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United Nations {~\
Economic Commission for Africa ~
Endogenous Capacity Building in Science and Technology in Africa
Natural Resources Division Science and Technology Section August 1993
August 199~
UNITED NATIONS
ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA
• • • • • • • •
b~O UN (6)
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Foreword
African countries lag behind in socio-economic development mainly because of the low contribution of science and technology to this development. Hence the necessity to strengthen endogenous science and technology capacity at the national and regional levels in order to foster development.
This document puts together unpublished papers prepared at the Science and Tech- nology Section of ECA which can be useful in this endeavour. The papers cover a wide range of issues related to science and technology capacity building and it is felt that they could be of interest to science and technology policy makers in Africa, as well as to those working in this area.
The issues discussed include science and technology at the secondary level, such as the production of science equipment, and at the university level, such as training programmes, continuing edl..cation, resources requirement and teaching materials.
Research and development problems and priorities are emphasized as well as pro- mising fields of work of particular significance to African countries. The possible impacts of some new and emerging technologies on African economies are also out- lined, specially those in the fields of new materials and biotechnologies which affect the value of traditional commodities.
A special attention is paid to rural technologies, such as processing and storage tech- nologies of roots, tubers and cereals. These technologies must be improved if Africa is to eradicate its growing food deficit.
The document contains a comprehensive review of science and technology policies in Africa, including interpretation of S & T, objectives, structures and mechanisms, funding, planning, political will, cooperation. Various approaches to the integration of modem science and technology into traditional African culture can be found. such as encouraging girls to take science, rural and urban youth science clubs, radio and TV programmes, exhibitions, competitions and prizes. Some challenges in the management of S & T are explored such as linking Africa to the world technolo- gical complex. creating a climate conducive to technological development. making research and development effort more productive and making the best use of foreign technologies. A review of laws which govern patents in Africa is also included.
It is hoped that the document will contribute to a better understanding of the multi- faceted issues that science and technology policy makers are confronted with and to more appropriate science and technology policies in Africa.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the individual authors and are not necessarily those of the United Nations.
CONTENTS
Foreword
DEVELOP:MENT OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES FROM ENDOGENOUS R AND D IN AFRICA
Summary .
1. INTRODUCTION~ THE GLOBAL VIEW
II. THE AFRICAN SCENE AND THE LAGOS PLAN OF ACTION
IIi.
POSSIBLE IMPACT OF SOME NEW TECHNOLOGIES ON SOME AFRICAN ECONOMIESIV: ENDOGENOUS R&D, LIMrrATIONS AND SCOPES V. fR,OMISING FIELDS OF WORK FOR R&D
A·... Biotechnology.
B. Biotechnological control of pests C. Fanning systems research D. Animal husbandry E. Human health . F. Microelectronics
G. New materials technology H. New energy technologies L Remote sensing technologies VI. CONCLUSION
Annex: Developing country microprocessor applications References
LOCAL PRODUCTION OF SCHOOL SCIENCE EQUIPMENT IN SELECTED AFRICAN COUNTRIES Abstract .
Acknowledgement 1.. INTRODUCTION
A. The Monrovia Declaration and the Lagos Plan of Action B. . The education problems C. Low-cost equipment D. Constraints
1 2 2 4 4 6 6 8 9 9 9 10 II 11 12 13 15
• 20
23 23 24 24
26
27 28 29
II.
III.
IV.
v.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
E. Local production centres F. The study
TERMS OF REFERENCE
[MPLICATIONS, PURPOSE AND LIMITATIONS OF MISSION
CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT OF LOW-COST SCIENCE TEACHING EQUIPMENT
INVENTORY OF PRODUCTION CENTRES Manpower layout
POLICIES, PLANS AND PROBLEMS OF LOW-COST SCHOOL SCIENCE EQUIPMENT PRODUCTION A. Problems.
B. Marketing
C. Policies on production D. Source of raw maleria~s
E. International coordination centres RECOMMENDATIONS
CONCLUSION Bibliography
29 30 31 31 33 34 36 37 37 38 38 39 40 41 42 43 STRENGTHENING AND EXPANSION OF SCIENCE
AND TECHNOLOGY AT UNIVERSITY LEVEL 47
Summary. 47
1. SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY KUMASI, GHANA 47
A. Introduction 47
B. Objectives of the School of Engineering 49
C. Present state and conditions of the
School of Engineering 52
D. Development plan and growth prospects 58
II. FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF DAR-ES-SALAAM,
DAR-ES-SALAAM, UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA 64
A. Introduction 64
B. Objectives of the Faculty of Engineering 65
C. Present state and conditions of the
Faculty of Engineering 67
D. Development plan and growth proSpect8 72
Ill. FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY, ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY ADDiS ABABA, ETHIOPIA
A. Introduction
B. Objectives of the Faculty of Technology.
C. Present state and conditions of the Faculty of Technology
D. Development plan and growth prospects Bibliography
RURAL TECHNOLOGIES FOR FOOD PROCESSING AND STORAGE OF AFRICAN TUBERS
AND
CEREALS1.
II.
III.
INTRODUCTION
ROOTS AND TUBERS PROCESSING AND STORAGE IN AFRICAN COUNTRIES .
A. Storage and processing of some main roots _and tubers
B. Conclusions and recommendations . CEREALS STORAGE AND PROCESSING IN AFRICAN COUNTRIES
A. Grain storage structures B. Cereals processing References
REVIEW OF LAWS WHICH GOVERN PATENTS IN AFRICA.
1.
II.
III.
IV.
INTRODUCTION THE PATENT SYSTEM
Patent and utility model
PATENT LEGISLATION IN SOME SELECTED AFRICAN COUNTRIES
A. Introduction
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AN EFFECTIVE PATENT SYSTEM IN AFRICA
References
75 75 77 83 90 97
99 99 99 :01
112 1}2 ,16 119
~21
121 121 122 123 123 129 134
AN OVERVIE\V OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY IN AFRICA
I. INTRODucrlON
11. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY FRAMEWORK AND INTERPRETATION
III. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY DECLARATION AT THE REGIONAL LEVEL
IV.
OBJECTIVES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICIESV.
STRUcrURES AND MECHANISMS FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY-MAKING BODIES IN AFRICAVI.
CATEGORIZATION OF COUNTRIES IN THE AFRICAN REGIONVII.
DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYVIII.
FUNDING OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYIX. MAN AGEMENT OF HUMAN S&T RESOURCES
X.
MEASURES TO PROMOTE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENTXL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY PLANNING
XII. COOPERATION IN THE FIELD OF S&T IN AFRICA
XIII. POLICIES AND POLITICAL WILL
XIV.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE ACTIONReferences
APPROACHES TO THE INTEGRATION OF MODERN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY INTO TRADITIONAL AFRICAN CULTURE .
I.
II.
INTRODUCTION
A. The changing African cultural scene B. Approaches to integration
THE DE-MYSTIFICATION OF SCmNCE AND TECHNOLOGY •
A. Primary and secondary school level B. Use of local language
C. Encouraging girl~ to take science
..
U7
137 137 138 140 142 145 147 148 149
ISO ISO
153 154 155 158161 161 162 162 163 163 164 164
llI. UNIVERSITY EDUCATION AND RESEARCH ON TRADmONAL SCmNCE AND TECHNOLOGY A. Rural and urban youth science clubs B. Radio and TV programmes
C. Exhibitions, competitions and prizes D. Community centres and village councils E. Songs, folklore and plays
F. Dress and behaviour G. Food habits
·IV. POLITICAL PATRONAGE .
.
V.
C-oNCLUSION • ReferencesSCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT IN AFRICAN COUNTRlES: SOME
TREMENDOUSCHALLENGES.
Abstract I.
II.
III.
IV.
INTRODUCTION
FIRST CHALLENGE: LINKING AFRICA TO THE WORLD TECHNOLOGICAL COMPLEX • SECOND CHALLENGE: CREATING A CLIMATE GONDUCIVE TO TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT THIRD CHALLENGE: MAKING "MENTAL PROGRAMMES" RECEPTIVE TO S&T
V. FOURTH CHALLENGE: ·MAKING RESEARCH AND
VI.
VII.
DEVELOPMENT EFFORTS MORE PRODUCTIVE FIFrH CHALLENGE: MAKING THE BEST US~
OFFO~GNTECHNOLOG~
CONCLUSION Bibliography .
165 166 167 168 169 169 170 170 171 172 173
175 175.
175 176 178 179 180 182 183 185
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL FACTORS ON AFRICAN COMMODITY AND
POSSmLE'POLICY OPfIONS . I. IN'rR.ODUCTloN
II. TEcHNOLOGICAL CAPACITY AND COMPEm10N ON THE WORLD MARICET FOR TRADrnoNAL COMMODITIES •
Competitive technologies III. POUCY omONS
•
IV. CONCLUSION , Bibliography.
187 187
187 189 195 196 198
DEVELOPMENT OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES FROM ENDOGENOUS R&D IN AFRICA •
S. Jugessur
SUMMARY
The advent of new technologies offers a challenge to African nations who are forced to reckon \:Vith them as they are rapidly encroaching into their life-styles.
and affecting their economies. Some of them have positive impacts. while others negative, and there is an urgent need for member States to establish sound policies and strategies for coping with these new technologies, or reorient their existing poli- cies and strategies to capitalize on them.
The absence of national governmental machineries for coordinating scien- tific and technological activities in many member States has profound repercussions on the nature and orientation of the research and development being undertaken in these countries. Such machineries like national commissions for science and techno- logy can go a long way in giving a sound base and orientation to the importation.
adaptation. development and transfer of technologies that can change the face of development. Appropriate endogenous capabilities for coping with these can be attained in a more systematic and coordinated way.
Since Africa is basically an agricultural dependent continent, the major con- tribution to its development will come from the findings and applications of biotech- nology. with its role in the development of new plant species that are climatically more adaptable, and that can produce their own food by fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. Biotechnology also finds its applications in the production of single cell proteins that can supplement existing scarcely available protein, in the control of pests. in animal husbandry and in human health improvement. The production of vaccines, drugs and many antibiotics is a real possibility. with minimal capital investment.
Microelectronics. new materials technology. new energy technologies and remote sensing technologies are some of the other new technologies that can be exploited to great advantage in accelerating the pace of socio-economic development.
But the application of these technologies requires indigenous research and develop- ment of a great measure. and this is possible only if governments are fully com- mitted to a proper development plan 'where both public and private sectors have significant roles to play. and where the indigenous research and development
• Courteay -AR.CT Seminar on Technology Transfer\ Freetown, ARCT.
community realize that the welfare of their people lies more on their own efforts than on continued dependence on external support.
I.
INTRODUCTION: THE GLOBAL VIEWRapid technological chaDges are affecting the wiorld econoaUc situation and because of interdependence of the global economic ~d political system, both developed and developing countries are affected by these changes. While developed countries, where these technological changes originatc~, are using them to their advantage, developing countries are often negatively aff~ by these technological advances in the sense that their economy. mostly dependent on the export of raw materials or on the provision of cheap labour, cannot COI~ with the changes that are meant to improve the situation in developed countries.
The time lag for the advent of a new product and
process
in developed countries is getting very short, and developing countries which are affected by these technological advances have very little time to prepare thc;~mselves agAinst their nega- tive impacts on their economies. The flow of information is very o'ften poor, slow and disoraanized. . An early warning system that could alert these countries in aood time, before even the marketing of the products and processes, can ao a long way reducing the bavoc tbat these advances can cause to their economies. At the same time. some of the developments can be used to advantag<:~, provided timely informa- tioa is available to these countries.ll. THE AFRICAN SCENE AND THE LAGOS PLAN OF ACTION
The development of most of the new technologies is
takin,
place outside Africa, in the developed market--economy countries, where established facilities for research and development, both in the public and private se<;tors, are being encouraged to produce goods and services that cater for local needs. Endogenous research and development in Africa, on the other ~and, has lagged far behind, because the colonial structures that have been inherent were meant to supply infor- mation and technical intelligence to the masters who would direct policies from abroad. During the post-colonial period, research and development, wherever this continued, had little government backing in terms of resources and additional infra- structure, and technological development was way down in the list of priorities of member States. Some countries had the negative policy of relying on R&D done overseas and in trying to adapt them to local needs, wherever possible. Thus endogenous R&Q was paid lip service and the situation hardly improved.The African Heads of State. at a meeting of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1980, made bold statements concerning technological development and the need for collective self-sustained and self-reliant economic growth. The blueprint for such development is contained in the famous "Lagos Plan of Action", (1) where the chapter on science and technology is all comprehensive. At a time when Africa is facing immense economic difficulties, the important goals set in the La,os Plan of Action become all the more appealing and pressing, however difficult they may be to achieve. In a continent where millions of people are affected by famine, drought, desertification and extreme hardships due to balance-of-payment problems, the development of technologies that can alleviate the situation is hardly questionable, for problems of immediate survival are to be tackled. New tecbnolo:- gies developed both indigenously and in foreign countries do offer a ray of hope for rapid improvement of the critical situation in Africa. Success stories in other developing countries can serve as example, and such technologies can be developed locally and made accessible to the vast mass striving for survival. The new techno- logies that seem particularly relevant for integration into traditional technologies are be given high priority in this venture. At the same time, the building up of indi- genous capabilities is an essential condition for the development and application of such new technologies in African countries. The absence of skilled and experienced manpower, the lack of proper maintenance and repair facilities, the shortage of imported materials and machinery only complement the hardships that hamper tech- nological development.
Africa is rich in natural reSOUfC.e8, but the industrial processing of the raw
materials is far below the required level that can generate resources to improve the living standards of the people. Africa is also endowed with an abundance of new and renewable sources of energy. but very little is being tapped. Thirty-five per cent of the world's potential hydropower is to be found in Africa, but only 1.5 per cent is currently being exploited. (2) There are vast reserves of mineral resources and Africa as a whole produces more than 50 per cent of the world's gold and over 72 per cent of the world's diamond. (3) Most of the minerals are exported as raw materials to developed countries. Still, Africa does not produce enough agricultural commodities to feed itself. Export-oriented agricultural policies have not proved to be effective after the African nations became independent but kept their dependence on transnational corporations. The role of these corporations in helping to improve the economies of the developing nations has been very limited indeed.
m.
PoSSIBLE IMPACT OF SOME NEW TECHNOLOGIES ON SOME AFRICAN ECONOMIESThough the development of most of the new te:c.hnologies in industrialized countries has been motivated by local concerns of mate:rials substitution and hence
l~ dependence on raw materials and cheap labour from developing countries, Africa still bas to reckon with their possible impacts on its economy. Since Africa depends primarily for its export earnings on the primary commodities, the sure and certain erosion of its position in international trade in decades ahead can be cata- strophic. When an acceptable substitute is available in the importing country, the bargaining power of the exporting country is either reduced or minimized. That is why rapid tec~ologica1 advances in fields like micro-electronics, biotechnology, materials technology, new energy technologies, and remote-sensing, that are advan- tageouS to the developed economies, are likely to have negative consequences on the developing countries. unless they are foreseen in time, and used to advantage, where possible. by the developing economies.
Thus micro-electronics and robotics are fast displacing easily available and cbeap human labour in the labour-intensive manufacturing sectors in African coun- tries. These are being forced to mechanization and automation in order to be able to keep up on the world competitive markets. The textile industries that have been implanted by multinationals in many developing countries are likely to be hit very hard by tbis new technology. Similarly in the field of biotechnology, the develop- ment of high fructose com sweeteners and cyclamates that are used as substitutes for cane and beet sugars is affecting the world sugar market. Naturally, countries that rely beavily on the export of sugar have to reorient their agricultural strategy.
In the same field. the production on a commercial scale, through tissue culture tech- nology using in-vitrobio synthesis, of pyrethrum in Japan is bound to displace large- scale cultivation of such medicinal plant in Kenya. In the field of materials techno- logy, the development aftd use of glass fibre optics in advanced communication tech- niques are minimizing the use of copper as a material for communication cables, and cable manufacturers in Zambia have to diversify their industries. In the field of new energy technologies, Africa can claim to have a great potential for harnessing the
SUD, wind, geo-thennal and biomass energies. Deve14:>ped countries are already reducing their reliance on mineral oils for their energy requirements and it is up to African countries to capitalize on these new developments.
IV. ENDOGENOUS R&D, LIMITATIONS AND SCOPES
Endogenous research and development in Africa has definitely not been riven the priority it deserves. To start with, governments have generally relied
more on foreign know-huw and expertise and thereby almost sti fled the growth of indigenous enterprise. Over the past couple of decades, a few research and develop- ment institutions have actually taken birth on the continent, but unfortunately most of them rely heavily on foreign resources input for their subsistence. National con- tributions to these R&D enterprises have been minimal. This is evident from the fact that the goal set in the Lagos Plan of Action that every African member State should devote up to one per cent of its gross domestic product to the development of science and technology has not been achieved in the majority of the member States. Few countries realize the primordial role that science and technology play in the development process, and thus their commitment to the development of an endogenous science and technology base has been lacking.
The dearth of financial resources has led to the concomitant lack of infra- structure and to the problem of brain-drain. African scientists and technologists. not finding the right atmosphere at home, are easily tempted to migrate to better climes where they can fulfil their roles as researchers and developers in a more satisfying way.
In spite of the many limitations to research and development, there is definitely scope for enhancing its role in coping with the development problems.
Scientists and engineers have to make the best use of the limited resources by chan- nelling them to key sectors that can contribute rapidly in solving pressing problems.
Policy makers have the arduous task of establishing priorities. In so doing, very often one does not know where to start. There is an interrelationship between tech- nological growth and available resources. (4) While there is some minimum of resources necessary for economic growth. the more a country grows technologically, the less it needs resources. since it gains capacity to substitute labour and especially capital for them. Thus there is the need for coordination and pJanning of scientific and technological activities, and hence the necessity of having, at the national level, a high-level national machinery or organ like a Science and Technology Commission that can give the necessary direction to development, and set the national policies required for the same.
So far the research carried out in most governmental institutions and uni- versities have had very little practical relevance to development issues and the link between the .labor~tory and the industry has been total_Iy absent. Even the link between the researcher and the peasant farmer in the case of agricultural research has been very poor. Thus, faced with a lack of demand for their services, research institutes, universities and supporting organizations developed a logic of their own, paid lip service to the (relevant) character of their activities. and demanded an ever- increasing share of government allocations to fmance their expansion. (5) This
naturally could not receive the necessary support. All these and many other problems associated with research and development can be resolved to a great extent by the proper functioninl of national commissions for science and technology. Such
commissions~ besides ensuring that basic infrastructures are improved and thus retain budding scientists and technologists, can also foster subregional, regional and interregional cooperation in research and development. Such cooperation is an essential feature of the interdependence of technology and information flows between partners in a development process.
V. PROMISING FIELDS OF WORK FOR R&D
Bearing in mind the present critical situation in Africa and possible develop- ments in the years ahead, now technologies that are spt~ially relevant for research and development are in the following fields:
(a) Biotechnology. biogenetic engineering. including tissue culture, cell fusion, cloning. production of singly cell proteins, val:cines, hormones and anti·
biotics;
(b) New materials technology;
(c) Micro-electronics, telecommunications and infonnation;
(d) New energy technologies;
(e) Remote sensing.
We shall attempt to analyse each of these fields and show how endogenous research and development can go a long way in alleviating the critical situation in Africa.
A. Biotechnology
Biotechnology is the application of micro-organism. plant and animal cells, or simply the application of biological systems to the manufacturing industry and microbiological process. (6) As a multidisciplinary field, its applications extend to the domains of chemistry. pharmaceutical,
food,
genetics and medicine, and as such its potentials are enormous. Its range extends from simple traditional crafts such as baking, brewing and cheese-making to the most extravagant scientific techno- logiesm
genetic engineering and has a potential for being integrated with traditional,j
technologies or for being specifically developed for higher efficiency in traditional rural production. (7)
Agricultural production, which is a sore point in the African food self-suffi- ciency programm~, is the main area where research, development and application of findings in biotechnology have the highest potential. Techniques of tissue cui..:
ture, cell fusion and cloning, which have heen applied with success in some coun- tries, can be \Lc:ed to improve yields of several crops like cereals, fruits and vege- tables. Oil-bearing seeds, palm and coconut trees, tubers" cash crops like coffee, tea, tobacco, sugar, bananas, spices like turmeric, ginger and cardamom, medical, aromatic and decorative tropical plants, all can have tloth their quality and quantity of ~utput highly increasoo by applying the above techniques. In tissue culture tech- niques, plant cells or tissues are isolated and grown under sterile laboratory condi- tions in test tubes or petri dishes containing specific culture media to produce whole plants. Under the right conditions, any cell or tissue of a plant can produce another whole plant. Agricultural institutes of research in African countries have to devote resources urgently to research and development in this field, for the new technolo- gies mentioned do not require high capital investments and are not difficult-to master.
As regards the quality of the products. their food value can be increa..~ed
with additional protein content and elimina.lion of toxins by pure cultures in the place of wild fermentation processes. Sorghum, maize and millet which are' fer- mented into sour beers, porridge and dumplings, can be converted by controlled fer- mentation procedures into products of higher multinational vatue. Sudanese merissa (a beer) and kissra (pancake). Ethiopian talla (beer) and ingera (pancake), Nigerian pito (heer) and ogi (porridge) and Ghanian koko and gari (porridge), and kenkey (dumpling), are a few among the many traditional foods that deserve to be improved by biotechnological methods. Research work in this field is already going on al Leeds University, England, and collaborative programmes are to be encouraged. (8) Tissue culture technologies can also improve both agricultural and- phanna- ceutical_ production. The breeding of plants with marked adaptation to fragile environment due to high salt or alkaline soil content and low humidity is possible by this new technology. New species of plants resistant to pests and diseases, mak- ing efficient use of energy and biological fixation of nitrogen, can also be produced by this method. Fast-growing trees that can combat desertification are already being grown in many countries. Here. again there is ample scope for research and development in Africa. Since facilities needed for tissue culture are relatively simple and similar to other biology and chemistry laboratory equipment and training is available in many countries.
Biologicalfixation of atmospheric nitrogen in different crops will eliminate the need for costly chemical fertilizers. Nitrogen thing micro-organisms can be cultivated with the seeds of crops .. In Egypt, nitrogen-fixing blue-green algae are already cultivated along with rice to increase rice-yields, and this technique is common in 'Asian countries. The next step is to apply genetic engineering and manipulate the major crops like wheat. maize, sorghum, etc.. so as to nroduce strains capable of fixing atmospheric Nitrogen dlrediy. Here is a challenging subject of research for Africans.
In areas where desertification has decreased the area of arable land, another technique known as the production of single cell proteins (SCP) deserves to be worked upon. SCP can be grown on petroleum derivatives, methanol, methane, flaregas surplus starch, molasses, lignocellulosic wastes: and even on carbon dioxide.
requiring no arable land. Only a small area for the fBlctory, plus storage space, is needed. There is no need for chemical fertilizers. An optimum-size factory is 100,000 metric tons/year. Since SCP contains 50 to 80 per cent protein, it can serve as an excel1ent protein food ingredient for animais. As such. it can release cereal' grains and legumes presently fed to animals for use as human food, thus increasing the total protein and calorific food supply. No rainfall is necessary for the tactory to operate.
There is a potential for the development of a protein-sweetener industry in Africa) as the demand for low-calorie natural sweeteners is ever-increasing. The potential for the conversion of fruits of the Trauma tococcus danielli plants to Thaumatin/Talin sweeteners and for miraculin, has to be explored. So also is the case for the fruits of Richardella dulcificia (synsepaLum dulcijicum). ~-Res0arch and development in this field is possible. (9)
B. Biotechnological control of pests
Pests are responsible for great losses in agricultural production. Chemical pesticides are costly and have lasting and harmful side-effects. Biotechnological control of pests can be affected by insecticides that have micro-organisms that infect insects. These micro-organisms. called entomo-pathogens include bacteria, viruses and fungi. The best known is the bacteria called bacillusthuringiensls or B.
1huringiensis, which is active against many insects, like mosquitoes. black flies, cotton leaf wonn, etc. Research and development in this field aim at producing bacillus Spec1t!S that are entomopathogenic on a long time scale and that can transfer the entomo-pathogenic activity from one organism to the other. R&D on plants that produce their own pesticides are also to be encouraged.
C. Fanning systems research
The successful application of modem biotechnologies in most cases requires some sort of systems research of agriculture where organizational innovations are required as pre-requisites. In order to cope with increasing food demand caused by an ever-growing population and declining rate of food production, many African countries have had to resort to food imports and rely on food aid programmes. The problem. to a large measure. is due to improve management of all the concerned p ... rameters. It is argued that farming systems research that starts with evaluation of the situation and then integrates the new technologies into traditional technologies by mvol ving the farmers at all levels and thereby upgrading their farmers, can go a long way in winning the race between food production and population growth.
A long set of topics for research and development has been outlined by Bede N.
Okigbo of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, in Ibadan, Nigeria, in his paper (10) highlighting new technologies and developments that may be utilized to improve farming systems.
D. Animal husbandry
There IS a great potential for development of vaccines using genetic engineering, for the prevention and treatment of animal diseases like foot and mouth disease, rabies, blue t<mgue (in sheep), African swine fever, African horse-sickness, etc. A vaccine against scours, a neonatal calf diarrhea, is already developed and marketed. A substantial incrt!ase in animal supply can result by ability to prevent diseases and death. Thus bovine trypanosomiasis, one of the most important diseases of cattle in Africa, can be the subject of genetic research, as it is a major constraint to agricultural and socio-economic development in vast areas of Africa.
(11) Besides treatment of diseases, genetic manipulations of fertilized eggs can be applied to animal husbandry in order to produce animals endowt:d with greater nutri- tional value. The introduction of growth hormone genes can lead to production of more meat and milk. Similar techniques can lead to production of disease resistant animals and research and development is required in this tield. [n fact, much work is being done in this field in the United States. (12), (13)
E. Human health
Biotechnology is enabling the -production of several drugs. Interferon is a very promising drug for the prevention and therapy of viral diseases in man, animals and plants, as well as for cancer. Genetic manipulation is also enabling the produc- tion of antibiotics. Sickle-cell anemia, thalassemia, is a major killer in Africa and gene therapy is promising. In view of the great interest for African countries,
research in this field both at the diagnostic and therapeutic levels should be encouraged. There is much scope for production of vaccines against malaria, trypanosomiasis, onchocercosis, schistosomiasis, and amoebiasis, diseases rampant in Africa, and biotechnological methods have to be explored for the production of such vaccines. The pharmaceutical industry can be upgraded by research and development in the field of genetically engineered micro-organisms and living and cell-culture systems for the production of monoconal antibodies (MCAs). In its effort to eradicate smallpox, the World Health Organization (WHO) has already established basic facilities for manufacturing vaccines. A survey of such facilities in Africa is the first step in the research and development for new vaccines.
F. Microelectronics
Whether we like it or not, many of the products and processes used in Africa contain advances in microelectronics, specially !!llcroprocessors, which need to be reckoned with, and properly maintained, in order to make appropriate and maximum use of their potentiaL Such skill requirements are within the reach of Africans who just have to be trained in identifying applications and in designing the necessary software. The use of microprocessors tloes not require highly skilled technicians. The shortage of trained middle-level ttxhnicians and analysts in most African countrie5; is also circumvented by the ease of application of this new techno- logy. Thus it is essential that Africans gain control oVt:~r this technology in time to cope with the inevitable involvement resulting from imported products and to use them to their advantage. The use of microprocessors is very wide and applications are possible in sectors like industry, energy. transportation, food procest;iYlg, agri- culture and health care. Research and deVelopment would involve basic~liy fmding proper and effective use of the microprocessor in solving problems in Africa.
A combination of microelectronics and infomlation technology can bring technological education to the vast masses in Africa and thus pave the way for a more rapid transformation of the society by opening the doors to nc J./ indu.,trial opportunities and employment. An increase in productivity over a wide range of economic activities and innovations can improve the quality of lite of the people.
The problem to he solved is how to blend this new technology into the traditional technologies of the people, an obvious field of research. The need for controlling the applications of microelectronics through a selective: policy is of prime impor- tance. This can only be realized from a diagnosis af the areas where microelect- ronics can be applied to advantage and then to develop a strategy for development in the sector.
The
fact that microelectronics replaces lTlany shop-floor skills could be an advantage to countries which have not yet built up such skills, thus saving training time and effort and enahling them to enter the export market where they canbe in an earlier phase of the product life-..:ycle. (15) Research should bring out those areas where such an approach is pos ·ible, bearing in mind the repercussions on labor supply and demand.
G. New materials technology
In the field of textiles and leather, which are basic traditional materials with established industries in Africa, synthetic polymers are fast substituting these natural materials. The demand for many minerals IS decreasing since alternative high tech- nology products have come on the market - the case of glass-optical fibre and copper. Household and industrial products are gradually being invaded by synthetic polymer materials. Clay, wood, leaf, straw and other indigenous materials are being supplanted by new materials, mostly of polymer origin.' Research and development in the field of polymers is a costly venture, but research in the appli- cation of these materials to improve the quality of life of Africans is within reach.
Thus in the field of building materials, the low-temperature ceramics, of which cement is the prototype, deserves special attention. Cement produced from agricultural waste like rice husk is now in use. Soil cement, ferro-cement and reinforced cement-concrete having plant fibres are worth investigating for low-cost housing construction. At the same time, since there will be a gradual shift away from polymeric materials based on petroleum feedstock, towards alternative feed- stock, more significantly towards ceramics based on the most common elements in the earth's crust-oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, etc., research on ceramics as a material for construction is highly reconunended. (16)
H. New energy technologies
The oil crisis spurn:d much research and development in the field of new and renewable sources of energy and over the past decade significant achievements have been registered in the harnessing of winds, in the tapping of solar energy for electricity generation using both solar thermal and solar-photo-voltaic developments, in the fuller control and utilization of biomass and the generation of biogas from agricultural wastes. Wind energy and biogas technology have proved to be econo- mically viable and feasible and photovoltaic generation of electricity is becoming economically competitive. All these technologies have the potential for small-scale decentralized application and hence for being suitable for integration with traditional technologies.
Biogas production is catching up in many countries of Africa. Agricultural cellulosic wastes, animal manure, chicken droppings and a host of other organic
wastes are being utilized. But there is much work tn be done to give an effective package of micro-organisms, adequate portable and light gas generators, gas holders and good delivery systems. The popularization of this te.chnology is also needed and the link between the laboratory and the production unit to the consumer is lacking.
Research in this field is of primordial importance.
Biomass energy is another field that deserves jncrea~ed research. Energy plantations having fast-growing shrubs and trees, sugar-cane, maize and beet-roots fOT gasohol production are replacing inefficient biomass as a fuel. The development of efficient wood and charcoal stoves is being encouraged, along with the briquetting of agricultural wastes. Research and development is nee~ed for profitable industrial conversions of biomass. For example. the decomposition of lignin, hemicellulose and cellulose'in ligno-cellulosics and their further conversion into industrial chemi- cals, fuels, alcohols, proteins, etc., is a vast field of R&D. Further work is also needed for the manufacture of equipment and machinery for industrial fermentation.
particularly for decentralized production and rural industrialization.
L Remote sensing technologii~s
The new techniques of remote sensing can be: used for mineral and the natural resources exploration on a large scale, both on land and in the oceans. It is essential to know the potential for development before actual strategies can be worked out for the exp10itation of natural resources. Remote sensing offers this possibility. National development plans have to be based on accurate data. The reliability of the data is dependent on the accuracy and completeness of the available information, which unfortunately. in the case of most African countries, is far from being up-to-date and accurate. Thus many programmes JllUnched through such plans are beset with inaccurate projections and many unct~rtainties even before the schemes are completed. (17) This is the case of the Cc~ntral African Kariba dam project which was de~igned with inadequate data and when it was still under con- struction, a flood 21 times greater than the estimated probable flood came and swept it away. Similarly, for the Nigeria iron and steel complex. basic information on quality, quantity and characteristics of the available primary raw materials was not available and tb.is led'to much delay in implementing the: project. Furthermore, in the case of the cement industry. inadequate geological investigation led to the wrong choice of technology. (18) Data on agriculture, fisheries, forestry, minerals and other natural resources are essential and remote sensing technologies can help in establishing accurate infonnation for national development plans.
For Africa, initial efforts should focus on the application of remote sensing technologies and on applied research projects that can solve urgent and pressing
problems. Activities associated with human and cattle population survey, crop, land and forest survey and weather forecasting can be undertaken without much diffi- culty. The study of cloud formation and characteristics using balloons and rockets as research platforms having microwave transmission and reception facilities and of stratified atmospheric composition for cloud seeding using photo~chemjcal reaction methods can be subjects for research by institutions having remote sensing facilities.
VI. CONCLUSION
It is obvious that the advent of new technologies will have profound reper- cussions on the economies and life styles of the African nations. There is the possi- bility of making full use of these technologies in order to "leap-frog" the develop- ment process and capitalize on their potentialities, while at the same time obviating their negative impacts in some sectors. To do this needs a firm political commit- ment, with substantial resources allocation to research and development. Govern- ments, having sound and aggressive policies for socio-economic development, must be prepared to invest in research and development if they want to join the club of nations that are not prepared to fold their hands with an altitude of wait and see, but want to make use of all the possible available tools that can help them in their development goals. Instead of relying exclusively on foreign R&D, governments should contract to indigenous institutions and organizations for corporate R&D on specified subjects and induce the private sector to contribute financially or otherwise to research and developme~t in the countries. Tax exemptions to those who donate for such laudahle enterpris¢ is one form of fiscal incentive.
The role of the transnational corporations in the development of endogenous capabilities in R&D cannot be ignored. So far their role has been very much limited in contributing to the socia-economic development of the nation where they have a hold and this has brought about a feeling of antipathy from the masses who feel that they are being perpetually exploited. It is time these transnational cor- porations change their attitude substantially and start contributing positively to indigenous growth. Instead of effecting R&D in their mother countries, they can develop these capabilities in the countries where they have a holding and since they are the masters of the new technologies mentioned above. their task will not be that difficult. They will be able to share their good will and thereby win the apprecia- tion of the peoples and at the same time contribute to their own survival.
But the major role still lies with the indigenous institutions and the researchers who have to prove that they can pave the way towards greater autonomy and independence. In this venture, while making optimal use of local resources, nothing prevents them from entering into joint R&D progrkmmes both with their
colleagues on the continent and with institutions in developed countries, as long a.."
they are aware of their own role. The attitude that the R&D atmosphere is not con- ducive to serious work that the necessary support will never come in the context of socio-economic crisis that most African nations face, that the developed nations will never show any good will, is nothing less than defeatist. The future of African nations lies in the hands of the local people and what is recluired, as a start, is an unshakable faith in oneself, coupled with a full commitment to upgrading the life of the people by one's own work. The new technologies offer the prospect of an accelerated development process and African researchers have to seize this oppor- tunity whole beartedly.
ANNEX
DEVELOPING COUNTRY MICROPROCESSOR APPLICATIONS A. Industrial process control
This is a very broad field. covering, among other functions, materials test- ing. quality control, monitoring of parts and finished assembled goods, automation of manufacturing steps in a factory and testing of assemblies and products. Appro- priate applications of microcomputer technology allows onct to be more cost compe- titive and increases product quality.
There are numerous examples of applications. Among the possible examples are:
(a) It is necessary to monitor and correct the amount of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur and other elements in each batch of iron or steel produced, while it is molten. The equipment now available to precisely control the quality of steel produced in developed country foundries is expensive and difficult to operate. How- ever. it is possible to develop an inexpensive, simpler microprocessor-based system using slightly less accurate techniques which would nevertheless fit the needs of countries with iron foundries;
(b) In developing countries, circuit board rejection is a problem in electronics manufacturing, but currently available testing equipment is expensive and costly to maintain. The alternative has been large numbers of skilled technicians to monitor and repair the boards. Microprocessor-based functional testers at a third the cost of parametric testers have been developed and would be relevant in develop- ing countries;
(c) In any chemical or biochemical industrial process. the micro-pro- cessor can achieve finer and more continuous process control (as compared to pro- cesses requiring human monitoring and control) so allowing for local optimization at various stages and locations in the process. These can then be linked together to achieve much higher total process yields.
B. Energy
(a) Solar, wind, water and waste-heat based system. Microprocessor applications to this area include efficiency monitoring and weather mdnitoring so that backup energy needs can be estimated before they are actually needed. These
and similar energy systems often used at the village level in developing countries lend themselves to many microprocessor applications:
(i) for examplel user-owned generating systems using wind.
water, waste heat, etc., are usually only capable of gene- rating power on a part-time or part-load basis and power from a central generating station must be frequently con- nected and disconnected and constantly monitored by skilled personnel. Microprocessor controls can provide voltage and phase synchronization with the central gene- rating station to allow uninterrupted transition hetween local and central power, partial load allotment to each system and automatic pumping of power into the local network;
(ii) small village generating systems have no peak demand sharing connection with a power grid and therefore must either run a large spinning n~seJVe to handle short-term peak loads, a wasteful, expensive method or suffer fre- quent blow-outs or outages whenever an unexpected peak load is placed on the system. A microprocessor-based system can control loads at each location, distribute loads and cut power to non-essential users on a priority basis;
(iii) the generation of electrical energy requires the use of either internal or external combustion engines whose effi- ciency is less than 35 per cent; two-thirds of the energy is pumped into the atmosphere as waste heat.
Microprocessor-based systems could recapture, control and distribute this energy for use;
(iv) windmills: microprocessors can be used to control the angle of the blade in response to shifting wind directions to greatly increase efficiency;
(b) Fossil fuels. Fuel consumption and efficiency are the two major areas of technological impact. Numerous microprocessor-based syst~ms exist to monitor conditions and control the mix for efticient gasoline usage in automobiles;
to allow use of lower grade fuels in automobiles, etc. Highly sophisticated micro- processor systems monitor and control pipelines and other distribution systems.
Monitoring and control of motors to increase fuel efficiency is another important application of microprocessor technology;
(c) Nuclear energy: Safety is the major issue with nuclear technology.
Microprocessor technology can be applied to allow the use of !tfail-safe" techniques and monitoring. This implies that less skilled personnel might be used l\Jld still maintain a good safety margin.
C. Transportation systems and products
General applications to this sector include monitoring of fuel efficiency and consumption, monitoring and control of railway systems and monitoring of airport systems. Some specific examples follow:
(a) Trains suffer inefficiencies and damage due to differences in acce- leration and braking traction of the various wheels. M icroprocessor-conlrolled trac- tion feedback for each axle can solve the problem;
(b) Newly trained drivers are prone to causing accidents such as back- ing trucks into walls, taking tractors over cliffs, etc. Signalling devic~s can be developed to warn of such impending dangers;
(c) Water transportation and fishing can be made le~s dangerous by providing boats with depth calculators which can detennine the rate of change of depth.
D. Products that can be used in the agriculture, dairying and food processing sectors
(a) Microprocessors are used for sprinkler control in irrigation, to regulate the timing and flow rate of water and to control the wheels of movable systems so they water a programmed area evenly;
(b) Milk collection, handling, pasteurization and storage require skilled personnel in order to produce high quality, safe milk with a low rate of spoilage.
In developing countries, trained personnel are still in short supply. This problem can be circumvented by using microprocessors in many phases of a milk-processing of pasteurization system. All functions. including system cleaning and sanitizing.
can be controlled by microprocessors. While this type of automatic handling has been available in the United States, it does not incorporate microprocessor technology and is unsuitable in its present form from developing countries;
(C) Microprocessors also can be used in monitoring and control func- tions in the milking process. Among the technologies available. are the following:
(i) stall sensors to control warm water to the udder to increase milk production;
(ii) sensors to measure the amount and richness of milk, as the cow is being milked and also when milk is brought in for marketing;
(d) Prevention of spoilage during food storage. Spoilage is an ever- present problem where grain and other foods are being transported, stored and pro- cessed and the problem is exacerbated in tropical countries. Several examples of available microprocessor applications in these important areas may be cited:
(i) high moisture content in gnlins causes spoilage and can make processing difficult ewm if spoilage is not a factor.
Using a microprocessor-controlled tester, the grain can be pre-tested for moisture by even an unskilled user.
Grain testers now on the market are difficult to use, expensive and inaccurate: bt:.cause they do not take into account all of the variables involved;
(ii) when large quantities of grain are stored, they are shifted frequently from bin to bin to prevent heat build-up and rapid spoilage. The act of shifting causes abrasion of the grain which, in tum, may promote spoilage. The shifting operation is generally based ,~ither on the operator's "best guess" judgment, or on temperature readings taken from thermocouple cables in the grain which are often inac- curate. A microprocessor-based control can read out, store, compare with past readings and ambient change and then automatically shift the grain. The advantages would be minimum grain abrasion and spoilage and mini- mum energy usage in shifting the grain from bin to bin;
(iii) cans used for food storage must be coated inside with a plastic or enamel glaze. The integrity of the coating must be checked before the container is filled in order to prevent spoilage. Automatic testers using micropro- cessors are being developed in the United States. A
simple, easy-to-use enamel rater, controlled by a micro- processor. is needed for use and possible manufacture in foreign countries;
(e) Process and food quality monitoring and control. Already, such processes as pasteurization. canning and cooking are benefiting from microprocessor technology. Better quality and more consistent yields are obtained. Such functions as temperature. timing, humidity and moisture content can be monitored and con- trolled relatively simply. This is likely to be especially critical for certain bio- technology applications, such as in fennentation processes;
(t) Testers ,can also be developed to determine the quality of products brought to market (milk has been mentioned; the moisture content of rice is another) and also to then calculate the rates that should be paid;
(g) Control systems that can monitor critical water parameters in fish ponds can be used to increase yields.
E. Products that can help to improve the delivery of health and medical services
Automation of many health and medical functions. already possible with today's microprocessor technology, allows for'more efficient use of trained medical personnel and great cost savings. It can make sophisticated services available even in areas where thera is a shortage of ~rained personnel. Among the areas where microprocessor-based automation relevant to developing countries is possible are the following:
(a) Patient monitoring and testing. Blood pressure, resgiration, temperature, pulse ,ate from a sensor in a fingerti p probe; heart monitoring from a small device held to the chest; blood analyses~ fetal monitors using ultrasonic soWld;
(b) Control of li fe-support and other equipment. Heart-lung machines.
respirators and wheel chairs;
(c) Automation of clinical laboratory equipment. Blood gas analysis, hematology parameters, blood chemistry. cardiac parameters. X -ray enhancement equipment to aid the reading of X-ray images;
(d) Development of low-cost hearing aids.
REFERENCES
1. Lagos Plan of Action for the Economic Development of Africa 1980-2000, Organization of African Unity. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
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LOCAL PRODUCTION OF SCHOOL SCIENCE EQUIPMENT IN SELECTED AFRICAN COUNTRIES Magnus J.A. Cole
ABSTRACT
The study on local production cf !ow-cost school science equipment was carried out in Sierra Leone, SenegaJ, Ethiopia, Zambia and tpe United Republic of Tanzania with the purpose of determining the status on the development and produc- tion of low-cost school science equipment and proposing how to improve the situa- tion at subregional and regional level.
Different institutions such as curriculum development centres, institutes of education, teacher training colleges and production units are involved at some level with development of prototypes and relatively small amounts of low-cost school science equipment. However, the development and production processes are done on a small scale with inadequate and semi-skilled manpower and minimal financial investments. Production figures are unavailable from production units, but on the basis of limited manpower available, thousands of units of items are being produced.
Policies on supply of science equipment to schools are not very explicit and are usually insignificantly reflected in allocations for school supplies. Therefore, reliable figures on current allocations for scientific supplies are unavailable in all instances. However, the need for science equipment in school is well-known and some effort to solve this inadequacy of science equipment and supplies is shown in the importation of such materials from abroad.
Policy makers are desirous of coordinated efforts at producing low-cost science equipment and would participate in this at the subregional and regional levels using current local investments and any available international support in the form of skills materials and resources. It is accepted that equipment using wood and, to some extent. metal can be manufactured in large quantities since wood is readily available in most African countries. Only a few countries do have plastics or glass industries which can be utilized in the production.
It is recommended that the technological and trade conditions currently existing can facilitate large-scale production and marketing at the subregional and regional levels in line with the recommendations of the Lagos Plan of Action. Too many regional, subregional and national science, technology and trad(j organizations now existing in Africa can help in this venture.
A CKNOWLEDGEl\ffiNT
A project to effectively undertake a study of the local production of low- cost science equipment in Sierra Leone, and a coordination plan of action on a conti- nental basis to further planning and cooperation in pr.oviding low-cost science equip- ment for schools have always been my goaL Several efforts had been futile, but with the opportunity presented by the Science and Technology Unit of the Natural Resources Division (NRD) of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA), I am very grateful that the climate has been made favourable for further consideration of such an important aspect of our national and regional development efforts in Africa.
Many thanks are extended to numerous indi viduals who. because of the technological inadequacies of communication on the African continent, did not expect to see me but were willing to assist me on my arrival at their stations to carry out this mission. I am especially thankful to th,~ Director. of BREDA, Mr.
B. Haidara. who with his science and technology staff in Dakar, gave me all assistance to do my work and are looking forward to the outcome of the mission.
I am also grateful to the UNESCO Representative, ROSTA. Nairobi and his staff for their very kind assistance.
Dr. E. Mugiri. Chief Inspector of Schools in Kenya and Chairman of Science Education Programmes for Africa (SEPA) knew the problems and our frus- trations in this matter, and as such~ extended a special interest in and attention to the mission while in Kenya. Personnel at EMPDA in Addis Ababa, Mr. D. Ouattara, Resident Representative, UNDP, Dar-es-Salaam and his staff, and all those 1 worked with in Freetown, Dakar. Nairobi. Lusaka, Addis Ababa, Dar-es-Salaam and Zanzibar require a special thank you for assistance rendered.
If Uris mission bears tangible results, we shall have taken a positive and invaluable step to implement, above all, a major aspect of the Lagos Plan of Action, outlined so lucidly by the first economic summit of Aflrican Heads of State for the economic, scientific and technological emancipation of Africa.
I. INTRODUCTION
Countries of Africa and the developing world are these days involved in planning and implementing programmes directed towards national development.
These programmes for national development invariably imply developing an effec- tive national economy based upon increased gross national product, high per capita income, finn infrastructural base and capable and adequate manpower. This pursuit
