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Introduc)on  to  Industrial   Organiza)on  

(ECON  367)  

Izabela  Jelovac   ijelovac@udel.edu  

hBps://www.gate.cnrs.fr/spip.php?ar)cle21  

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INTRODUCTION  TO  INDUSTRIAL  ORGANIZATION  

Faculty  

Izabela  JELOVAC  

GATE  LSE  (CNRS  and  University  of  Lyon),  France   hBp://www.gate.cnrs.fr/spip.php?ar)cle21   Content  

This  course  presents  the  bases  of  the  study  of  markets.  It  departs  from  the  basic  compe))ve  market   model.  Concretely,  it  analyzes  why  and  how  firms  tend  to  avoid  the  compe))ve  model.  Different   strategies  to  do  so  are  presented  and  analyzed.  Some  very  basic  no)ons  of  Game  Theory  are   provided  in  the  Introduc)on.  The  technical  level  is  kept  low.    

References  

Cabral,  2000.  Introduc)on  to  Industrial  Organiza)on.  The  MIT  Press.  (main  reference)   Tirole,  1988.  The  Theory  of  Industrial  Organiza)on.  The  MIT  Press.  

Grading  

Final  examina)on  with  open  ques)ons  and  exercices.  

Others  

Class  material  is  sent  by  email  aber  each  class.  Students  are  given  problem  sets  to  train  the  concepts   and  ideas  of  the  course.  Office  hours  are  set  by  appointment.  

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INTRODUCTION  TO  INDUSTRIAL  ORGANIZATION  

Program  

PART  1.  INTRODUCTION   PART  2.  OLIGOPOLY  

 1.  Oligopoly  Compe))on    2.  Collusion  

PART  3.  PRICE  AND  NONPRICE  STRATEGIES    1.  Price  Discrimina)on  

 2.  Ver)cal  Rela)ons  

 3.  Product  Differen)a)on    4.  Adver)sing  

PART  4.  MARKET  STRUCTURE    1.  Entry  Deterrence  

 2.  Mergers  and  Acquisi)ons  

PART  5.  RESEARCH  AND  DEVELOPMENT  

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Part  I  

Introduc)on  

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1.1  Industrial  Organiza)on  

•  Economics  of  market  func)oning  

•  Economics  of  firms  and  markets  

•  Economics  of  imperfect  markets  

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Market?  

•  How  to  define  a  market?  

•  The  market  is  a  set  of  decentralized  exchange  decisions.  

•  Goods  are  subs)tutes.  

•  To  know  whether  two  goods  belong  to  the  same  market  or   not,  compute  their  elas)city  of  subs)tu)on.  

•  May  be  difficult.    

(7)

Market?  

•  Example:  The  pharmaceu)cal  sector.  

 Are  drugs  with  the  same  ac)ve  ingredient   subs)tutes?  

 Are  drugs  with  the  same  therapeu)c  proper)es  

subs)tutes?  

(8)

Imperfect?  

•  What  is  the  problem?  

•  See  microeconomic  theory  (welfare   theorems):  

 Under  some  condi)ons,  the  market  is  Pareto-­‐

efficient.  A  social  planner  could  not  do  any  beTer.  

(9)

Imperfect?  

•  One  such  condi)on:  

–  High  number  of  economic  agents  

  !  Perfect  compe))on,  no  market  power.    

•  Other  condi)ons:  

–  Symmetric  informa)on  

–  Private  goods  (excludable,  rivalrous)  

–  No  externali)es  

(10)

Imperfect?  

•  Example:  

–  In  the  pharmaceu)cal  sector,  prices  >>  marginal  

costs.  Is  that  a  sign  of  market  power?  Is  there  any  

good  reason  for  such  margins?  Role  of  R&D?  Role  

of  marke)ng  ac)vi)es?  Incen)ves  for  R&D?  Public  

interven)on?  

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4  ques)ons  

•  Is  there  market  power?  

•  What  are  the  implica)ons  of  market  power?  

•  How  do  firms  acquire  and  maintain  market   power?  

•  Is  there  a  role  for  public  policy  regarding  market  

power?  

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1.2  Microeconomics  –  a  reminder  

•  To  answer  the  ques)ons:  

–  What  is  the  problem?  

–  What  are  the  implica)ons  of  market  power?  

•  2  extreme  cases:  

–  Perfect  compe))on  

–  Monopoly  

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Nota)on  

•  n  stands  for  the  number  of  firms  in  a  market  

•  p  or  P  stand  for  price  

•  q  or  Q  stand  for  quan)ty  (q  for  individual  qty  and  Q  for  market  qty)  

•  Generally,    

•  Demand:  Q(P)  or  D(P)  or  inverse  demand  P(Q)  

•  Costs  func)on:  c(Q)  

•  For  simplicity,  we  oben  use  here  linear  demand  and  costs  func)on:  

Q = q

i

i=1 n

P(Q ) = abQ

c(q) = cq

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Perfect  compe))on  

•  Many  sellers,  sufficiently  small  so  as  to  be   price  takers  

•  Homogeneous  good  

•  Price  =  Marginal  Cost  

Max q

i

Pq icq iq i such that P = c

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Perfect  compe))on  

P  

Q  

Demand  

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Perfect  compe))on  

P  

Q

C

    Q  

c  (Marginal  Cost)  

E

C

   

(17)

Perfect  compe))on  

P  

Q

C

    Q  

c  (Marginal  Cost)  

P

C

  E

C

   

(18)

Perfect  compe))on  

•  Producer  surplus  =  0  

P  

Q

C

    Q  

c   Consumer  surplus  

P

C

  E

C

   

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Monopoly  

•  One  single  firm  decides  its  price,  considering   the  demand  rela)onship,  Q  =  D(P).  

•  Price  is  such  that  Marginal  Cost  =  Marginal  

Revenue  

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Monopoly  

Formally:  

Max Q Q.P ( Q ) − c. Q FOC :

P (Q) + Q. P ( ʹ′ Q ) − c = 0

MR = MC

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Monopoly  

Formally:  

Max Q Q.P ( Q ) − c. Q FOC :

P (Q) + Q. P ( ʹ′ Q ) − c = 0

MR = MC

Max P P.D (P ) − c.D(P )

FOC :

D( P ) + ( Pc). D (P ʹ′ ) = 0

Pc

P = 1 ε

Inverse  elas)city  rule  

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Monopoly  

P  

Q

C

    Q  

P

C

  E

C

    c  

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Monopoly  

P  

Q

C

    Q  

P

C

  E

C

    c  

Marginal  revenue  

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Monopoly  

P  

Q

C

    Q  

P

C

  E

C

    c  

Marginal  revenue  

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Monopoly  

P  

Q

C

    Q  

P

C

  E

C

    c  

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Monopoly  

P  

Q

C

    Q  

P

C

  E

C

    c  

Q

M

 

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Monopoly  

P  

Q

C

    Q  

P

C

  E

C

    c  

Q

M

 

P

M

  E

M

 

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Monopoly  

P  

Q

C

    Q  

P

C

  E

C

    c  

Q

M

  P

M

 

Consumer  Surplus  

E

M

 

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Monopoly  

P  

Q

C

    Q  

P

C

  E

C

    c  

Q

M

 

P

M

  E

M

  Producer  Surplus  

(30)

Monopoly  

P  

Q

C

    Q  

P

C

  E

C

    c  

Q

M

  P

M

 

Dead  Weight  Loss  

E

M

 

(31)

Monopoly  

P  

Q

C

    Q  

P

C

  E

C

    c  

Q

M

  P

M

 

Dead  Weight  Loss  

E

M

 

(32)

Monopoly  

P  

Q

C

    Q  

P

C

  E

C

    c  

Q

M

 

P

M

  A   E

M

 

B   C  

(33)

To  sum  up  

E

C

    E

M

 

Consumer  surplus   A  +  B  +  C   A  

Producer  surplus   0   B  

Total  welfare   A  +  B  +  C   A  +  B  

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To  sum  up  

•   In  a  monopoly,  B  is  transferred  from  consumers  to   producers  

–  Producers  are  beBer  off  with  market  power   –  What  strategies  to  acquire  market  power?  

•  Loss  of  C  is  not  compensated  

–  Efficiency  loss  (imagine  a  lower  price)   –  Dead  weight  loss  

–  Worth  for  any  price  above  marginal  cost,  even  if  in  a  lower  

extend  

(35)

Example  

•  In  the  pharmaceu)cal  sector  

 P  >>  MC  =  0  

 Dead  weight  loss?  

 Consumers  do  not  pay  P  

 Demand  is  not  D(P)  

(36)

Other  implica)ons  of  market  power  

•  Poten)ally,  a  redistribu)ve  issue  because  of  the   transfer  of  B  

•  Costly  to  acquire  market  power  

•  Loss  of  produc)ve  efficiency  (no  pressure  on   costs)  

•  Natural  monopoly  (economies  of  scale:  average  

costs  are  decreasing  in  quan)ty)  

(37)

1.3  Market  concentra)on  and  market   power  

•   Measures  of  market  concentra)on  and  market  power  

–  to  measure  in  a  simplified  way  how  far  a  market  is  from   perfect  compe))on  or  from  monopoly  

•   In  a  market  with  symmetric  firms  

–  market  power  is  measured  by  (p  –  MC)  or  by  (p  –  MC)/p   –  market  concentra)on  is  measured  by  1/n  

–  where  n  is  the  number  of  firms  in  the  market    

(38)

1.3  Market  concentra)on  and  market   power  

•   If  firms  are  asymmetric  (in  costs,  for  example),  we  need   more  sophis)cated  indexes  

•  3  important  indexes:  

–  Lerner  index  

–  Coefficient  C M  

–  Herfindahl  index  

(39)

1.3  Market  power  and  market   concentra)on    

•  Lerner  index:  

–  where  s i  is  firms  i’s  market  share:    

–  The  Lerner  index  L  measures  market  power  

Ls

i

pMC

i

i=1

p

n

s

i

= q

i

q

i

i=1 n

(40)

1.3  Market  power  and  market   concentra)on    

•  The  coefficient  C M :  

–  It  is  the  sum  of  the  market  shares  of  the  m  largest   firms  (firms  are  ranked  according  to  size)  

–  It  measures  market  concentra)on   –  It  varies  between  ...  

C

m

s

i

i=1 m

(41)

1.3  Market  power  and  market   concentra)on    

•  The  Herfindahl  index:  

–  It  is  the  sum  of  the  market  shares  of  the  m  largest   firms  

–  It  measures  market  concentra)on  

–  It  varies  between  ...  (oben  mul)plied  by  10,000)  

Hs

i2

i=1 n

(42)

1.4  Historical  perspec)ve  

•   Since  the  70s’,  IO  focuses  on  strategic  interac)ons  

–  How  to  model  strategic  interac)on  within  a  market?  

–  What  are  the  implica)ons  of  strategic  interac)ons  on  the   market  equilibrium  (price  and  quan))es)?  

–  What  strategies,  other  than  price  and/or  quan))es,  are   available?  Marke)ng,  differen)a)on,  R&D,  collusions...  

How  does  that  work?  

–  Use  of  game  theory  to  model  strategic  interac)ons  

(43)

1.4  Historical  perspec)ve  

•  Before  the  70s’,  IO  was  more  descrip)ve  

–  STRUCTURE  –  CONDUCT  –  RESULTS  paradigm  

–  The  idea  is  that  each  sector  is  characterized  by  these  3   elements,  interac)ng  with  each  other  and  depending   on  other  exogenous  elements  

–  Econometric  regressions  between  Structure,  Conduct,   Results  and  exogenous  variables  to  find  some  

regulari)es.  

(44)

1.4  Historical  perspec)ve  

•  Structure  

–  Number  of  firms  in  a  market   –  Rela)ve  size  of  firms  

–  Degree  of  concentra)on   –  Degree  of  differen)a)on   –  Entry  condi)ons  

•  Conduct  

–  Price/quan)ty  compe))on   –  Marke)ng  ac)vi)es  

–  R&D  

•  Results  

–  Efficiency  

–  Surplus  sharing  between   consumers  and  producers   –  New  products  

•  Exogenous  condi)ons  

–  Determinants  of  the  demand   (of  the  elas)city)  

–  Technology  (economies  of   scale)  

–  Regula)on  

(45)

1.5  Basics  of  Game  Theory  

•   Game  theory  is  

–  The  formal  study  of  strategic  rela)onships  between  agents   (individuals,  countries,  firms,  armies,  ...)  

•  A  game  is  

–  A  set  of  players  

–  A  set  of  possible  strategies  for  each  player  

–  A  set  of  payoff  func)ons  for  each  player  

–  A  set  of  rules  (who  do  what  when)  

(46)

Example  1  

•  Rule:  

–  Each  player  chooses  his  strategy  independently  from  the  other   player  (simultaneity  or  asymmetric  informa)on)  

•  No)ce:  

–  Each  player’s  payoff  does  not  depend  on  his  own  strategy  only.  

Player  2  

Player  1  

c   d  

a   b  

(3;  0)   (4;  2)  

(1;  -­‐1)  

(-­‐2;  1)  

(47)

•  Posi)ve  rather  than  norma)ve:  

–  What  behaviors  should  we  expect  from  ra)onal   agents  in  a  situa)on  where  all  interact?  

•  Solu)on  concept:  

–  Gives  the  set  of  strategies  that  corresponds  to  the  

expected  choice  from  ra)onal  agents  

(48)

•  Nash  Equilibrium  

–  This  solu)on  concept  is  the  most  widely  used    

–  “A  vector  of  strategies  cons)tute  a  Nash  equilibrium  if   no  player  can  unilaterally  change  its  strategy  in  a  way   that  improves  its  payoff”  

–  It  is  also  called  Cournot-­‐Nash  equilibrium  or  strategic  

equilibrium  

(49)

Example  1  

•  Best  reply  –  Intersec)on  of  best  replies  

–  See  example  1  

•  Dominant  strategy  –  Dominated  strategy  

–  See  examples  1  and  2  

Player  2  

Player  1  

c   d  

a   b  

(3;  0)   (4;  2)  

(1;  -­‐1)  

(-­‐2;  1)  

(50)

Example  1  

•  Best  reply  –  Intersec)on  of  best  replies  

–  See  example  1  

•  Dominant  strategy  –  Dominated  strategy  

–  See  examples  1  and  2  

Player  2  

Player  1  

c   d  

a   b  

(3;  0)   (4;  2)  

(1;  -­‐1)  

(-­‐2;  1)  

(51)

Example  1  

•  Best  reply  –  Intersec)on  of  best  replies  

–  See  example  1  

•  Dominant  strategy  –  Dominated  strategy  

–  See  examples  1  and  2  

Player  2  

Player  1  

c   d  

a   b  

(3;  0)   (4;  2)  

(1;  -­‐1)  

(-­‐2;  1)  

(52)

Example  1  

•  Best  reply  –  IntersecIon  of  best  replies  

–  See  example  1  

•  Dominant  strategy  –  Dominated  strategy  

–  See  examples  1  and  2  

Player  2  

Player  1  

c   d  

a   b  

(3;  0)   (4;  2)  

(1;  -­‐1)  

(-­‐2;  1)  

(53)

Example  1  

•  Best  reply  –  IntersecIon  of  best  replies  

–  See  example  1  

•  Dominant  strategy  –  Dominated  strategy  

–  See  examples  1  and  2  

Player  2  

Player  1  

c   d  

a   b  

(3;  0)   (4;  2)  

(1;  -­‐1)  

(-­‐2;  1)  

(54)

Example  1  

•  Best  reply  –  Intersec)on  of  best  replies  

–  See  example  1  

•  Dominant  strategy  –  Dominated  strategy  

–  See  examples  1  and  2  

Player  2  

Player  1  

c   d  

a   b  

(3;  0)   (4;  2)  

(1;  -­‐1)  

(-­‐2;  1)  

(55)

Example  2  

•  Best  reply  –  Intersec)on  of  best  replies  

–  See  example  1  

•  Dominant  strategy  –  Dominated  strategy  

–  See  examples  1  and  2  

Player  2  

Player  1  

L   C  

H   M  

(2;  1)   (1;  1)  

(2;  2)   (1;  1)  

R   (0;  3)   (1;  1)   (2;  2)   (0;  0)  

(0;  1)  

L  

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Example  3  

•  Mul)ple  Nash  Equilibria  

–  See  example  3  

•  Simultaneity  /  Sequen)ality  (Backwards  Induc)on)  /  First-­‐Mover   advantage  

–  See  example  3  

Player  2  

Player  1  

c   d  

a   b  

(3;  0)   (4;  2)  

(1;  -­‐1)  

(-­‐2;  1)  

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The  Prisoners’  Dilemma  

 Two  members  of  a  criminal  gang  are  arrested  and  imprisoned.  Each   prisoner  is  in  solitary  confinement  with  no  means  of  

communica)ng  with  the  other.  The  police  admit  they  don't  have   enough  evidence  to  convict  the  pair  on  the  principal  charge.  They   plan  to  sentence  both  to  a  year  in  prison  on  a  lesser  charge.  

Simultaneously,  the  police  offer  each  prisoner  a  Faus)an  bargain.  

Each  prisoner  is  given  the  opportunity  either  to  betray  the  other,  by   tes)fying  that  the  other  commiBed  the  crime,  or  to  cooperate  with   the  other  by  remaining  silent.  (adapted  from  Wikipedia)  

Player  2  

Player  1  

D   C  

D   C  

(-­‐2;  -­‐2)   (-­‐3;  0)  

(0;  -­‐3)  

(-­‐1;  -­‐1)  

(58)

The  Prisoners’  Dilemma  

•  Dominant  strategy?  

•  Nash  Equilibrium  versus  Pareto  Op)mum  

Player  2  

Player  1  

D   C  

D   C  

(-­‐2;  -­‐2)   (-­‐3;  0)  

(0;  -­‐3)  

(-­‐1;  -­‐1)  

Références

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