due Guidebook

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Guidebook to studies of land subsidence due to ground-water withdrawal

Prepared for the International Hydrological Programme, Working Group 8.4

Joseph F. Poland, Chairman and Editor

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The designations employed and the presentation o f the material i n t h i s publication do not imply the expression o f any opinion whatsoever on the p a r t o f the publishers concerning the l e g a l status o f any country o r t e r r i t o r y , or o f i t s authorities, or concerning the f r o n t i e r s o f any country or t e r r i t o r y

Published i n 1984 by the United Nations

Educational, S c i e n t i f i c and Cultural Organization 7, place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris

Printed under the d i r e c t i o n o f the American Geophysical Union, by Book Crafters, Chelsea, Michigan ISBN 92-3-102213-X

@ Unesco 1984

Printed i n t h e United States o f America

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Preface

Although t h e t o t a l amount o f water on e a r t h i s g e n e r a l l y assumed t o have remained v i r t u a l l y constant, t h e r a p i d growth o f p o p u l a t i o n , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e e x t e n s i o n of i r r i g a t e d a g r i c u l t u r e and i n d u s t r i a l development, a r e s t r e s s i n g t h e q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y aspects o f t h e n a t u r a l system. Because o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g problems, man has begun t o r e a l i z e t h a t he can n o l o n g e r f o l l o w a "use and d i s c a r d " p h i l o s o p h y - - e i t h e r w i t h water resources o r any o t h e r n a t u r a l resource. As a r e s u l t , t h e need f o r a c o n s i s t e n t p o l i c y o f r a t i o n a l management o f water resources has become e v i d e n t .

R a t i o n a l water management, however, s h o u l d be founded upon a thorough u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f water a v a i l a b i l i t y and movement. Thus, as a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e s o l u t i T x r o f - t h e w o r l d ' s water problems, Unesco, i n 1965, began t h e f i r s t world-wide programme o f s t u d i e s o f t h e h y d r o l o g i c a l c y c l e - - t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l H y d r o l o g i c a l Decade ( IHD)

.

The r e s e a r c h programme was complemented by a m a j o r e f f o r t i n t h e f i e l d o f h y d r o l o g i c a l e d u c a t i o n and t r a i n i n g . The a c t i v i t i e s undertaken during t h e Decade p r o v e d t o be of g r e a t i n t e r e s t and v a l u e t o Member States. By t h e end o f t h a t p e r i o d , a m a j o r i t y of Unesco's Member S t a t e s had formed IHD N a t i o n a l Conmiittees t o c a r r y o u t r e l e v a n t n a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s and t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n r e g i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h i n t h e IHD programme. The knowledge o f t h e w o r l d ' s water r e s o u r c e s had s u b s t a n t i a l l y improved. Hydrology became w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d as an independent p r o f e s s i o n a l o p t i o n and f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e t r a i n i n g o f h y d r o l o g i s t s had been developed.

Conscious o f t h e need t o expand upon t h e e f f o r t s i n i t i a t e d during t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l H y d r o l o g i c a l Decade and, f o l l o w i n g t h e recommendations o f Member States, Unesco, i n 1975, launched a new long-term i n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l programme, t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l H y d r o l o g i c a l Programnie ( I H P ) , t o f o l l o w t h e Decade.

Although t h e IHP i s b a s i c a l l y a s c i e n t i f i c and e d u c a t i o n a l programme, Unesco has been aware f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a need t o d i r e c t i t s a c t i v i t i e s toward t h e p r a c t i c a l s o l u t i o n s Of

t h e w o r l d ' s v e r y r e a l water resources problems. A c c o r d i n g l y , and i n l i n e w i t h t h e recommendations o f t h e 1977 U n i t e d N a t i o n s Water Conference, t h e o b j e c t i v e s of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l H y d r o l o g i c a l Programme have been g r a d u a l l y expanded i n o r d e r t o cover n o t o n l y h y d r o l o g i c a l processes c o n s i d e r e d i n i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e environment and human a c t i v i t i e s , but a l s o t h e s c i e n t i f i c aspects o f m u l t i - p u r p o s e u t i l i z a t i o n and c o n s e r v a t i o n o f water resources t o meet t h e needs of economic and s o c i a l development. Thus, w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g IHP' s s c i e n t i f i c concept, t h e o b j e c t i v e s have s h i f t e d p e r c e p t i b l y towards a m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y approach t o t h e assessment, p l a n n i n g , and r a t i o n a l management o f water resources.

AS p a r t of Unesco's c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e IHP, two p u b l i c a t i o n s e r i e s a r e issued: "Studies and Reports i n Hydrology" and " T e c h n i c a l Papers i n Hydrology. I n a d d i t i o n t o these p u b l i c a t i o n s , and i n o r d e r t o e x p e d i t e exchange o f i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e areas i n which i t i s most needed, works o f a p r e l i m i n a r y n a t u r e a r e i s s u e d i n t h e f o r m o f T e c h n i c a l Documents-

The purpose o f t h e c o n t i n u i n g s e r i e s " S t u d i e s and Reports i n Hydrology" t o which t h i s volume belongs, i s t o p r e s e n t d a t a c o l l e c t e d and t h e main r e s u l t s o f h y d r o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s , as w e l l as t o p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n on h y d r o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h techniques. The proceedings o f symposia a r e a l s o sometimes i n c l u d e d . I t i s hoped t h a t these volumes w i l l f u r n i s h m a t e r i a l of b o t h p r a c t i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l i n t e r e s t t o water resources s c i e n t i s t s and a l s o t o those i n v o l v e d i n water resources assessments and t h e p l a n n i n g f o r r a t i o n a l water resources management.

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Joseph F. Poland o f U.S. G e o l o g i c a l Survey stands near bench mark S661 southwest o f Mendota i n t h e San Joaquin V a l l e y , C a l i f o r n i a . The bench n a r k s i t e subsided 9m f r o m 1925 t o 1977, because o f i n t e n s i v e w i t h d r a w a l o f ground water. Signs on t h e power p o l e i n d i c a t e t h e r e s p e c t i v e p o s i - t i o n s o f t h e l a n d s u r f a c e i n 1925, 1955, and 1977.

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,

^China

Venice, I t a l y Japan

U n i t e d S t a t e s References

P a r t II Case h i s t o r i e s o f l a n d subsidence due t o ground-water w i t h d r a w a l

8 8.1 8.2 8.2.1 8.2.2 8.2.3 8.4 8.5 8.3

8.5.1 8.5.2 8.5.3 8.5.4 8.5.5 8.6 8.6.1 8.7

9 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5

Types o f l a n d subsidence, by A l i c e S. A l l e n I n t r o d u c t i o n

The r o l e o f subsurface s o l u t i o n i n subsidence S a l t

Gypsum

Carbonate r o c k s

The r o l e o f subsurface mechanical e r o s i o n i n subsidence L a t e r a l f l o w as a subsidence mechanism

Compaction as a cause o f subsidence L o a d i n g

Drainage V i b r a t i o n

E x t r a c t i o n o f p o r e f l u i d s Hydrocompaction

T e c t o n i c subsidence D i s c u s s i o n

References

Case h i s t o r i e s

L a t r o b e V a l l e y , V i c t o r i a , A u s t r a l i a , by C. S. Gloe Shanghai, China, by S. L u x i a n g and B. Manfang Venice, I t a l y , by L. Carbognin, e t a l .

Tokyo, Japan, c o m p i l e d by S. Yamamoto Osaka, Japan, c o m p i l e d by S. Yamamoto

120 120 1 2 1 122 122 122 123 123 125

127 127 127 127 127 128 128 128 129 129 129 130 130

133 133 133 133 134 135 135 137 137 137 138 138 138 138 139 139 139

143 14 5 155 1 6 1 175 185

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9 Case h i s t o r i e s - - C o n t i n u e d 9.6

9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15

N o b i P l a i n , Japan, compiled by S. Yamamoto N i i g a t a , Japan, compiled by S. Yamamoto Mexico, D.F., Mexico, b y G. E. F i g u e r o a Vega Wairakei, New Zealand, by P. F. B i x l e y Bangkok, Thailand, compiled by S. Yamamoto Alabama, U.S.A., by J. G. Newton

Houston-Glaveston Region, Texas, U. S.A.

,

b y R. K. Gabrysch

San J o a q u i n V a l l e y , C a l i f o r n i a , U.S.A., b y J. F. Poland and B. E. L o f g r e n Santa C l a r a V a l l e y , C a l i f o r n i a , U.S.A., b y J. F. Poland

Ravenna, I t a l y , by L. Carbognin, e t a l .

Appendixes

A. I n s t r u m e n t c a p a b i l i t i e s f o r measuring l a n d - s u r f a c e displacement 8 . C a p a b i l i t i e s o f e x i s t i n g subsidence m o n i t o r i n g i n s t r u m e n t s C. L i s t o f symbols used i n t e x t , p a r t I

D. Glossary

E. M e t r i c c o n v e r s i o n t a b l e

195 205 217 233 241 245 253 263 27 9 291

A- 1 B-1

c-1

D- 1 E- 1

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Part I Manual.

The occurrence, measurement, mechanics, prediction, and

control of subsidence

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1 Hydrological Programme

Introduction, by Working Group 8.4, International

1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION

The i n c r e a s i n g e x p l o i t a t i o n o f ground water, e s p e c i a l l y i n b a s i n s f i l l e d w i t h u n c o n s o l i d a t e d a l l u v i a l , l a c u s t r i n e , o r s h a l l o w marine deposits, has as one o f i t s consequences t h e s i n k i n g o r s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e l a n d s u r f a c e - - l a n d subsidence (see Glossary, Appendix D ) .

The occurrence o f m a j o r l a n d subsidence due t o t h e w i t h d r a w a l o f ground water i s r e l a t i v e l y c o m o n i n h i g h l y developed areas. Case s t u d i e s on l a n d subsidence and on r e m e d i a l measures t a k e n w i l l be u s e f u l f o r d e v e l o p i n g a r e a s f a c i n g s i m i l a r problems i n t h e f u t u r e .

The problems o f l a n d subsidence were i n c l u d e d i n t h e programme o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l H y d r o l o g i c a l Decade. During t h e Decade t h e m a j o r a c t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o l a n d subsidence was t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on Land Subsidence h e l d i n Tokyo i n 1969. The s u b j e c t has a l s o been r e t a i n e d under t h e framework of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l H y d r o l o g i c a l P r o g r a m e and i n c l u d e d i n t h e work p l a n f o r t h e f i r s t phase o f t h e Programme (1975-1980) as IHP s u b p r o j e c t 8.4.

I n A p r i l 1975, t h e I n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l C o u n c i l f o r t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l H y d r o l o g i c a l Programme, a t i t s f i r s t s e s s i o n i n P a r i s , e s t a b l i s h e d a Working Group f o r c o o r d i n a t i o n o f IHP s u b p r o j e c t 8.4, " I n v e s t i g a t i o n on l a n d subsidence due t o ground-water e x p l o i t a t i o n . " The Working Group members a r e l i s t e d below. I n a d d i t i o n , A. I. Johnson, V i c e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f H y d r o l o g i c a l Sciences, was t h e d e s i g n a t e d l i a i s o n from t h a t i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n .

UNESCO Working Group on Land Subsidence Due t o Ground-water Withdrawal M r . Joseph F. Poland, Chairman

U.S. G e o l o g i c a l Survey Fùn. W-2528, F e d e r a l B u i l d i n g 2800 Cottage Way

Sacramento, C a l i f o r n i a 95825

M r . A. I v a n Johnson R e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f IAHS Woodward-Clyde C o n s u l t a n t s

2909 West 7 t h Avenue Denver, Colorado 80204

M r . German F i g u e r o a Vega M r . S o k i Yamamoto

Comision de Aguas de V a l l e de México Rissho U n i v e r s i t y

Balderas No. 55-20. Piso. 4-2-16 Osaki, Shingawa-ku

Mexico 1, D.F. Tokyo 141, Japan

MS. Laura Carbognin N a t i o n a l Research C o u n c i l 1364 San P o l o

Venice, I t a l y 30125

1.2 PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF GUIDEBOOK

The group was asked t o p r e p a r e a guidebook on subsidence due t o ground-water w i t h d r a w a l , p a y i n g p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o measures t o c o n t r o l and a r r e s t subsidence, t h e use o f a r t i f i c i a l r e - charge, and t h e r e p r e s s u r i n g o f a q u i f e r s . The g o a l was t o produce a guidebook t h a t w i l l s e r v e as a guide t o engineers, g e o l o g i s t s , and h y d r o l o g i s t s f a c e d w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f l a n d subsidence, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n developing c o u n t r i e s . They may be asked t o answer t h e q u e s t i o n s o f whether l a n d subsidence i s o c c u r r i n g , i f so, where and a t what r a t e , t h e cause o r causes, and what can be done t o s t o p i t o r a t l e a s t slow i t down. The guidebook s h o u l d be o f a s s i s t a n c e i n p l a n n i n g and u n d e r t a k i n g t h e f i e l d s t u d i e s .

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Guidebook t o studies of land subsidence due to ground-water withdrawal

The f i r s t s e s s i o n o f t h e Working Group was h e l d i n December 1976 i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e Second IAHS-UNESCO I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on Land Subsidence i n Anaheim, C a l i f o r n i a . A t t h a t m e e t i n g t h e group d r a f t e d t h e g e n e r a l o u t l i n e o f t h e guidebook and decided o n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f work.

The guidebook i s o r g a n i z e d i n two p a r t s . P a r t I i s a manual o f seven c h a p t e r s o n t h e occurrence, measurement, mechanics, p r e d i c t i o n , and c o n t r o l o f l a n d subsidence due t o ground- water w i t h d r a w a l .

P a r t IIi s a s e r i e s o f i n v i t e d case h i s t o r i e s o f l a n d subsidence due t o ground-water w i t h d r a w a l , p r e p a r e d by i n d i v i d u a l authors. The f i r s t c h a p t e r i n P a r t II(Chapter 8 ) i s a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n o f o t h e r t y p e s O € l a n d subsidence w r i t t e n by Ms. A l i c e A l l e n . Subsidence may occur f r o m many o t h e r causes t h a n w i t h d r a w a l o f ground water. Some occurrences a r e due t o n a t u r a l causes and some a r e t h e work o f man. Anyone i n v e s t i g a t i n g subsidence due t o ground- water w i t h d r a w a l s h o u l d have a t l e a s t an elementary knowledge o f o t h e r t y p e s o f subsidence and t h e g e o l o g i c environments i n which t h e y a r e l i k e l y t o occur. Although t h e p r e s e n t d i s c u s s i o n by Ms. A l l e n i s b r i e f , i t c o n t a i n s 62 references, which s h o u l d p r o v e v e r y h e l p f u l t o t h e r e a d e r who wishes t o l e a r n more about any p a r t i c u l a r subsidence process.

The second c h a p t e r i n P a r t II(Chapter 9 ) c o n s i s t s o f 1 5 case h i s t o r i e s o f subsidence due t o ground-water withdrawal, p r e p a r e d b y i n d i v i d u a l authors. These case h i s t o r i e s cover a wide range o f c o n d i t i o n s and magnitudes o f subsidence. O f t h e occurrences described, 1 2 a r e areas o f ground-water w i t h d r a w a l f o r use and 3 r e p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n s where ground water i s withdrawn as a s t e p i n o b t a i n i n g a resource. These a r e L a t r o b e V a l l e y , A u s t r a l i a ( w i t h d r a w a l t o p e r m i t mining brown c o a l ) , N i i g a t a , Japan ( w i t h d r a w a l t o o b t a i n n a t u r a l gas), and Wairakei, New Zealand

( w i t h d r a w a l o f h o t water f o r geothermal power).

It has been p r e p a r e d as a j o i n t e f f o r t o f t h e Working Group members.

1.3 OCCURRENCE OF SUBSIDENCE

The c h i e f source o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n areas o f l a n d subsidence due t o ground-water w i t h d r a w a l i s t h e Questionnaire on Land-Subsidence Occurrence, Research, and Remedial Work t h a t was d i s t r i - b u t e d worldwide i n 1975-78 by A. I. Johnson, t h e n P r e s i d e n t o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Commission of Subsurface Water o f IAHS. The r e s u l t s o f t h i s survey a r e b e i n g compiled f o r p u b l i c a t i o n by UNESCO and IAHS. Other sources o f d a t a a r e (1) t h e 1 5 case h i s t o r i e s i n P a r t IIo f t h i s case- book, ( 2 ) t h e Proceedings o f t h e 1 s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on Land Subsidence h e l d i n Tokyo, Japan, i n September 1969, and ( 3 ) t h e Proceedings o f t h e 2nd I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on Land Subsidence h e l d i n Anaheim, C a l i f o r n i a , i n December 1976.

Table 1.1, based o n t h e i n f o r m a t i o n l i s t e d above, summarizes i n f o r m a t i o n on 4 2 subsidence areas worldwide, o f which 18 a r e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and 1 0 a r e i n Japan ( F i g u r e 1.1).

A c t u a l l y , Japan has t h e l a r g e s t number o f s u b s i d i n g areas o f any c o u n t r y . According t o Yamamoto (1977, p. 9 and F i g u r e 2 1 , t h e number o f s u b s i d i n g areas i n Japan has reached 40 and i s s t i l l i n c r e a s i n g . Most o f t h e subsidence i s due t o ground-water w i t h d r a w a l f r o m t h i c k l y p o p u l a t e d t o p o g r a p h i c a l l y l o w areas b o r d e r i n g t h e ocean. O n l y t h e 1 0 c h i e f subsidence areas i n Japan due t o ground-water w i t h d r a w a l a r e r e p o r t e d i n Table 1.1 and shown i n F i g u r e 1.1. A l l of t h e s e b o r d e r t h e ocean.

I n terms o f v e r t i c a l magnitude, t h e s u b s i d i n g areas l i s t e d i n Table 1.1 range from r e p o r t e d minor c a s i n g p r o t r u s i o n i n Bangkok, Thailand, and 0.15 m o f subsidence i n Venice, I t a l y , t o 1 5 m i n t h e Cheshire d i s t r i c t o f Great B r i t a i n where r o c k s a l t has been mined by s o l u t i o n s i n c e Roman times. As a r e s u l t o f man-induced s i n k h o l e development i n carbonate t e r r a n e i n Alabama, we even have a r e p o r t e d maximum of 3 7 m. The a r e a l e x t e n t o f subsidence, worldwide, ranges from 1 0 km2 i n t h e San J a c i n t o V a l l e y t o 13,500 km2 i n t h e San Joaquin V a l l e y , b o t h i n C a l i f o r n i a (USA).

F i g u r e 1.2 shows t h e geographic l o c a t i o n o f t h e 1 7 areas i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ( e x c l u s i v e o f t h e Alabama s i n k h o l e a r e a ) o n a map o f conterminous U n i t e d States. Subsidence of t h e l a n d surface i n t h e 1 7 areas ranges from 0.3 m a t Savannah, Georgia t o 9 m on t h e west s i d e o f t h e San Joaquin V a l l e y (Los Banos-Kettleman C i t y a r e a ) i n C a l i f o r n i a ( F i g u r e 1.3). Subsidence exceeding 1 metre o c c u r s i n f o u r S t a t e s : Texas, Arizona, Nevada, and C a l i f o r n i a . The a r e a l e x t e n t ranges from 1 0 km2 i n San J a c i n t o V a l l e y , C a l i f o r n i a , t o 13,500 km2 i n t h e San J o a q u i n V a l l e y . C a l i f o r n i a i s t h e S t a t e r a n k i n g number one f o r t h e dubious honor o f h a v i n g t h e l a r g e s t a r e a o f subsidence--about 16,000 km2. Close b e h i n d i s Texas w i t h 12,000 km2; and A r i z o n a i s t h i r d w i t h 2,700 km2.

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Introduction

1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 .

1 . 8 . 9 . I O .

AOMORI PLAIN (AOMORI PREFECTURE) SENDAI PLAIN (MIYAGI PREFECTURE) HARANOMACHI (FUKUSHIMA PREFECTURE) NIIGATA PLAIN ( N I IGATA PREFECTURE) NANA0 (ISHIKAWA PREFECTURE)

TOKYO: SOUTHERN PART OF METROPOLITAN AREA (SAITAMA, CHIBA, TOKYO, AND KANAGAWA PREFECTURES)

PREFECTURES)

NOB1 PLAIN ( A I C H I , C I F U , AN0 M I E OSAKA (OSAKA PREFECTURE)

HYOGO (HYOGO PREFECTURE) SAGA PLAIN (SAGA PREFECTURE)

Figure 1.1 C h i e f subsidence areas i n Japan.

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Guidebook to studies of land subsidence due t o ground-water withdrawal

r l

F i g u r e 1 . 2 Areas o f land subsidence from ground-water withdrawal, USA.

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Introduction

SANTA CLARA VALLEY LOS BANOS-KETTLEMAN

CITY

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1 . 4 GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENTS OF OCCURRENCE

Subsidence due t o ground-water withdrawal develops p r i n c i p a l l y under two c o n t r a s t i n g environ- ments and mechanics. One environment i s t h a t o f carbonate rocks o v e r l a i n by unconsolidated deposits, o r o l d sinkholes f i l l e d w i t h unconsolidated deposits, t h a t r e c e i v e buoyant support from the ground-water body. When t h e water t a b l e i s lowered, the buoyant support removed, and the h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t increased, the unconsolidated m a t e r i a l may move downward i n t o openings i n the underlying carbonate rocks, sometimes causing c a t a s t r o p h i c c o l l a p s e s o f the r o o f . I n Alabama, according t o J. G. Newton (1977 and Chapter 9 . 1 1 ) , an estimated 4,000 man-induced sink- holes have formed since 1900 i n c o n t r a s t t o l e s s than 50 n a t u r a l c o l l a p s e s . I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s manmade sinkhole occurrence i s common i n carbonate t e r r a n e s from F l o r i d a t o Pennsyl- vania, numbering many thousands. The i n d i v i d u a l sinkhole area i s small, however, the diameter u s u a l l y ranging from 1 t o 100 m ( S t r i n g f i e l d and Rapp, 1 9 7 7 ) . Carbonate t e r r a n e s u s c e p t i b l e t o sinkhole formation when the water t a b l e i s lowered occurs i n many p a r t s o f t h e world. I n populated areas the formation o f sinkholes can produce a v a r i e t y of problems r e l a t e d t o the maintenance o f manmade s t r u c t u r e s and the p o l l u t i o n of water supplies. Newton discusses some o f these problems i n Chapter 9.11. The o v e r a l l subject i s broad and beyond the scope o f t h i s guidebook

.

The other environment and by f a r t h e most extensive occurrence i s t h a t o f young unconsoli- dated or semiconsolidated c l a s t i c sediments o f h i g h p o r o s i t y l a i d down i n a l l u v i a l , l a c u s t r i n e , or shallow marine environments. Almost a l l the subsiding areas included i n Table 1.1 a r e under- l a i n by semiconfined o r confined a q u i f e r systems c o n t a i n i n g a q u i f e r s o f sand and/or g r a v e l o f high p e r m e a b i l i t y and low c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y , interbedded w i t h c l a y e y a q u i t a r d s o f low v e r t i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y and high c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y under v i r g i n stresses. A l l t h e compacting d e p o s i t s were normally loaded, o r approximately so, b e f o r e man a p p l i e d stresses exceeding p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n stress. These a q u i f e r systems compact i n response t o increased e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s caused by artesian-head d e c l i n e i n the coarse-grained a q u i f e r s and time-dependent pore-pressure r e d u c t i o n i n the f i n e - g r a i n e d compressible a q u i t a r d s , causing land-surface subsidence.

O f t h e p r i n c i p a l c l a y minerals--montmorillonite, i l l i t e , and k a o l i n i t e - - m o n t m o r i l l o n i t e i s the most compressible. M o n t m o r i l l o n i t e i s t h e predominant c l a y m i n e r a l i n the compacting a q u i f e r systems i n southwestern U n i t e d S t a t e s - - C a l i f o r n i a (Meade, 1 9 6 7 ) , south-central Arizona (Poland, 1 9 6 8 ) , and Texas ( C o r l i s s and Meade, 1964)--also i n Mexico C i t y (Marsal and M a z a r i , 1 9 5 9 ) . M o n t m o r i l l o n i t e comprises 60 t o 80 per cent of t h e c l a y - m i n e r a l assemblage i n each o f these areas. I l l i t e i s the c h i e f c l a y m i n e r a l i n the T a i p e i basin (Hwang and Wu, 1 9 6 9 ) , and i n the Quaternary deposits i n Tokyo (Tokyo M e t r o p o l i t a n Govt., 1969).

Another occurrence of subsidence due t o ground-water withdrawal t h a t i s not represented i n Table 1.1 has developed a t many s i t e s i n Sweden and Norway and probably i n other g l a c i a t e d areas of s i m i l a r geologic and hydrologic environments. According t o Broms, Fredriksson, and Carlsson ( 1 9 7 7 ) , most o f the bedrock i n Sweden i s c r y s t a l l i n e rock, f a v o r a b l e f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n o f under- ground s t r u c t u r e s , e s p e c i a l l y tunnels, because of high s t r e n g t h and because loose and weathered p a r t s have been removed by the g l a c i a t i o n . A f t e r the l a t e s t g l a c i a t i o n , c l a y and s i l t were deposited on a t h i n l a y e r o f t i l l o r sand and g r a v e l r e s t i n g on t h e bedrock surface, e s p e c i a l l y i n bedrock depressions t h a t commonly a r e i n d i c a t i v e of t e c t o n i c zones deepened by the i c e . The areas covered w i t h c l a y a r e small but the urban regions a r e mostly i n these areas. Deep t u n n e l s c u t t i n g through t e c t o n i c zones a c t as d r a i n s , lowering t h e pore-water pressure f i r s t i n t h e pervious bottom l a y e r s (confined a q u i f e r s ) , and then g r a d u a l l y (over a p e r i o d of y e a r s ) i n t h e o v e r l y i n g c l a y l a y e r . Broms and o t h e r s (1977) describe damages cause by t h i s type o f Subsidence and steps t h a t can be taken t o m i t i g a t e or p r e v e n t the subsidence. They can be summarized as f o l l o w s :

1. Before t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a t u n n e l , by avoiding areas which can be a f f e c t e d by subsidence

:

2. During t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n , by p r e g r o u t i n g ;

3. A f t e r the c o n s t r u c t i o n , by g r o u t i n g , i n order t o reduce t h e leakage or by a r t i f i c i a l i n f i l t r a t i o n o f water t o m a i n t a i n t h e pore pressure i n t h e compressible l a y e r s . Moreover i t i s o f t e n p o s s i b l e t o decrease t h e subsidence i n s o f t c l a y s by p r e l o a d i n g . I t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o p r e l o a d t h e compressible l a y e r s i n advance by t e m p o r a r i l y lowering t h e ground- water l e v e l by pumping from deep w e l l s .

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1 . 5 PROBLEMS AND REMEDIAL STEPS

P r i n c i p a l problems caused by the subsidences l i s t e d i n Table 1.1 a r e (1) d i f f e r e n t i a l changes i n e l e v a t i o n and g r a d i e n t o f stream channels, d r a i n s , and water-transport s t r u c t u r e s , ( 2 ) f a i l u r e o f water-well casings due t o compressive stresses generated by compaction o f a q u i f e r systems,

( 3 ) t i d a l encroachment i n lowland c o a s t a l areas, and ( 4 ) i n areas o f i n t e n s i v e Subsidence, development o f t e n s i o n a l o r compressional s t r a i n i n engineering structures. A d d i t i o n a l d e t a i l s on problems a r e discussed i n t h e case h i s t o r i e s o f Chapter 9.

Remedial or p r o t e c t i v e measures o f some s o r t have been taken i n 10 of the 1 5 case-history areas and 30 o f the 4 2 areas l i s t e d i n Table 1.1. The various steps t h a t have been taken t o c o n t r o l or ameliorate subsidence w i l l be discussed i n Chapter 7. The methods employed and t h e r e s u l t s a t t a i n e d should be o f i n t e r e s t t o anyone facing a subsidence problem due t o w a t e r - l e v e l d e c l i n e from overpumping. I n P a r t I o f t h i s guidebook, frequent reference w i l l be made t o p e r t i n e n t case h i s t o r i e s .

1 . 6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Beyond t h e j o i n t e f f o r t s o f t h e Working Group, several people have assisted i n p r e p a r a t i o n o r review o f chapters. I n p r e p a r a t i o n o f Table 1.1, Marcel0 Lippmann a s s i s t e d by contacting c o u n t r i e s i n South America concerning p o s s i b l e subsidence. Chapter 2 reviewers included R. K . Gabrysch, R. L. I r e l a n d , A. L. Laney, H. H. Schumann, and e s p e c i a l l y F. S. R i l e y , f o r h i s many h e l p f u l suggestions. Chapter 3 was reviewed i n d e t a i l by D. C. Helm, who a l s o made a major c o n t r i b u t i o n t o Chapter 5. He i s the author o f section 5.3.6, including discussion of the depth-porosity model and t h e aquitard-drainage model. J. A. daCosta was very h e l p f u l i n e d i t o r i a l review o f s e v e r a l chapters and case h i s t o r i e s . Also, we a r e indebted t o Mrs. Margaret Farmer f o r her p a t i e n t and c a r e f u l typing and r e t y p i n g o f manuscript d r a f t s .

1.7 REFERENCES

AOKI, S. 1977. Land Subsidence i n N i i g a t a . IAHS/AISH Pub. No. 121, p. 105-112.

A O K I , S . , and MIYABE, N. 1969. Studies on p a r t i a l compaction o f s o i l l a y e r i n reference t o l a n d subsidence i n Tokyo. IAHS/AISH Pub. No. 89, p. 354-360.

AOMORI PREFECTURE. 1974. Report on water balance study i n Aomori region. Environment and H e a l t h Dept., p. 1-111 ( i n Japanese).

BERTONI, W . , CARBOGNIN, L . , GATTO, P., and M O Z Z I , G. 1973. Note i n t e r p r e t a t i v e p r e l i m i n a r i s u l l e cause d e l l a subsidenza i n a t t o a Ravenna. C.N.R., Lab. per l o Studio d e l l a Dinamica d e l l e Gradi Masse, Tech. Rept. 65, Venezia.

BEZUIDENHOUT, C. A . , and ENSLIN, J. F. 1969. Surface Subsidence and sinkholes i n the d o l o m i t i c areas o f the Far West Rand, Transvaal, Republic o f South A f r i c a ,

&

Tison, L. J., ed., Land Subsidence, V. 2. IAHS/AISH Pub. No. 89, p. 482-495.

BROMS, B. B., FREDRICKSSON, ANDERS. 1977. Land subsidence i n Sweden due t o water-leakage i n t o deep-lying tunnels and i t s e f f e c t s on pile-supported structures. IAHS/AISH Pub. No. 1 2 1 , p.

3 7 5-3 87.

BUREAU OF CONSTRUCTION, TOKYO METROPOLITAN GOVERNMENT, 1969. Land Subsidence and flood c o n t r o l measures i n Tokyo. p . 1-40.

CARBOGNIN, L., GATTO, P., M O Z Z I , G . , GAMBOLATI, G., and RICCARI, G. 1977. New trend i n t h e subsidence of Venice. IAHS/AISH Pub. No. 1 2 1 , p. 65-81.

CARBOGNIN, L . , GATTG, P., M O Z Z I , G., and GAMBOLATI, G. 1978. Land subsidence o f Ravenna and i t s s i m i l a r i t i e s w i t h the Venice case. American Soc. C i v i l Engineers, Proceedings o f Eng.

Found. Conf. on E v a l u a t i o n and P r e d i c t i o n of Subsidence, Pensacola Beach, F l o r i d a . Jan. 1978.

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Introduction

COLLINS, ^J. F. N. 1971. S a l t : A p o l i c y f o r the c o n t r o l o f s a l t e x t r a c t i o n i n Cheshire.

Chesire County Council.

COMISION HIDROLOGICA DE L A CUENCA DEL VALLEY DE Ml?XICO, SRH. 1953-70. B o l e t i n de Mecanica de Suelos d e l NGm. 1-6. Mexico.

COMISI6N DE AGUAS DEL VALLE DE M E X I C O , SRH. 1975. B o l e t i n de Mecanica de Suelos N6m. 7, 289 pp.

CORLISS, J. B . , and MEADE, R. H. 1964. Clay minerals from an area o f land subsidence i n the Houston-Galveston Bay area, Texas,

&

Geological Survey Research 1964. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 501-C, p. C79-C81.

DAVIS, G. H., COUNTS, H. B., and HOLDAHL, S . R . , 1977. Further examination o f su'bsidence a t Savannah, Georgia, 1955-1975. IAHS/AISH Pub. No. 1 2 1 , p. 347-354.

DAVIS, G. H., and ROLLO, J. R . , 1969. Land subsidence r e l a t e d t o d e c l i n e o f a r t e s i a n head a t Baton Rouge, Lower M i s s i s s i p p i V a l l e y , USA,

&

Tison, L. J., ed., Land Subsidence, V. 1.

IP.HS/AISH Pub. No. 88, p. 174-184.

EDITORIAL COMM. FOR TECHNICAL REPORT ON OSAKA LAND SUBSIDENCE. 1969. Report on land subsidence i n Osaka, p. 1-148.

ENSLIN, J. F . , KLEYWEGT, R. J., BEUKES, J. H. T., and GORDON-WELSH, J. F., 1977. A r t i f i c i a l recharge o f d o l o m i t i c ground-water compartments i n the Far West Rand gold f i e l d s o f South A f r i c a . IAHS/AISH Pub. No. 1 2 1 , p. 495-506.

GABRYSCH, R. K . , and BONNET, C. W. 1975. Land-surface subsidence i n the Houston-Galveston region, Texas. Texas Water Development Board Report 188, 19 p.

GAMBOLATI, G . , and FREEZE, R. A. 1973. Mathematical simulation o f subsidence of Venice, 1,

~~~

Theory. Water Resources Research, v. 9, no. 3, p. 721z733.

GAMBOLATI, G., GATTO, P., and FREEZE, R. A. 1974. Mathematical s i m u l a t i o n o f subsidence o f Venice, 2 , Results. Water Resources Research, v. 10, no. 3, p. 563-577.

GLOE, C. S. 1977. Land subsidence r e l a t e d t o brown c o a l open c u t operations, Latrobe V a l l e y , V i c t o r i a , A u s t r a l i a . IAHS/AISH Pub. No. 1 2 1 , p. 399-401.

HOWELL, F. T . , and JENKINS, P. L. 1977. Some aspects o f the subsidences i n the r o c k s a l t d i s t r i c t s o f Cheshire, England. IAHS/AISH Pub. No. 1 2 1 , p. 507-520.

HWANG, JUI-MING, and WU, CHIAN-MIN. 1969. Land subsidence problems i n T a i p e i Basin, & . T i s o n , L. J., ed., Land Subsidence, V. 1. IAHS/AISH Pub. No. 88, p . 21-34.

IKEBE, N., WATSU, J. I., TAKENAKA, J. 1970. Quaternary geology o f Osaka w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o land subsidence. Jour. Geosc., Osaka C i t y Univ., 1 3 , p. 39-98.

I S H I , M., KURAMOCHI, F., and ENDO, T. 1977. Recent tendencies o f t h e land subsidence i n Tokyo.

IAHS/AISH Pub. No. 121, p. 25-34.

KALMANN, R. G., and HEATH, M. M. 1968. Land subsidence r e l a t e d t o ground-water o f f t a k e i n t h e New Orleans area. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geological S o c i e t i e s Trans., v. x v i i i , p. 108-113.

KESSERÜ, ZSOLT. 1970. F e l s z i n i süllyedés v i z s z i n t s ü l l y e s z t é s k6vet-keztében (Land subsidence due t o the e f f e c t of sinking the ground-water t a b l e ) . Magyar Tudomanyos Akadémia I V : B h y a - vizvédelmi Konferenciaja, Budapest I V . Conference o f mine-drainage networks, Hungarian Academy o f Sciences, Budapest, I.a/Vol. no. 3.

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KESSERÜ, ZSOLT. 1972. Forecasting p o t e n t i a l b u i l d i n g damages due t o the e f f e c t o f sinking the underground-water t a b l e . II. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference o f Mining Geodesy, Budapest, Vol. V.

KUMAI, H., SAYAMA, M., SHIBASAKI, T., and UNO, K . 1969. Ground sinking i n S h i r o i s h i P l a i n Saga P r e f e c t u r e . IAHS/AISH Pub. No. 89, p. 645-657.

KUWAHARA, T., UESHITA, K . , and I I D A , K . 1977. Analysis o f land subsidence i n Nobi P l a i n . IAHS/AISH Pub. NO. 1 2 1 , p. 55-64.

LANEY, R. L . , RAYMOND, R. H., and WINIKKA, C. C. 1978. Maps showing water-level declines, land subsidence, and e a r t h f i s s u r e s i n south-central Arizona. U.S. Geol. Survey WRI o p e n - f i l e r e p o r t 78-83, 2 maps.

LEWIS, R. E., and MILLER, R. E. 1968. Geologic and hydrologic maps o f the southern p a r t o f Antelope V a l l e y , C a l i f o r n i a . U.S. Geol. Survey r e p o r t , 1 3 p.

LOFGREN, B. E. 1975. Land subsidence and tectonism, R a f t R i v e r V a l l e y , Idaho. U.S. Geol.

Survey o p e n - f i l e r e p o r t 75-585, 2 1 p.

LOFGREN, B. E. 1976. Land subsidence and aquifer-system compaction i n the San J a c i n t o V a l l e y , R i v e r s i d e County, California--A progress r e p o r t . U.S. Geol. Survey Journal o f Research, v.

4 , no. 1, p. 9-18.

LOFGREN, B. E., and IRELAND, R. L. 1973. Preliminary i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f land subsidence i n the Sacramento V a l l e y , C a l i f o r n i a . U.S. Geol. Survey o p e n - f i l e r e p o r t , 3 2 p.

LONGFIELD, T. E. 1932. The subsidence o f London. Ordnance Survey, P r o f . Papers, new s e r . , no. 1 4 .

McMILLAN, J. F. 1973. Land subsidence--Antelope V a l l e y area o f Los Angeles County. Dept. o f County Engineer, Survey D i v . , Los Angeles, C a l i f . , 11 p.

MALMBERG, G. T. 1964. Land subsidence i n Las Vegas V a l l e y , Nevada, 1935-63,

&

Ground-water Resources--Information Ser., Rept. 5. Nevada Dept. Conservation and N a t u r a l Resources, and U.S. Geol. Survey, 10 p.

MARSAL, RAUL J., and MAZARI, MARCOS. 1959. E l Subsuelo de l a Ciudad de Mexico. Primer Pan- americano Congres0 de Mecanica de Suelos y Cimentaciones, 614 p. (2d ed., 1969, i s b i l i n g u a l

i n Spanish and English.)

MEADE, R. H. 1967. Petrology o f sediments underlying areas o f land subsidence i n c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a . U.S. Geol. Survey P r o f . Paper 497-C, 83 p.

MINDLING, ANTHONY, 1971. A summary o f d a t a r e l a t i n g t o land subsidence i n Las Vegas V a l l e y . Nevada Univ. System, Desert Research I n s t . , Center f o r Water Resources Research, 5 5 p.

MISKOLCZI, L&ZL6. 1967. A debreceni mozgasvizgalatok geodéziai tanulsagai (Geodetic methodol- ogy o f land subsidence measurements i n Debrecen). Geodézia 6s K a r t o g r a f i a , v. 19, no. 1.

MIYABE, N. 1962. Studies i n the ground sinking i n Tokyo. Report Tokyo I n s t . C i v i l Eng., p. 1-38.

MURAKAMI, M., and TAKAHASHI, Y. 1969. Land subsidence research and r e g i o n a l water resource planning o f the Nanao Basin. IAHS/AISH Pub. No. 1 2 1 , p. 211-222.

MURAYAMA, S. 1969. Land subsidence i n Osaka. I A H A / A I S H Publ. No. 88, p. 105-130.

NAKAMACHI, N. 1977. Land subsidence i n Osaka, Japan. Society S o i l Mechanics and Foundation Eng., v. 25, no. 6, p. 61-67. ( I n Japanese)

due Guidebook

Guidebook to studies of land subsidence due to ground-water withdrawal

Prepared for the International Hydrological Programme, Working Group 8.4

Joseph F. Poland, Chairman and Editor

Preface

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Contents

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Part I Manual.

The occurrence, measurement, mechanics, prediction, and

control of subsidence

1

Hydrological Programme

Introduction, by Working Group 8.4, International

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