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I ) ! !UNITED NATIONS
ECONOMIC AND
SOCIAL COUNCIL
Distr.LIIlITED
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E/CN.14/C".RT/67 E/CONF .43/67 26 June 1')63
Original: ENGLISH
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UNITED }~TIONS REGIO~~L C~RTOG~,PHIC
CONFEI1.ENCE FOR AFRIC!,
Nairobi (Kenya), 1-13 July 1963 Provisional agenda item 10
(Co~~unic3tion sent by the Government of the United States of America)
FOR INFORMLTION
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For participants onlyINTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN SURVEYING AND MAPPING IN THE AMERICAS
by
Colonel John E. Unverf'erth Corps of' Engineers, U. S. Army
Director
Inter American Geodetic Survey Fort Clayton, Canal Zone
Presented to the
United Nations Cartographic Conf'erence f'or Africa Nairobi, Kenya
July 1-13, 1963 Under Agenda Item 10
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN SURVEYING AND MAPPING*
IN THE AMERICAS by
Colonel John E. Unverferth Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army
Director
Inter American Geodetic Survey Fort Clayton, Canal Zone
L Accurate topographic maps are one of the most essential tools neces- sary for the economic advancement of less developed areas of the world. They are the base on which all projects, which increase resources development and sociological and economical improvement, are implemented. It is essential to know the topography in order to execute these projects with the lowest ex- penditure of resources. Maps are essential in the planning for industrial development, establishment of transportation systems, harnessing natural re- sources, developing colonization projects, and inventorying and evaluating all resources whether people, minerals or other natural assets.
2. In 1946 a survey was made to determine the status of topographic maps, world wide, and to evaluate the reliability of those that were in existence. This survey indicated that Latin America was in great need of adequate map coverage at any scale. The only overall coverage available were the one to a million air charts prepared in 1942-43. These charts were a hasty production, using the trimetrogon method and, overall, they were in- accurate. Some widely scattered charts at larger scales also existed. They usually covered the capital city areas.
3. As a result of this survey, the United States decided to embark on a world-wide mapping program. The Department of the Army was designated as the agency responsible for obtaining the ground control portion of this pro- gram, and in 1946 the Inter American Geodetic Survey (lAGS) was organized in the Canal Zone to accomplish this basic mission in Central and South America and the islands of the Caribbean. The implementing tri-Servlce directive, entitled MAPPLAN, was issued by the Department of the Army as the execUtive agency. This document set forth the following specific objectives:
a. To assist the cartographic agencies of Latin America to become self-sufficient while continuing to cooperate with the United States.
*Prepared for the United Nations Conference on the Application of Science and Technology for the Benefit of Less Developed Areas, Geneva, February 4-20, 1963
b. To secure a strong geodetic connection between the North and South American continents.
c. To obtain aerial photography, geodetic and allied data for the production of essential maps and charts.
d. To foster the standardization of cartographic equipment, pro- cedures, and specifications for mapping and charting among the cooperating countries.
e. To engender international good will and foster hemispheric solidari ty.
4. It was determined that the best approach to implementing MAPPLAN would be to develop a joint program with each participating Latin American nation. The local national mapping organizations, in conjunction with lAGS, would determine the specific mapping requirements and the resources neces- sary to accomplish this long-range undertaking. To achieve this goal person- nel had to be recruited and trained, local agencies provided with supplies, vehicles and instruments, existing facilities expanded, and adequate funds authorized by the host government. The ultimate importance of accurate topo- graphic maps for national security and economic purposes had to gain the interest and support of influential government officials. The success of this program would depend primarily on its acceptance and the continued finan- cial backing by the nations involved. This was difficult since mapping is a costly and time consuming process. The necessity for such a program was not apparent to many government leaders at first, although interest and support has greatly increased as benefits become apparent.
5. Invitations to participate in the joint program were issued to each of the Latin American nations. Eighteen republics and the British, French and Netherlands governments acting for their territorial entities responded favorably. Agreements were negotiated with each government at the diplomatic level, setting forth the objectives of the program in each area as well as the obligations and commitments of each government in executing the work. In many cases, the diplomatic agreements were further supplemented by working agreements with the technical agencies designated to carry out the work, list- ing the operational details, areas to be mapped, and scales of mapping.
6. The Inter American Geodetic Survey (lAGS), created in 1946 as a special topographic mapping unit of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, is the only U.S. agency whose resources are devoted exclusively to the cooperative program. With headquarters in the Canal Zone, lAGS is a separate command of the U.S. Army Caribbean, the Army component of the Caribbean Command. Al- though lAGS is administered and directed by Corps of Engineers officers, most of its engineers and technical personnel are civilians. Attached to lAGS are the 937th Engineer Company (Aviation), to provide the required air support in field operations, and the 55lst Engineer Platoon (Survey), whose efforts are devoted to accomplishing ground control and field classification surveys for mapping of the RepubLl c of Panama and the Canal Zone. Throughout Latin
America, lAGS is probably better known by its Spanish name - Servicio Geodesico
Interamericano. '
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7. From its centrally located headquarters in the Canal Zone, lAGS controls its field projects that have been established in each partici- pating country. A typical project is headed by a U.S. Army Engineer Officer-in-Charge, and a civilian Project Engineer, assisted by adminis- trative and supply personnel and, as required, from one to ten or more civilian engineers skilled in various mapping specializations. In each participating country, one or more agencies were named to cooperate with lAGS in carrying out the program. In Central America, where the general progress to date is most apparent, a number of countries had no establish- ed mapping agencies. These countries immediately enacted laws or other- wise provided for creating a national mapping agency to work with lAGS.
At the present time, lAGS is cooperating with 31 national and state agen- cies in mapping, including hydrographic and aeronautical charting agencies, and five other agencies and observatories in gravimetric and geomagnetic surveys. These agencies employ approximately 4,500 personnel, including military and civilian. The lAGS complement includes 255 military person- nel, 223 U.S. civilians, and 200 inQigenous personnel. All together, over 5,000 persons are directly engaged in carrying out the cooperative program.
Other U.S. agencies also make valuable contributions to the program, nota- bly the U.S. Army Map Service, the U.S. Air Force, the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. There can be no doubt that this cooperative mapping program is the most extensive ever undertaken. From the standpoint of the benefits the participating countries will reap, it will also be one of the most important.
8. From 1946 to 1954 the primary efforts of the program were devoted to establishing a basic geodetic control network, with international and intercontinental ties required to establish uniform datums for all future mapping and surveying in Latin America. Long range plans were made for establishing about 90,000 linear miles of primary triangulation arcs and over 100,000 miles of primary level lines with permanent bench marks.
Also required were apprOXimately 350 astronomic stations, about 250 base lines, the installation and observation of about 75 tide gage stations, and the establishment of over 27,000 geopnysLca.L stations to determine magnetic declination and gravimetric variations.
9. During this period, the various La~in American agencies, in cooper- ation with lAGS, extended a primary 1st order trian~~latjonarc from the United States border througb Mexico and Central America, and down the West Coast of South America to about 450 south latituie in Chile. A series of east-west arcs was established along the Caribbean coast of Colombia and Venezuela with ties to the off-shore islands. A transcontinental arc was extended across Bolivia to Brazil to join the Atlantic coastal arc that is now complete as far north as Fortaleza, Brazil. Another primary arc was extended thrOUgh the Antilles connecting to South America in Venezuela and to Florida in the United States. A 1,700 mile trian~~lationgap between Brazil and Venezuela is now being closed in conjunction with the United States Air Force by an electronic HlRAN trilateration arc. Trilateration arcs have also been made linking the Antilles, and connecting to the United States in Florida and to the Central American mainland. Where possible, ties were made to existing trian,gulation and, in some cases, entire existing networks were integrated ani adjusted into the primary system.
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10. In most cases, basic }eYelic'~ hg,~~ b.:·:;:::tI. £~,-:::::i~:;;~p::'_l;:,:~ej sirnultaneollsly with the triangulation in essentially the same areas. The levels network consists mainly of a system of closed loops and circuits, referenced to 70 tide gage stations located at appropriate points along the Pacific, Atlantic, and Caribbean coasts. These tide gages will be operated over a 19-year cycle for determining a mean sea level datum to which all land elevations will be referenced.
11. About 80 percent of the geodetic program has been completed, in- cluding roughly 70,000 miles of triangulation and 90,000 miles of leveling, 210 base lines, 310 Laplace stations, and 16,000 gravity and magnetic
stations.
12. Since a large portion of the planned basic geodetic control had been completed by 1954, emphasis was then placed on the cartographic phases of the program including the accomplishment of aerial mapping photography and the establishment of supplemental mapping control.
13. Several countries have obtained aerial photography through private contracts at their own expense, but most of the photography has been accom- plished by photographic aircraft of the U.S. Air Force and by contracts
awarded to private firms by U.S. Army Map Service. To date, over one million square miles of acceptable mapping photography have been accomplished. Most of the photography has been flown at high altitude. In some instances, lAGS has loaned cameras and furnished film for the use of the cooperating govern- ments having their own aerial photographic capabilities.
14. As aerial photography became available, supplemental mapping con- trol and field classification surveys were started. Training in photo- grammetric compilation and drafting was intensified. Correct field and office edit procedures were instituted. The final phase, map reproduction, presented more problems. Many mapping agencies did not own map reproduc- tion equipment. Arrangements were made to have the maps of these countries printed at the U.S. Army Map Service or by the Engineer, U.S. Army Caribbean, in the Canal Zone. In many countries excellent commercial printing facili- ties were available and reproduction experts from lAGS were sent to these firms to instruct their personnel in map reproduction. Accomplishments to date are encouraging. Approximately 18 percent of -~he large and medium scale mapping program has been completed, including approximately 825,000 square miles of supplemental mapping control and field classification surveys, 300,000 square miles of map compilation, and 160,000 square miles of re- produced maps.
15. One of the major objectives of the program is to foster the stand- ardization of cartographic procedures and specifications for mapping and charting among the Latin American countries. Great strides have been made toward the attainment of this objective. Almost without exception all coun- tries adopted the geodetic control procedures and specifications recommended by the Pan American-Institute of Geography and History, which are based on those of the United States mapping agencies. Office engineering practices have been standardized to a great degree. New procedures developed at the U.S. Army Map Service, such as plastic negative engraving (scribing) which
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has now largely replaced the classic blue line drafting processes for color separation, and color proofing on plastic, have been adopted by the coopera- ting agencies. Thorough field classification and edit procedures have been instituted, resulting in improved accuracy and utility of the final map product. Uniform map symbolization has also been achieved in a majority of the countries. Most of the Latin American mapping agencies have adopted the Transverse Mercator projection and the UTM grid referencing system.
16. Shortly after the cooperative mapping operations started, it be- came apparent that the training of Latin American technicians in the various phases of geodesy and cartography would be an important factor in attaining the objectives of the program. Initially, personnel of the cooperating agencies were given on-the-job training, especially in the various geodetic operations incidental to establishing the basic horizontal and vertical control networks. As the program advances, this type of training will con- tinue to be needed. Although on-the-job training helped to overcome de- ficiencies in the early part of the program, it was soon recognized that facilities should be established whereby more formal training could be
offered. Thus, in January 1952, the IAGS Cartographic School was inaugurated in the Canal Zone to provide specialized training in the various fields in geodesy and cartography. The basic training offered in the Cartographic School is of a practical nature and includes only so much of the theory con- nected with a subject as is needed to understand the techniques being studied.
All courses are given in Spanish by bilingual instructors. The Cartographic School also gives advanced broad training designed to fulfill the needs of personnel for technical supervisory positions. Two school terms each year offer courses ranging from four to sixteen weeks in duration. The school is also used to train U.S. technical personnel in specialized phases of carto- graphy. In the 21 classes conducted to date, the school has trained 1,030 Latin Americans and 119 U.S. technicians in a total of 18 different courses.
Figure I shows the attendance at the school by countries and courses.
17. Arrangements for training at the Cartographi.c School are also of a cooperative nature. IAGS provides all the facilities and instructors re- quired for training. The costs for room and board while at the school are provided by either the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID), the U.S. Military Assistance Program (MAP), or the cartographic agencyemploy- ing the individual. In the last class AID paid for approximately 75 percent of the per diem costs. Transportation is provided by U.S. Military Air, AID, MAP, or the cartographic agency. The stUdents' salaries are paid by the
agency employing the trainee. Training at the Cartographic School is open to members of all civilian and military cartographic agencies of Latin America and to other individuals whose countries would benefit as a result of the training. Prospective candidates are carefully screened by the carto- graphic agency. It is gratifying to note that a large majority of the stud- ents who have been trained at the Cartographic School have remained in the national mapping program in their respective countries.
18. The Cartographic School revises and translates into Spanish text books, other training literature, and reference materials required in the school and for on-the-job training in the cooperating countries. These functions and facilities are of great importance in furthering the stand- ardization of cartographic procedures.
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19. In addition to training offered at the lAGS Cartographic School, many countries have taken advantage of the longer term training offered in the United States by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, the U.S. Geological Survey, the U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office, the U.S. Army Map Service, and graduate schools in the United States. Normally, these long-term grants for supervisory personnel are financed by AID.
20. One of the most interesting and challenging aspects of the co- operative mapping program is the varied natural environment in which opera- tions are carried out. The land area of over 8,000,000 square miles pre- sents a wide variety of terrain, including dense rain forests, barren
deserts, and high rugged mountains. In the Andean areas, elevations change abruptly within relatively short distances. In Bolivia, for example, it is only 150 miles from the altiplano at 13,000 feet to Cochabamba at 8,400 feet;
from Cocbabamba to Santa Cruz, a distance of 200 miles, the elevation further drops to 1,350 feet. Extremes in climate and weather are also en- countered ranging from the frigid temperatures of the Andean peaks and Tierra del Fuego, to the heat of humid tropical jungles, deserts and llanos. All these varied environmental factors pose operational and logistical problems that call for ingenuity and endurance in their solution.
21. Weather is also a very critical factor in accomplishing aerial photography. In most areas of Latin America, aerial photography can be flown during only a few months of the year. In two areas, the Darien region of Panama and the Choco region of Colombia, constant cloud cover prevails al- most every day of the year. Consequently, despite ten years of continuing effort, very little aerial photography has been flown in these areas. Long rainy seasons in a large part of Latin America also impede field operations.
22. One of the most important commodities furnished by lAGS to the cooperating mapping agencies is transportation, vehicular and airborne. In the lesser developed areas improved roads are not found except >Qthin and between principal cities; however, w~ny areas in Latin America are traffic- able by four wheel vehicles in the dry season. During the wet seasons, and in the dense jungle or mountainous ter~ain, loc0motion is prOVided by foot, pack animal or boat. These areas are now being mapped, utilizing light fixed wing aircraft and helicopters as the mode of t~ansportation. In the mountains or dense jungle, light aircraft can, in a matter of minutes, position observing parties on station where, in the earlier days, it took weeks by foot, burros or mUles. Some of the aircraft are permanently stationed in the countries, while others are retained under centralized control in order to take full advantage of the most favorable working conditions.
23. All of the work under the program is accomplished in full coopera- tion with the participating agencies. lAGS assists each agency in develop- ing an overall long range program and working out the priorities assigned to each phase. Annually, a program is drawn up cover-Ing operations for tlll;:
coming year, based on the funis and personnel that are expected to be avail- able to both the cooperating agency and lAGS. Although it is anticipated that each phase will be completed on schedule, the program is flexible enough to permit deviations, such as to compile maps needed for an urgent develop- ment project. In terms of moneoary outlays, the cooperating countries have contributed over one-half of the total cost of ~he program to &~te.
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24. The United States contributes to the program by assisting in accom- plishing aerial photography; by lending surveying, photogrammetric, communica- tions and automotive equipment; by fUrnishing special clothing for conducting field operations in rigorous climates; by providing training in the Carto- graphic School; by furnishing aircraft support; and by providing technical personnel skilled in specialized phases of surveying and cartography as advisers and consultants. In some instances, lAGS actually undertakes key mapping operations that are beyond the present capability of the cooperating agency. U.S. Army Map Service also accomplishes some compilation and re- production of maps, as well as the major task of reducing and adjusting the geodetic control data to common datums.
25. Contributions by the participating countries are many and varied, including the procurement of aerial photography, conducting surveying and mapping operations, compiling, drafting and reproducing maps and allied products, and providing administrative, maintenance and storage space for the lAGS detachment.
26. The cooperative nature of the program is evt.dent , not only in the relations between the United States and the Latin American mapping agencies-- but also an increasing amount of cooperation between the countries themselves.
An excellent example is the joint project in which El Salvador and Honduras have agreed to produce twenty-one 1:50,000 scale map sheets of their common border area where the boundary has not yet been defined and demarcated. The mapping agencies of the two countries have divided the work to be done, each according to its facilities and capabilities. Most countries have entered into agreements for the interchange of geodetic control and aerial photography in their border areas. At the suggestion of Guatemala, the Central American countries have instituted the Central American Cartographic \-Teek. The member countries take turns as hosts at annual conferences where their common pro- blems in mapping and cartography are discussed. In another fine example of local cooperation, the Instituto Geografico Militar in Per~ recently accepted responsibility for training technicians from other countries in ~ap reproduc- tion processes. Several countries have furnished guest instructors for classes at the lAGS Cartographic School in the Canal Zone.
27.
The Pan ftJllerican Institute of Geography and History (Instituto Pan- Americano de Geografia e Historia - PAIGll) also plays an important role in Latin American mapping affairs. A special agency of th,~ Organization of American States, PAIGH membership includes all nations of the Western Hemis- phere. In frequent meetings, the PAIGH commissions on cartography and ge- ography promote cooperation between the cartographic and geographic institutes of the Americas. lAGS works closely with PArCH and assists the participating agencies in technical actions required to carry out the resolutions adoptedat the PAIGH meetings. .
28. From all indications, even greater cooperation will be required in the immediate future. Under the Alliance for Progress program, adopted by the participating countries at Punta del Este, the Latin American nations have recognized an increased need for large scale maps and aerial photography for many purposes. Included are cadastral programs in connection with
agrarian reform and equitable tax systems, projects for the development of mineral resources, hydroelectric plants and irrigation systems, and the evaluation of forest resources, to mention a few.
29. Using the foregoing described mapping program as an object case, the author has attempted to show the advantages of a concerted, inter- national, cooperative effort in surveying and mapping a vast regional area.
While the same goal could be reached by each country separately mapping its own territory, it could not be done as rapidly nor as economically as in an international cooperative effort, particularly in the geodetic and aerial photography phases. It is possible that similar cooperative map- ping enterprises could profitably be carried out in other areas. Certainly, it is imperative for the peace of the world that all nations be helped to develop their human and economic resources for the benefit of their national welfare. Through the development of their resources will come improved communications, increased commerce and industry, and an over-all betterment in their living standards.
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Figure I Trai"i"g stIIJistics asotjO
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11)62Courses Totals
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- -- - - -
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Bolivia ... 4 11 1 9 ... 12 5 9 7 24 .... 57 22 3 82 14 68
Brazil ... ... 5 17 16 8 1 1 ... 10 6 45 7 58 ... 58
British Honduras ... .... 1 .... ... 1 1 ... 1
Chile ... 2 2 1 2 ... 4 ..... 1 4 9 7 16 16
Colombia. .... .... 6 24 1 7 2 2 5 15 10 27 13 85 1 99 .... 93
Costa Rica. ... .... 1 6 9 1 3 1 7 4 32 32 ... 32
Cuba ... ... • 1 4 12 ... ... 6 6 17 . ... 23 ... 23
Dominican Republic .. ' ., .. 2 17 .. 14 ... 14 2 2 18 17 50 2 69 .... 69
Ecuador ... 5 12 2 8 2 9 2 9 4 8 61 61 61
HI Salvador ... 3 9 1 16 5 ... 4 36 2 38 ... 38
Guatemala. 9 26 1 17 5 4 2 6 15 14 9 90 ... 99 ... 80
Haiti .... 3 5 .. 2 ... 3 9 14 35 1 36 ... 20
Honduras .... 1 8 8 4 7 3 5 15 12 ... 59 4 63 ... 50
Jamaica. 2 .. .. 1 ... 1 3 1 4 ... 4
Mexico. 1 16 3 ... .. 3 10 36 65 4 69 ... 33
Nicaragua. 1 14 7 2 2 1 2 3 3 1 2 32 2 36 35
Panama ... 3 12 41 1 ... 8 1 20 3 1 81 7 89 .... 15
Peru.. 4 11 7 2 3 4 7 8 16 42 20 62 ... 54
Venezuela. 1 14 1 14 5 11 5 12 11 20 17 76 1 94 ... 39
..
- - - -
- -- - - -- -
- -- - - -- -
- -- -- -
Sub toeal. - 52 210 8 193 28 84 26 81 I 55 214 80 305 695 31 1.031 14 787
lAGS Civilians. .. 25 .... ... .... 1 14 9 10 40 .... ... 99 ... 99 ....
U.S. Army. 6 ... 7 2 ... ... 2 3 20 ... 20 ....
U.S. A.ir Force. .... ... ... ... ... .. 12 ... ... .... 12 ... 12 .. .....
- -
- -- --- - -- -
- -- - - -
- - - -- -- -- - - - - - - -
Toul .. ... 52 241 8 200 30 85 52 90 67 257 80 337 794 31 1,162 14 787
Other courses: Tellurometer R.epair-Instrument Repair-Geodetic Surveying-Leveling---Triangulation-Map Reproduction-Tidal SurVeys-ProceSI Photography-Photo Lab Technician.
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