5. An overview of the interactions in the logistic regression models...288

4.2.6. An involvement in interlocking directorates matters when other resources are lacking288 4.3. A second series of logistic regression models: the discussion on the differential importance of internal and external frequent contacts...289

4.3.1. The ground model: only including the predictors on (both internal and external) frequent contacts 4.3.2. The model including the control variable on the size of an organisation...291

4.3.4. The model including the control variable on an affiliation to a federation...292

4.3.6. The model including the control variable on religious activities...293

4.3.7. An overview of the outcome regarding interaction terms included in the models...294

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4.3.8. An involvement in external frequent contacts add to the access to consultative

mechanisms...294

4.4. The third series of logistic regression models: the importance of actors of majority associative life... 4.4.1. The ground model: the large effect size associated to contact with pro-migrant associative life... 4.4.2. The model including the control variable on size...296

4.4.4. The model including the control variable on an affiliation to a federation...297

4.4.6. The model including the control variable on religious activities...297

4.4.7. An overview of the interactions terms included in the logistic regression models...298

4.4.8. The importance of the Brussels majority associative life for participating to consultation 4.5. Overall discussion: central influence of public funding and Brussels majority associative life 5. Discussion: different organisational profiles according to type of institutional political participation...300

Chapter 3: non-institutional political activities...303

1. Introduction: Topics of claim making...303

2. The influence of the POS on the nature of the claims...305

3. Claim making activities in Belgium, data reduction...306

3.1. Univariate analyses: no important differences across the three groups...306

3.2. Claim making in country of origin: Belgian Congolese organisations hold a first position...308

3.3. Latent Class analysis: differentiation between proclaiming and protesting activities...309

3.3.1. Latent class analysis proclaiming activities...310

3.3.2. Latent class analysis protest activities...312

3.3.3. Defining the nature of the classes...312

4. Understanding proclaiming activities...314

4.1. Bivariate analyses...314

4.2. Multivariate analyses for proclaiming: missing values and assumptions...316

4.3. A first series of logistic regression models: the Fennema and Tillie hypothesis...318

4.3.1. The ground model on interlocking directorates does not reliable predict proclaiming 318 4.3.2. The model including the predictor on public funding...319

4.3.3. The model including the predictor on being active on community concerns...319

4.4. A second series of logistic regression models: the discussion on the internal and external frequent contacts 4.4.1. Internal frequent contact (and not external) matter for understanding proclaiming...320

4.4.2. Exploring whether the variable on group affiliation acts as a confounder ...320

4.4.3. Adding control variables to the ground model...321

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4.4.4. The models including the predictors on size, on public funding, on advocacy and on the

presence of religious activities...322

4.4.5. A particular interaction between the control variable on advocacy and the predictor on involvement in internal frequent contacts...322

4.4.6. An interaction between the variable on religious activities and internal frequent contacts 4.4.7. An interaction between the variable on a Moroccan affiliation and internal frequent contacts...324

4.4.8. An overview of the interaction terms included in the models ...324

4.5. A third series of models: the discussion on the importance of Brussels majority associative life 4.5.1. The model on contact with major associative life strongly predicts the outcome on proclaiming...324

4.5.2. The models including a predictor on size, on public funding, on community concerns and on religious activities...326

4.5.3. The models including the predictor on an affiliation to a federation and an advocacy orientation... 4.5.5. An overview of the interaction terms that add to the understanding of proclaiming...327

4.2. Conclusion: the importance of bonding social capital to get involved in proclaiming activities327 5. Direct contacting of public and political authorities...329

5.2. Univariate analysis: the Belgian Turkish organisations stand out...329

5.3. Bivariate analyses: the importance of interlocking directorates...333

5.4. Multivariate analyses: missing values and assumptions...335

5.5. A first series of logistic regression models...336

5.5.1. The ground models on group affiliation and on the network variables to yield a reliable prediction 5.5.2. The model including the predictor on public funding...338

5.5.3. The model including the predictor on community concerns...339

5.5.4. The model including the predictor on an advocacy mission...339

5.5.5. The model including the predictor on religious activities...340

5.5.6. An overview of the interaction that are meaningful for understanding proclaiming.. .340

5.6. A second series of logistic regression models...341

5.6.1. The predictors on frequent contacts interacting with the variable on group affiliation.341 5.6.2. The model including the predictor on size...342

5.6.2. The model including the predictor on public funding...342

5.7. A third series of logistic regression models...343

5.7.1. The contact with Brussels pro-migrant organsiations adds to the understanding of direct contacting 5.7.2. The model including the predictor on public funding...344

5.8. Discussion: The Belgian Turkish and Belgian Congolese organisations stand out...344 xiii

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6. Theoretical reflexion on the importance of social capital...346

General discussion: rejecting the hypothesis on the aggregate effect of social capital, discussing the individual effect and formulating alternative hypotheses...348

1 Testing the Fennema and Tillie hypothesis on the importance of the degree of ethnic civic community... 1.1. Confronting the rank order on both the index and the outcome in regard to political participation 1.1.1. The intermediary part of the Fennema and Tillie hypothesis...348

1.1.2. The Belgian Moroccan associative field expected to stand out as for the level of political activity... 1.1.3. The Belgian Turkish and - Congolese collective trajectory showing some particular strengths...349

1.2. The individual effect of being embedded in the network of interlocking directorates...350

1.2.1. Studying the individual effect to further verify the presence of an aggregate effect.. .350

1.2.2. An individual effect only for participation to consultation and direct contacting...350

1.2.2. The absence of an aggregate effect confirmed...351

1.2.3. The size and structure of the network matters when alternative resources are lacking351 1.3. Theoretical implications of finding a very specific individual effect...351

1.3.1. We reject a reflection in terms of trust embedded in horizontal relations...351

1.3.2. Alternative interpretations: need for further research...352

1.4. The importance of taking into account other types of collaborations?...352

1.4.1. Bonding and bridging frequent contacts and the contact with Brussels majority associative field... 1.4.2. An illustration of a multidimensional relation between social capital and political participation... 1.4.3. Interpreting the multidimensional relation between social capital and political participation...353

1.4.4. The absence of an aggregate effect following bonding and bridging social capital...354

1.5. An asymmetry with the individual trajectory further rejecting the Hypothesis...354

1.5.1. The absence of a symmetry between the individual and collective trajectory... 1.5.2. One remarkable symmetry in rank order...355

2. Understanding similarities and difference in the group level of direct contacting...356

2.1. Similarities in the political channel function of the organisations across the groups...357

2.1.1. The access to electoral involvement structured by a process of personal acquaintanceship 2.1.2. Predictors on public funding and on contact with pro-migrant organisations have high effect size 2.2. One difference in the level of political activity for the Brussels case: direct contacting...360

2.2.1. Discussing the interaction terms to understand the difference in level of direct contacting

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2.2.2. A first alternative hypothesis: characteristics of the Belgian Turkish group not operationalised?...

2.2.3. A Second alternative hypothesis: taking into account the particular position within a POS

2.3. A remarkably large associative field compensating for a lack of opportunities?...366

3. Conclusion: situating the Fennema and Tillie argument...366

3.1. A first discussion: the Fennema and Tillie argument relative to the importance of contextual factors... 3.2. A second discussion: inside the social capital argument...369

3.3. Interactions shaping the social capital argument ...370

Bibliogaphy... Annexe 1: Tables including logistic regression models...383

Annexe 2: Survey questionnaire French version on the “organisations turques”...415

Annexe 3: Documentation concerning field work...435

Annexe 4: Organisations included in the survey...447

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