cc e s cctsedeutismduringthe Atlanticperiod inllordho r d l a nd. westernNorway ?
Thr~''fi ddleand late Mesolithiccomponent s at xo ceoaien
By Elizabeth JanWarren
Ath e si s submittedtothe School ofGraduateStudies in partial ful f il l men t of the recnure me n c s forthedegreeof
Master ofArts
Departmentof Anthropology Memorial un iver s ity of Newfoundland
1994
St.Joh n's Newf o undland
1+1
NaliOnalL ibrasy~"""".
AcQ.i5itialsand BibliographicSevces Branch
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BiblioltJequenalial ale
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sous
QUELQUE FORMEQUEellson
POURMETTREDESEXEMPLAIH.ESOE CErrETHESEALADISPOSITIONDES PERSONNEINTERESSEES
L'AUTEURCONSERVE LA PROPRIETE DUDROIT D'AUTEURQUIPROTEGE SATHESE.NILATHESE NIDES F.XTRAITSsunSTANTIELSDECELI.E·
elNEDOIVENT ETRE IMPRIMES OU AUTREMENTREPRODUITS SANSSON AUTORISATION.
ABSTRACT
Th isthesiseval u a tes th eprop osi t i o nthat;t.he re year-roundseden tary occup at io non the coast;of weat ein Norwayduring the At lanti cperi od. The moder-nboun.t.ut ,.-.ot Nordhordland circumsc ri be a physiographicreqionthat;is representative ofthe fj o rd indent ed La ndsca pe ofWC ! ; t P I ll Norway. The seasonal and spatial distr ibu t i on offood resourcesav aiLab .le in Nordh o rd landdur ing th e Atla ntic pericd is recons tru cted an d foundto be re l a tivelyrich and variedthroughout the year. es pe c i all y in the innercoasta I region. The year-roundavailability of var i o us speciesof codis a stabilizing fact o r . This allows for samedc ore-, of flexibility and both seaso na ll y mobi le. se mi-se oe n earv.HI,]
sedentaryset t lemen tstrategieswere pos sible . sce nariosfor ea ch of the s e stra t e g i es indica t etha t th ey areall capableofproducinglargesites wit h thick deposits. but itissugge s t ed that the int e rn a l
characuerLstLcs of suet:sit e s will diff erdepend i ng onwhich settlementsystemth, y ere apa r t of . Thear-t i fa c t s. tcun.rl remains and th e teatur es froafo u rstrat ified layersat xocede Ien, a large,mu l t i c omponentsite located intbein nr~ r coastal regionof Nordhord land. are evalua te d to det. e rmine the lengthof occupat i on andthe kindsof ec-nvtt.tes th'~y
ii
rcr. r ea en t . Kotede Len is situat e d next to a good:i sh inq- jcc.rcIon·,ri theasy accesstoresources in other phys i ograph i c rWJ i onsand ye erercundeecc ienenc wou Ld neve been pos s ibl e [r om sucn '"locat i on.
Although da t a fromone sitecannotprovidecIe a rans we r s ccocernincregio na l sett.Lement,patterns. the data from xotede Ien. withitsrela t i ve l y good faunal preservation , identif iablefe a t u r e s and stratified layersdo provide insi.qh t; intohow one sitewasused at different points in ti me, The dat afromKo t ed a l en suggestthat it was re pe a t e dl y r-e occu pied andtha t therewas some degreeof va r i a b i lity in c rce use. Data fr o m twocf the layersindicateschat Kc 'ie daI en wasoccupiedat least on ase mi-s e de nta ry bes rs , whereas the other two revere are not ad equatelys.amp.led , but appear-toshowmoresporadicuse.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thereare several people and vnstitucicns intheUni. t .'.1 sueces , CanadaandNo r wa ytha t Iwould liketo dcknol"rl ""d<jL' and than k fo r as s i s t a n c e inall phasesof the reseo rcu r.lt.rt i3 documented in this t.hesis.
In the Un itedStatesmy fami l y and friends provided various kindsof support including eve rything fr om babysit tinq to edit i ngto discuss icnstoRan d R etc. In add i t i o n , th eRota ry Fou nd a t i o n provided fi na c i a l support (at"
one year of study in Norway. Although thiswas not directly related to thecompLet.Lcnot this thesis, itwas a prerequisi te fo r my interest inthe Mesolithic nf weut.e rn No rw ay .
In Canada, I woul d liketo thankthe staffand ocher studentsin the Anthropology pepo r tment;atMemor i a l University in So;..John'S, Newfoundland. whO/?the re, t receiveda gradu ateresearchscholarship wtnch provided financia l sup po rt du r i ngmyyear ofcoursewo r k. A special.
t.ha n ks goe s to myadvisor during this research,Dr. M.A. P.
gen o ur , and toth e examinersfo r their he l pfu L remarks.
Oth e r wis emy thanks go to my fa mi l y, and rr Lends in Norway . The staf fandstudentsat theHi s t o r i s kMus e um, UniversityofBergen, wherethere s ea r ch was done and ctun
iv
r)bc~n, 'lIhl'.Jsupervtsed thexot eaeien srofect • gaveme the 1(:'='11(1 :;touse the datu recoveredtrcmxotede re n as I sew ::it and',Ia~ian invalua ble sour-ceof support, AnneKarin nutthemee r , wha was responsible far the fau n al analysis,was
;J150very helpful and provided timely comments on a first dratcof the thesis, Especiallyhelpfuld iscu s sLo r.s of top i cs encomp assedin this thesis we r eunderta ke nat various stages witt:David simpso n, Sivxrtstofterse n .Arn e Joh an N<Jlr",y and xnu t AndreasBe r g S',ik and Iamthan kfultothemfor stimulati n gideas, David Simpson isalso tha nk ed fo r introduci ngme to the wor l d of "surf ing". signe NygArd provided ac c e s s to unpublishedlists of St o neAge sites in the Bergen Mu s e um' s district. Aspecial than ks isa I so direct edtoArth ur sasce Land who took theext r a effort ne e d e d fo r obtaining suchthings as workingpermits, eccesetoa printer, andapl a c e to work at theHistoris kauseura. The ent ireKot. edaLenprc.fecc, includingtheexca v ationsand c<ltaloging, was aupported financiallybythehighway departme ntinncrda te nc r scacens veavese n, Ho.rdalandJ,
Fina lly, mythanksgo to Johnln ge, Lisa, Sam an dth e res t of myimmediatefamilyon bothsidesof theoceanwr.c ma na ge d tosee methrou ghthi s pro ce s swithout losing tou c h wi t h th e most; impo rtant thingsin life.
TABLEOFCONTENTS A8 S':'RACT•. . . •.. ...
ACr.NOWLEDGEMENT S... .... .. . ... .... . .... . ... . .. ..•. LIST Of TADLES..
LI ST OFFIGURES.
LISTOFAPPENDI CES . •... .•. . .. •..•..•. . . ...xiii
2•~.
2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8
3.1 3. 2
1 INTRODUCTI ON .
1.1 The pr oblem. . . .
1.2 Mobi lity , sedentism,pe r ma nen ce, sta b i li t y.
1.3 Res e a rc h st r ategy . 1. 4 Researchobjective s . 1.5 Stone Age researc hinwe s t e rn Norw a y.. 2 NATURAL ANDCULT UREHI ST ORY •.
Introd u c tio n... .. , , Phys i og r aphy... ... , . Lithicsourc es .. • ... . .
Ea r liest occu p ation... .•.... .. ...•.... . . .. ... Early Mes olithi c (Pr ebor e al :10000 - 900 0BP). MiddleMesolith i c (Boreal: 9000 - 80 00op).
Middle Meso li thic (Ea rlyAtlantic: 8000 - 700 0aru. L,'lt e Mesolithi c (Middle&LateAtl ant ic :
7000 - 5200 BPI... ....
2.9 Neolithic (S200 - 350 0BP) . 3 RESOURCES ...
Introduction.
Ma mmals .
Sea mammals .
Hoofedmammal s .
Lar g e fur beari ng mammal s .
small mammals... . .
].3 Fish .
Codfish .
Pelagic fi s h.•.. .
Anadromous fish .
Othe r fish .
Shell £ish andcr-ustaceans.
3.4 Bi rd s .
Sea birds .
Waterbird s .
vi
9 10
I'j j'i .IR
'"
"
'j7"
(,Ocs
6',
"
,.,
liP.
7()
'"
"
oerre birds.. Birdsofprey. Landbird-,.
3. '5 plant s .
3.6 Seaso nal and spati al dis tribut i onof spri ng.
Summe r . Fal L...
'>'linter.. 3.7 Di scu s s ion .
<1 SUBSI ST ENC E AND SETTI..EHENTPATTERNS.
4. 1 Introduction .
4.2 Models.. . .
Pr evi ous modelsfor the LateMe s o li t h i c of
western Norway. . .
Sedentary year -roundcccupacro n.. Repetitiveseasonal occupa tion.. . Seasonal oc c upa ti on.
4.3 Intrasiteimpli c a tio ns. Location... size and thi ckness. Features ,
Artifacts .
Fauna ..• ....
Palynology .
4.4 rnt e r a tte implications ..
s cce types .
Site distribu tions .
4. 5 Discussion. .. ..
5 KOTEDALEN -fEATURES, ARTIfACTS AND fAUNA..•
5.1 Siteoverview.. .. . ,
Site descripti on .
Excavation procedures.
Radiocarbondates. . .
5. 2 Stratigraphyand features .
Layer H - {bet we e nca .735 0-7 200 BP) ... . ... . Layer D- {bet we en ca. 7450-7300 ;7200-7075 BPI .. Layer C - {betwe e n ca.7250-7100BPI . Laye r B - (betwe e nca. 7000 - 6900BPI .
Comparison .
5.3 Art ifGlcts ,..,... ...•... ....
fl akes , blades and cores .
Retouchedstone too ls .
Other stonetool s . Bonetools ..
vii
77 78 79 80 81 81 BJ
"
as
86 89 89 90 90 96 97 98 99 100 101 103 106 108 111 112 11 2 116 119 121 121 12 1 12<
135 142 142 147 150 15 1 154 157 159 165 167 178
.~·16
:!'j :!
25:!
260 26 1 261 269 271 5.~ Fa u na l aaaembl aqe s .
Composit.ion .
Ma:n."'als .
Fish .
Birds .
Seasona lity _ .
6 KOTEDALEN - INTERPRETATIONS.. ... . ... ... .~O·I 6.1 Int.roduct. ion . .. .. ... . ... . . ... ... . .~ll ., 6.2 Layer H - (be t we e n ca. 7350-72 00BPi... .... .:0••
Distributi ons . . ... . . . .... ... . . . .. ~Ol>
Function and seasonality ~'::J
6.3 Lay er0 - (betwe enca. 7450-7 3 00 ;720 0 -7 0 7 5BPi •...•.~~(, Distributions . ... . ... .. ... . . .... ... .!~ "
functio nand seasonality . 6.4 LayerC- {betweenca.7250 -7100BPI .
Dis tributions .
Func ti on and seasonali t y .
6.5 Layer B- (betwee nca.'1000 · 69 00 BPI ..
maeribucf cns .
6.6
Dis~~~~~;~~
.~~~
.~~~~~~~~~~~:
: : .7 CONCLUSION. ... ... .. . ... 277 7.1 TheMi dd l e and LateMes o lithi c at. Kotedalen. . . 27"1 7.2 TheMi dd l e and LateMes o l i t hi c in westernrlorw.Jy .. ;l7') 7.3 Future research.... . ... . .... ... ;~fL!
REFERENCES .
APPENDICES .
MAPOVERLAYINS I DE BACK COVER
viii
•. ..•:'!9'1 102
LI STOFTABLES Tabl'=!
Mammal ree ein s fromsome ;"o:lant i C' per-Iod sites in westernnc r-...;..y... ... . .... ... .. .. .. .. 42 fish remai ns fro msome Atlantic period sites in
wester n Norway.. . ... ... . . ... ... 43 Birdremainsfromsome Atlant i cper-Ledsit e s in
western No rway... .... . .. ... .. ... ... . 44 She llfishremainsfromsene Atl an t i cperiodsites in
westernNorway.. ... . ... ... ... ... .. . 46 Mdmmalsavailabl e duri ng theAtlanti cperiod .
weste r nNorwa y. .. . .... ... ... ... ... ... 49 fishavailableduring the Atlantic period. western
NOC"WcJy... ... ... .. . . ... ... ... ... ... 61 Shellfish cr ust a c ea ns andcephalopods availabl e
during the Atl an t i c per i od, west e r n No r way.... ... 69 Birds availab l e duri ngthe At l ant i c period,wes t ern
No rway ,... .. .. .. ... .. ... 71 9 Summa ryof archaeolog i c a l dat a n-om Kote da len , 13 4 10 Summaryof ree cu re e fr omKoted alen 143 11 Summa ry ofartif a c tsfoundat Ko teda l e n l'iO
12 Ma mmal s identified at xot edaIen 184
13 fi sh idenrifiedatKo t edal en 18 6
14 Birds identifiedat Kotedalen 188
15 Assumedseasonalityofide nt ified species 195 16 Laye r H - artifactdistri butionbyArea 209 17 faunalremai ns fro m features 'lt Ko tedalen 221 18 Layer 0- artifac t distributionby Area 229 19 Imp lica ti ons of se ttl emen t typefor the
arch a eolog icalrecordin western Norway... 212 20 Cha r a cte ri s tic sof the MiddleandLa te
Mes o lithi ccomponen tsatKotedalen.. . . .... 273
ix
LISTOF nGURE3 Fig u re
un 185
'"
"4
1%in 1:J:t
zoa
H.~
l.~ .~
I~' , l~'J LID III 136 l37 1,15 149 1'5:!
l5l l55 l56 1(,2 lG3 1(,·1 Ifil)
,
6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21"
2324 25 26 27 29 29 30 11 12 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Pr ov inc es ofNorway.
Pl a c e s men t i oned. Ho r d e Land . we s t ern Norwdy .. Sea-l e v e l cur ve fr o mronn e s , wes t e rn No rway.
phys i.oqraphic regi ons of we stern no rwa y.. Se asonal andspatia l dis tribut iono~
maj o r reso urce s ,
St on e Age sites inthe vicini t y of KcitedaLe n , Kotedale nexcava ti ons ... ,.,., .,.,.,. , .. ,., Excavationstretery for the uppe r terrace , St r at i g ra phyof the upper te rra ce . Stratigraphyof the western tr e n ch. Radiocarbondatesfrom the upperterrace . Loc ati on of rad ioca r bo n sampl e s in plan.. Layer H features., " , ..,., .,. , , .. .,
Layer 0fe atur es , ,
Lay e rC features..
Lay e r Bfe atures. ... ... . Lower Layer 0and Laye rHIeatuer's ..,..
Upper Layer0and LayerCfeatures.. Verticaldi s tr i bu t i on of mate r ia l ty pes . percentageof blade s by width in each Icv er . Percentage of co rety pes in ea ch Lay e r... '.
Percent a ge of ret ou ch ed tool type s in each tover.
Perc en t ageof thickne ss, angle andsha p e of
retouched edges in each layer. 1fiR
Gr ou nd s tone too ls. 1-/]
"Flens ing"kn i v e s . 1'/·1
Othe r st on e to o l s... 17'j
Perforatedstone to o l s . ... .. ... 17 (.,
Soa psto ne weights , ... ... 17"1
we i g h t distri butionof the soapstone wei g h t s . i7fl Bone too l s.... ... ... ... .... .... ... . ['J') Frequency of fa u na l rema i n s U/1 001so r I ana l'lwdl, LRl Percent.mamma l. fi sh . and bird fra gmen t s. J1B Percent mammal, fish and bird identi fiedto
genus/species .
Pe r ce n t of iden tifi e d ma mma l s . Pe r c e n t.of iden t.if i edfis h . Percent;of pollack/ c od . coa lf i shand other fiah ..
seasonality bas e d onmammals. fish and bir-dn..• . season alityba s e d on .aammaIa alo ne , . Adj us tedsea s o na lity ror mammals . fishand birds.
Layer H - Artifactdistribu tion, , , ..
41 Layer H areas defined... .. . . :lOB 42 LayerH- distributionof co r e s , core fragments,
mccr o b ledesandmicroblades.. ... ...• •. 21:1 1\3 r.ever H dfat r ibutIc n of ret ou c he d flakes,
r-etouched blade s .scrapersand eng ravers. 213 44 i.ev e r H dist.ribut.ionof drills, wea kre toucn•
normal ret ou c h and steepretou ch . 214
<15 Layer H -distributionof convex, concave,
straight and wa vy retouch .. ... 215 4(; La yerH distribution of grounds tone tool
fragments . round stones, flen s ing knives and ether stoneartifa c t s.. ... .. 216 47 Lay er H distributio nof bon e po Lnt.s ,
needles/awl s,hooks,other wor ked bone
frag ments. 217
'18 Layer0 Artifactdistribution.... ..•....,. 228 19 LayerD- AreasdefLned,.. . .. •. 228 50 Laye-r 0 di str ibutionof cores, co r e fragments,
mecrob.tedesand microblades. . . . 232 51 Laye r0 diar ribution of reto uchedflakes,
recoucbedblades, scrapersan d l;:ngravers... .. 233 52 Layer D distribution of drills, weak retouch.
nor ma lre t ou c h and steep retouch... ... .•. . 234 53 Layer0 di s t.r i bu t i on of conve x, concave ,
stra i ghtand wavy retouch, . ... ... ... 235 54 Layer D- distributionof points, burins,
groundstonetool fragmentsand ax e s / a d z e s.. 236 55 Layer 0- di s t r i b u t i o n of flensing knives ,
grindingslabs, hammerat.ones andanv i l st.ones. 237 56 LayerD- di s tr i b u t i on of smoot h ing scona,
grindin gstone, round stone, perforatedstones. 238 57 Laye rD - distributionof bonepoints,
needles/awl s,hooks and otherwor-kedbone fragm. 239 58 Lay e rC Atifact di et rtbut Ion ...,. . .. ... .... ... 252 59 Laye rC distribut ionofcores ,core fragmen ts,
macrobl ades andmdcrobLa d e s•. 254 60 Layer C di st ri bu t i o n of retou c he dflakes,
retou c h e dblades, scrapers and engra vers. 2~5 61 LayerC- distribution ofdrills , u e / adzes ,
groun ds tone to o l trag. and gr i n di ngsl abs .. 256 62 Layer C - distribu t i on ofhammerston e s and
grinding, smooching and ro und stones... .. 257 63 Lay e r C distributio nofsoapstone to ol
frag ment s . other stone toolsand bone tool s. 258 64 Lay er B - Ar t ifa c t distributio n ... ... . . . .. . 262 65 La y erB- dist ri bu t i on ofco res, core fragmen ts ,
macroblade s and microbla des..•.• ••... . . . . , ....•263
xi
66 Laye r B- distri bution0fretouchedflakes,
re t ouc he d blades,scrape rs andengravers... .. ~6· 1 67 Laye r B - distributionofdriLl s , weakretou ch,
normal retouch and steepret.ouch.. , .... .~l;~l
68 LayerB- distribution ofgroundstone tool fr a gme nt s ,axe/a dze s . grindingslabsand
hammerstones ,. , . . .~ l'l ;
69 Layer B-distri bu tionof round sto nes.soapston e we i gh t s , andboneto ols .. . . ... ... .~l~'"
xii
LIST Of APPENDICES
Alphabetical list of mammals, fish,
shellfish/crustaceans and birds mentioned xnche cex c . English. Scientificand Norwegian names. 302 trcrweqian alphabetical list of all animals with
Englishnames .. , .•, ..••.. , ..•." . . . .. . . . 310
Artifact distributions for LayersB, C. 0andH.. 315 -1'.11stone artifacts
-Density III/liter) -Flint -crvet el quartz
xiii
-L:i.tersexcavated -ocbermat e r ialtypes -ouer e e /quart7.ite -Mylonite
I rmRCDUCTIC:-.1
1.1 ~he?roblem
Research in the la t e197 0s and early 1980sc\~IIC".nllil"l
eeccreeene peeeecnsof hunter-gatherers in scano movto fo c u sedatte nt i o n away from the seasonallymob il eviewor hun ter- qa t h erers towards a vie wwherea more sedent.u-y01 semi-sede ntaryway of lifepr evailed .p.:irticulary incO,JSI.11 ar e aswi t h access to avari e t yof both marineand terrectrta [ re s o u r c e s (Broadbent 1979. Cl a r k1983, Enge l Rt.cl d 1983. 1',-L...
and Brinch Pet er s en19 87, Renouf198<\,Rowley-Conwy 198), zvelebil 19 B1, amonqceher st . A ve er-roundsedent.a rv ornemi. sedent ary set tl e ment pat ternwas alsoprcpcseuforcoaet.at areas throughout theMe s o li t hic of westernNo rw a y rr ndretid 197 8,Mi k k e l s e n 1!l781 , but this hasno t been rigorously tested. nor uot.ilrecently exeetned in chron oloqica l detcI 1 ltIyg.1rd1987, 1990:Bergsvik 1991 ; Bruen Olsen 1992). HO:;I . of th eworkscited above examinearchaeological sites that are young erthan6500 years old; however, in most of t hesc areas th egeneralcharacteristicsofth e food rnsources Wf)'lld havebeen simi l arduringthe entireAt l an t i c Periodand it wouldnot beun r easonable to expec t earlierevidence of se d ent a ry orsemi -sede nt a ry occupations . Theque a tion add r e s s e d in th is thesi s is : was cnere sede n t a r y Yf.'dc-mu nd occu pa t i o n al on9the coast ofwer.cernNorw.1y dur i nqthe Meso lith ic and, ifso, whe ndid it begi n? Althou '] h itm.;.j' t /:
irr.rh:~;dblBtoenawersuch a Question ',/ith certainty,it needs tr,br~.a-Idre asedand at cee nac Ives consideredsince it has implications for how we perceive and interpret the entire historical seque ncein this region. More specifically, it greatly influences our perception of the questions surrounding the development of technological and social complexityand the adoption of agriculturein th i s region.
1.2 Mobility, seeentism, permanence, stability
Some for mof mobility is an es sentia I part of all hunter- gatherer subsistence and settlementstrategiesas it is the single most important tool humans have for dealingwdth variability in ene spatial and seasonal availability of essential resources and for maintaining contact with one another, Over the past 10 years much of the tbeoree rcei discussion concerning hunter-gatherersubsistence and sett lementsystems has focused on the distinct ion,elaborated by Binford (1980),be t wee n logistically mobile collectors and residentiallymobile foragers and the different kinds of sites these two methods of resource procuremen t leave in the archaeological record, The distinction is relevant at a very generalle v e l , but as Binfordhimself points out (1980:191 these are not mutually exclusive (Eder1984: Kelly 1985 301) nor do they represent two endsof a mobilitycontinuum
tc t.e t .ce r s 1987:3361. T:-.epolarizat ionof thecoru-ep ts of reeide ntiaLand logi s ti calmobility hi des muchor the variability in buncer-c.stherer adap tation s. TovarIcu s degreesbothree.rdentLeLand Lo qist.Lc a l mobil i ty cuepart all hunter-<;:..ltherereucsis re n c e and settlementay stem-s•.It:
foragers aLsomovelog i s tica l l y . dod collectors mo veth.eir residences etener seas c nalIy,yearly or evenless frequ ent ly. Whether foraging orcol l ect i n g errec ectes are used and to what degree dependsparti a lly on the seasona landspat La I distribution of indi v i du al resources and there s o u r ce comp os i tionwithine:specif ic region. In resour-ce rich areas. with sobs recencere so u r c es availa bleyear-round.
alternativestrategies arepos s i bl e and different combinationsof these twoso LutIone for resou rc e pro curom...nt canand do exist. (Ed ~ r 1934).
NOW tibet mobilitystrateqies have bee nccns Ider eo. ir;
app ropr iat.e to definl!what is actuallymeantby eeoencic«.
Rafferty (1935 : 111)exeeinedth i s concept inthe archaeological Lf tere t.ure and foundan arrayof ditterent meanings and terms. The definitionadopted here is th a t sedentary secttenencs aloe ones in wh i ch at l ee et,some portion of the resident group ispresent at thesame loca tion througho utthe entire year (i b id, : 115 l , ThisdetIni.cion allows fo r some degree ofmobility as aportion ofth e
4
rr!~>ld",nticl.!.'lIOUpcan beebsencfrom the r-esId.antIa IsLteat ver lou stimes to per form mor e erectzto ce eks(i b i d .) . The prob Lem wit.h this defi n i ti on isthat iti s lrnp,:,ssib18 to eve Lueee taking Lnco account the r.ec-rrecf the ar cha e ol o gi cal reco rd. Haw canareai.d ent i.aL s ne occup i.a d yea r-rou ndbe utsr;inguishedfro m one that wasoccu pi edfor moet;cf e:neyear or from one that Iotasoccupie d repee t.edry in the summer and winter monthsby the sa megrou pof peopl e? It is sugge sted he re tha t thi s distinctjon is not so Iap o rtant; as they rep r esenc closelyret.ecedseecteeen c systems tha t wouldhave hadsimilarimplicationsfor thedevet opme ntof technology, social or ga nization,p cpulata onuI' O;'l t h. What is importa nt in thi s r-eqar-clis distinguishi ng semivs.eden c ary andseoencerv setcjement; patterns fromones inwhi chse a sonal mobilit.y is thege neral rul e. This shouldbe poss ibl eus i ngthe ercneeotocie al r-e cor d end som especL fic impli eatIcos for eva Iua ting this aredevelope d in cbepter 4.
Therecent. empha s i sonmobilit ysce-acee reeand sedent a r y sett.l ement s has per hap s dive r t ed att ention away fro moth er irnportar.t rector-s in reqionaI subsLatence and set t lement syst e ms. Thedegree of perma nence orth eatta chmen t t.n at a grou pof peopl e hasto specif icplaces andreg ions(Bi nfo r d 1982. Enge l s t ad 1990 ) andth e sta b ility ofse ctLenent. are both impo r t ant aspectsofpast set':.lementsys t e ms. Thes e ca n
e rchaeo Lo qica L Hites. rn fac t;, theypro viJe d ffil'.l l1"-;r"t z.nte rp r etinp an crrentho r ny but pervasive prob lem ill azchaecLoqy- tf.a t;of site reoccupation (Tho ma s198 ·11.
1.3 Research st r a t e gy
Questionscon c erning subats t.ence andsettlem ent pattcrns mus tbe addr-e ased at twodifferentlev els. Ther-ecrIona Lnt Incers Lt;eleve lch a r act er izesth e typ e sof si t es andthoLe- apatLaI diacz-Ibutton relativetoeach other tnrouqhoutthe re9i o n fora specifictime period. Thesi t e speci f ic or int.rasite level focuseson individual sItes and addre s see ,,,ha t typeof occupetiontss) the y repre s en t. Altho l.1.Jh bothof these areessentia l for int er pr e t in gpasts ettIemencr.;Yl>t:':I O::, the emphas is is placed onthe site specific level, wi t h r.nc aim of acqu Lr-Iuq c better understandingof theoccupa tLor-rol historyofla r gernuLticompcne nt; site s with thickde pcs Ito. Such sitesap pear in the archaeologica l re c ord of wes rcrn Norway (fig. 11sometime during the secondhalfof the Mes o l i t h i can d havebeen interpreted ,39r apr-asent Lnq sedentaryoccupations(Ny gll r d 1990),
There aremarry fac t o rsthat. influence how peopte organize theirsettlemen tswithin a larger regio r. at a specific periodof timeandon e ofth e s e is acc ess cothe
Figure 1. Provinces ot: NOrway
7
ne c ess er y resour c esfor survival. I tis t.he r eroree'~.;t", UL\!
toha vean under st andi n g ofthecha r.aceerLc ctcc oftil ..,11,,·,1 res ources avai la b lewit:.hi n thereg ion . As a.,i eC dile,!
reg i onal Studyof the ercteeo roarcet remainsis bcyonctth,' scope ofthis th es is the reg i ona ldist ribut i on ofuna resou rces reconstructed in Chapte r 3provides t.tiepri nkl ry reg i onal perspe c tive. Thisre os crucct on is use d as "l\;l ~~i.~, for devel opingsever a l likel ysubsi stenc e and oettlemcnc models whichin cumare us e dtoaenercce spec if ic imp l icat i o n sfor di s tingui shi ngdif rerenc ki nd s of residential sites. Theseimp lica t ionsarethe n eva Ltaat.ed againstthe features, artifact sandreuneJ,remains[r(111II),H- t of a large mul t.ic omponentcoastalsite in wes te rnnorwav .
If a year- r ound r-aside ntIal s it eis tobe found , Kotedalen representsa like l ycandLdat.e. Itis tocatoo wit.hin easy accessto both the fu l l rence of coaslcll re s o urc e s and a majo r i ty of the in l a nd resour ces.
Furthermore,the abundant faunalr-emains preserved c:.tLhi : ; si t e, the variety of organi c and inorgani cartif acts, the possibili tyof identif y in gstr uct uresand features . dnd ttl,,.
fact that it wasocc u piedfr ornthe Early Mesolit hic t hrou q h th e MiddleNeoli t hi c prcvtdesthe ki ndof data nece rsaeryt.'1 evaluate these implica t ions_
8
;.. l",rio:[ int.roductionto the history of StoneAge r'='.::>,:·.)t ch inWf:st.ernUor\o/ayi sprovidedbelow. Inaddition.
Ch.:J.pt ",r 2 describesou rcurr ent unde rstd n dinqof the natural en dcul r..ura l history ofweste rnnorway. The resources .l....ejIebl e duringtheAt l anticPer i o d are recon s t ruct ed for Nor-dhordLan dan d the ediece.•emoun t ainplate aus inChapter 3.
sever al sub si stence an d settlenent model s are presentedin Ch a nte r 4 toqe t h e r witha discussionofth e implications of th es e for specif i cre gional andintrasite st ud i e s , Th e resultsof the excevectcne at xcceoejenare presentedin chapte r 5 andehese re s ul ts areev al uat edrelat iveto the implica t. ions pre s ent e d earlie rinChapter 6. The final chaptereuieer La e s the results fr o m this researchand out 1i.nes seeear eas whereadditionalresearch isnece ssary .
All dates refer toconvention al,unc a libr ated radiocarbondates. Theterms·)!;esolithic~and "Neolithic"
have come to possess bothchronological andeconoetc connota tions(Bjerck19B6:1191.butrefer here only toa peri odof tillle {Mes o l ithi c; 10,000-5200 BP, Neolit hi c : 5,200- )500BP1. In addit i on . the term "S t one Age"will be used to refer to the Mes oli thi cand NeolithicPeriods combined.
1. 4 Res earch objectives
Thereare fi vegrrinar-yoctecctves fo r('on,hl,'till'l thisre sear ch. First, are vi ew of the irterecure c oncerninq the Me s o li th i c of western Nor way has revea led tlMt there h.I~:
beenlit.tleresearchspecifically orientedr.oward n th,~~liddl~'
and LateMesol i th ic in sp iteof the lar geqUdntity of inform a tio n avai l abl e ,seccod, theemphasis inth is tbcst»i::
noton chr ono logica l quasc Ions , which have domtnerecr reseorcn onthe westero r vectc nMes ol it h i c until recently. fnnr eacl, the emphas is is on sett lementpatterns, whi c h uses the d,ltd ava ilablein adifferent manner. Third, xotedele n repr eacntn a uniquesite for re s ear c h related to thecne noee in subsistenceStra te giesthroughoutthe Meso l i t h icandintoti l"
Neolit h icPeriod in western Norway. Byfocusi nqonthe subsist ence baseand eva Luat Inq whether the Mes o l i t hic compon e ntsrepresent yea r-round sedentary ac cupation,thi:;
will provide abaseline fromwhich to evalua t;e laterch anqeu.
Four th, thi s res ear c h contributesin a gene r a l way tot'8CNIt.
investi gationsconcerni ng the ro leof sedentaryc oactct foragersin t.hecu ltu ral development ofscen cn nevte. Fi na lly ,the degreeof m3bl.bt.yhasimp lica t i ons [ortn e..
socialst r uctur e {and'liceversa)and mustbeeveLuated in or de r toadd ressquestio ns-on c emt nc the interactionb~t.~I~(m neighbori ng groups of people,
10
1.5 scone Aqe re s earch in westernNorway
t-rofe e s Iona Larchaeology in westernNorway beqan around 1874 whena separatedepartmentof eccneeo Locv
(Historisk-·ant ik v aris k) was for medwi t hi nthemuseum at Ber g en. Theresearch interes t ofarchaeol ogi s t s inBergenat that. timewa s onthe IronAge (Klindt -Jen sen1975 :9Bl andit was not until190 1 that the firstart i cle relat e dto t.he Stone Aqe was publ.ished (sheteliq1901). For thenext thi r t y yearsintensiverecearc h onthe Stone Ageof coastalareasof western Nor...J.ywas undertaken (Bj0 rn 1923. 1924, 1928, 1929:
erenoer1907, 1908.1909. 1910. 1913: B0e1.923; Nummedal 1920. 1924; Rygh1910. 1912; Shetel ig1922). Th i s activity waa inspiredbyquest io nsconcerning theorigins of the first tnneo ttenc e of Norwayandthe "ar cheLc-nat u r e ofthe scene Culture or " flint -plae " sitesthat had been found. The other StoneAge culture identi fied at the time was referred to as the nesrvet; Cultur eand these sites we r edi st i n g u i she d bythe presence of a distinctiveaxe form. Explanatio nsofculture changewer e based primarilyon migr ationtheoriesand archaeologi s tsweredepe ndent on the comparativ e chronolog ies establishedmorefirmly in Denmar kand norcher n Europ e.
From19)(1 to 1960 the quantity of rese arch on the Stone Age ofthisarea decre a sed mar kedly (Bull ~9 3 6; Bale193 4, 1942 ; Hinscb1954 ; Lund1951) andmost of the pub li ca t ions
11
represent. reappr aisal s andaenera t s)'nthesesof earli...-rwotk (Cl a r k19 3 6 : Freundt 19 48: Gjesgi ng t~H5; She te Ljq 1,11,,1:
Indrelid1975:1 ). rxcavat tonsat th isti me rccusot onti ll'
vaz-Lcuscave sites in westernNorway. "rc hdeo lo9 i. ~;t ~:.;\~cn' still dependent onchronol ogiesestabl i shedin northeru Europe. Now,in additiontomigration.diffus i onI.d :; usod forexplaini ngcult ure change and broad. sveeptno genera lizat io ns were made.
Around1960 rese a r ch on theStoneAgeincreased and sincethenther e hasbeen continuedprofess ionaltnc eront theMesolithic of westernNorway. Theinitial r-esurqence in activ ity wassparkedby severa llarge surv eys0f nouritaln plateaus thatwereconducted Inccnjen c t Lon wit.hthe hydroelectricdevelopm ent of thos e ar ea s in th e 1%0 13(lJd'J'.:..'rl
1963;Joha nsen 1969, 1971; Martens and Hagen 196 1J. Over 1. 000 stoneaae sit es were ident ifi edin thehighland n:<J Lo n (In dr el i d 1975: 1}, Lessworkwas doneal ong theccaur;.Jt this time (Elakk a 1964; Bdkk aand Kaland 19711. rho doJl<l collected durin g the s e sur v e ys were tohavepr o f ound ettccr.u on thedevelopmentof Hesolithic research,as t.heyd"~m<lrl(j(:d,l reappraisalof traditional typologies, chrono l ogies. and explanationsof change.
In 1975 t.woercLctes were published that r-e-ev e Iuared t.he traditional sosueznee c v e c typol ogy forthe nescLithic in
, 2
~~i'J': h "~ r nIIQrwaJ' IIndreli d 1975;11ikkelsen 19751. These se t r;t-,r:quide Li nea for establishinga newchr o noloq y that was bused no t on compa ri s ons wit.hnon:h ernEuro pe. buton eypalo qic alcomp a ri s onsof ra di ocarbo n da tedassernbl a g .::s withi ndefinedre qi onsof south e r n Norway . Atransit.io n phase was placed betwe en the roeneand N0stvetTraditio ns ca.
7.000-9 .000 BP. Ithadnot beenrecognizedear Lt.«,' in we sternNorway be cau s emost of thesite s as s o c iatedwith sho r e li ne s from thisperiodwere ei ther ero de d or deeply burLed during the Tapes Transgress i on tefer c k 1986:1 05 1 . Thiscr ea teda falseimpres s iontha t Fosna and seeeveewere twoun r e l a tedtraditions . The implica t i onwa s tha t the uee c veeTr ad ition was actu allyan outg ro wth fromthe Fo s na Tradi t i o n andthat there wascultural co nti nu i t y in the we st.
Nono;e gi an Hes olit hi c.
Sinc eth e n, the numerous su r veys andexcava tionsof Me s ol it hic sites inbothcoa st aland hiohla n d areasof west.e..-nNorway haveprovided amor e bal anced databasewith wh i c hto fi ne tun ethe regi o na l chronology (A1s a ke r 19 87;
Ba ng Andersen 1988. 19 9 0 ;Bergsv ik1991; Bjerck 19B3. 1985; BjrJlrgO1981, 1986: Bj0rgo et a1. 1992, Bostwick Bjerc kand St-uenOlsen198); BruenOl s e n 19B1; Gjerland 1985 ; Gu s t a f s o n 1983: Indrelid197 3a.b , 1986;Joh an s e n 1977; Kristoffersen 1990; N.!"r0y 1987 ;Nyg~rd19H; Rande rs 19 88 ; Si mpson1992;
13 Ago t ne s 1981). Thisrecent work has shownthat;the traditional culturalc Las s LfIc ac Ion s, basedonthepn"~l' IlC~' andabsence of certainartifact types, areinadequat ed,;th,:
presence or absenc eof a par t i c u lar ty peat a sitelnc1y 11,1\'<) functional, tec hnologicalor soc i alsi gn if ic a nce iOBte,l.!ot,1 purelychronolog ic al one . fill of thes e fa c t o rsmustbe con tro lled forwhen esta blishing achro no lo g icalsequence.
Ano therprob lem withthe tradit io na lculturesast}-,eywe re previo usly defi n ed was thatthey tende dto mask legiolld] var i ab ility . Th i skind ofva riab.ilit.yhasbee n no ctccumore re c e n tly {Bjp. rc k1986:117 ; BruenOlsenandAlsa kel"198<-1 ; Gje da od 198 5 ; Indr eli d 1975; Madd e n 1983;Hi kk el~;e n19n1,
Expl an ation s of change are depe nd enton perc eived simi l ariti es and di ff er en c e s bet ween ar-chaeo IcqicaIun lcs thro ug h time andac r os s spac e . Theconv e ntio na l scsne-nes tveedist i nc t i on emphas ized difference s one discontinuitythrough time (externa l causes fo r chenqeI.md similaritiesand continui tyacros s apa c e (r e g i o na l homogeneity ), whereas therevi sed ch rc no l ogy empha siaer, si mi l a r i t i e s and co nt i nuiti es throughtime(int er nalcauses forchange) and differe nces anddi sc o nt i nu i t y ac r o s s apace (reQ' ional variabili ty ). These changes. indicatea fundamen t al shift that hashad and willcon t in u e to h,l"" .)[1 impacton Mesolith i cresearch in westernNorway.
2 IJATUI'.ALAllD CULTURE HISTOR Y
2.1 r nc rccuctton
The followi ngprov rdes a summaryof our current undar-sr andinq of the natural andcu I t.ur aI history of wes t e r n NorwaythroughouttheMe s o li t h i candpar t of the Ne ol it hi c. The physiog r ap hy of the region is describedinsome det.a i.L a a this formsthe unch angingpartof th eenv i ro nment. In addition, what is known of thelithicsour c es fo r stone tools issumma ri z e d , as access to thesewou ldhave been an importantconsid e ra tio n fo r people at that time . The locationof lithicsources is also sta bleandwou l dhave influe nced settlement pa t;terns in a differentmanner than the seasonalavailability of animal resources whichis the emphasis inthis thes is, The locationof all places in wes t ern Norwa ymentioned in this thesis can be fo u nd on figur e2.
Each time period is introduc edwith a discus s ionof the majorenviro nmentalchanges as evi denced insea -levelcurves, climat echa nge s, poll e n diagrams and fau nalassembl a ges . Three sea -leve l curveshave been reco ns tru cte dalongthe coa s tof Horda landand d11 re ve a l simila r pa tter ns (Krz ywi ns k iand St ab e 11 1979,ROlla nd1984) . The sea- leve l curvefor ar eas fa r t he r inlandwould havebee n differen tas th e uphe a val of la nd in thesear ea was muchgreater . A reco nstru ct edsho relinediagram indica t e sthatthe
15
16 rr.an sqres.sIo nwou Id hove onlyslightlyaff ec t e doec e r etoet CF'iq .2) 53km fartherinland (Ka la nd19 8 4 : 23 9) . The coasts of ee sce r n norway end Trondheimfjord (Fi g .11ha v e different sea- levelcurves and no transgressionshav e been documented in thesearea s (Haf::iten19.33) . In thefollowing summary, th e sea-level cur ve (Fi g . )) end dates correspondingto major cha nges in the po llendiagrams fromrcnnes (Fi g . 2)will be use d as the y relat eepec.iId ....Rll y to the coast of Nordhordland
txejend1984:209).
~~ 30
Radiocarbonye u ca ap
figure J. Sea-levelcurve from rcnoes , westernNo r wa y . (Adap t e dtromKaland1984:2271
'7 Thisenvironment al info r mat ion is IoHowed by anourtino of cur currentunders tand i ng of the a rch aeo Loqical n!c <)ld fl'l each period. Here a briefstatementof the kindsof sir.en identified, their general lo c at i o n, characteris t i c s dodm.jjor typologi c alelementsis provrde d inaddit i:m togenera 1 int e r pre t a t i o ns of the subsistenceand set t l emen t paccorns.
Sto ne Agere s e a r ch in westernNor way has pri.mariLyfoc us ed\HI
thecoa s t and the mountainpLateaus, and it is theuttes trour these areas that form the basis of the following culturo history. Though limited, the ar-chaeoloqLea l in for mat.ion (r um the fjord areasis alsoinc l ud e d . The ch ro no l o g ica l and typologicaldivisions areba s edonove rvte...s presente dby Bjerck C19861. NygArd (1990) andBruen Ols en (19921 . se v e rar different no me nc l a t ures and dates have beenused for the chronologica l divisions of theMesolithicof so ut hernNOt'\....ly
(KygArd1990:235). These differencesare a resu ltof slightl ydiffe r ent emph a s e s on the typological criteri a IJ.'jed to defi ne the differentperiods (s e e BruenOlsen 1992: '10 ).
As best expre s sedby thecha nge s in blade production throughou t the Me s o l i t hic . thecha n geswe r e gradual"nd occurred atrou gh l yth e sa me timealong the entirewent Norwegiancoast IBjerck 19 8 6:11 6 ). Th e nomenc lat ureused belowis that understoodby people not familiar~..it h t htn spe c if i c ar eaandthe dates corr e spond to thecnroncao ne s
18
est abtLsbed for the naturalsciencel ir. Scandinavia (Mangerud r:t rJ1. 1974). These are not meant ashard and fastdi vi s i on s but onlyas guidelinesfor the discussion.
2.2Ph ysiog ra p hy
we s t e rn No rway includ es the Fylker (Pro vi ncesl of aer e oqgomsdal , Sago 09 fj o r d a ne, Ho r d alandandRogala nd (Fig. IJ.
Althoug h thefollo win gsurnmar'yinco r por a t e sre l evan tdata fro mthesepro v i nces. the emp hasisis ondeve l opmen t swit h in the morelimi t e dge og r ap h i c area defi ne dby th e modern boundc r Ies of No rdho r dl a nd and the adja::en tmountainpl atea u (fig. 2). We s t e r n Norway is situat ed onthe westernedgeof theFen nos c a nd i a nSh i el d between590and 620N latitude. In spite of thisnortherlylocation, the GulfStreamand west e rly winds stronglyinfluenceth e cli ma te ofthewe s t coast whic his cha rac terizedby mildwfn t er-s, cool summers and r-eLat Lv eIy heavy precipitation rates (Wallen1968l.
The followi ng pr ov i d e s a descripdonof the maj o r phys iogra p h icfeatures of weste r n No r way start ing at theedqe of th e continen ta l she lf in thewes t tothe central mountai n ra ng e inth e east, a distanc e of ov e r 300 km, Of fthewe s t coast of Norway th econtine ntalshe lf is less than200 m deep andabou t 150kmwi de. At the edg e of th i s shel fthe ocea n flo o r dro psoffqu i ck l y tode p ths bel ow1000m. Themixi ng
19
of wat er s from the co ldNan~e.,Jia nSe3, the warrn At Linti,-'\\lll Stream, andth e North andBaLtic Seas offtile wesc CO<1~~t.vf Norway results in oceanwaters rich in pLankton wbich~~ \I I' I" ' 1I a variety of fish. seabird end sea mamma Ispeci es . physiographicregi onsare outlined: the outer coast , innor coast, fjord and ri v er valleys and mountainplateau (FL'J. .tt.
Gr0neheller
100 200r
KH Figure 4, physLoqr aphr cregions of westernllonJ<J¥
The strandfLau orout er cce scincludesthe coes t .ot islandsand thelowe r parts of th e ma i n l a ndwitha'l<:raq<:
20
~l':'/ationsof about 40ma s ! (j(.l e ms d al 1985:2751. The ntrand fLat; is about, 16krn wideandstre tchesalong th e enctce l/o-r'.J€:gia n coas t from.rereointhe South tofi nn ma r k in the tlo rt h(Fig .tt. The is l a nds of the strandflat have been importantareas forsettl ements off e ri ng lo w-lyi ng land close tothe coas t. This coas t al lan ds ca pe has als ofacil ita ted movement ina nort h -south dir e c tion , as in manyplaces there is a pr-o t.e r-t edthoroug hfa r e for boat travel be tw e e n the islandsandthema i n l a nd.
A transitionzone re fe rredtoas the innercoast has beendefine dbetwee n the strandfl a t and thefjor dvalleys with elevat ions ge n e ra l l y lowerth a n 300 masl but some as : ighas 700ma s l. Some ofthisarea ismore simi l a r to the ot rencfLac wher e as other pa rt s aremor e similar to the fjord va ll ey s. This area is about 30 kmwide , but in someplaces, especi all y no r th of Sogne fjord [Fig . 2), the transition betweencoa s t and fjor d ismuc hmore abrupt. Residentsof this area have easy accessto bo t hcoa stal and inte rior resources. In part i c u l ar, thelowe r are as closer to the coast have been impor tant fo r settl ementsin the pastand pr esent.
Th i s par t of wes ternNorway isdomi na tedbytwo steep-side d , de ep , na rr ow fjordsthat pe net r a te ove r 180km inla nd, Ha r dange rf j or d to the south andSogn ef j orc to the
21 north (Figs. 2and 41 . The s Iopes alongs idetheset jordu rise fre mas little as700 m to <1S much as 15 0011\0.1$1 . TIl,,'I..•
are manyshort.steep riverswith vee errer rethattLowiru.o the sefj o rds. Alongth e oute rparts of the fjords....~lnn~l the coa st, there are some large r rela tively le vel ar-eas screeoie for set t lemen t. However, fal" therInl andsteeper slopesdominateandit ison l y intowards theheadof the fjordsand fjordarms that largerle v e l ar e as fo r se t.ttemeru.
were againpossible, The fjordsprovidean easy meanuof travelbetween the coast andthemounta i nsby boa t . uetwe cn the s e two large r fjord sis a short e r fj ord system wi th med ium reli ef (Kl emsd al 1985:2741 tha t fo r ms the inner Ls Lmd of osue rev IFig.21. TheVossri ver drains the mountainoun regionbet we en Ha r da nge r f j o r d and Sognefjord and r Iows into thissmall e r fj o r d system. The regio n aro un dthevo ssrive r valleyissomewhatuniquefo r westernNorwayand in many W.l y;;
is mor esimilar to thelong.qentler riverva ll ey s of east.crn Norwa y. This area wouldhav e been suitab le for settleme nt in the past,andtheVossRivervalley andshorterfjor ds Wf"J11ld prov i de another rout e conne c t i ng the moun t a ins and t.he ccoot. The wa t ershedof the VossRiver forms the inlandpartof Nordho r dl andand it is thisarea more so tha n the La rqe fjords that isthe foc us of the res ou rce reconst ru c tio nin Ch a p t er 3.
22 The mountainousregions at the head of each of fjord are somewhat different. The mountains aroundsoqnefjord have a sharp, steep, alpine relief and relatively small level areas whichare between 1.20 0-1,600masl (Moe et al. 1978:74). In comparison the region at the head of Haz-danqez-fjor-d has one large plateau 8.000 kml between L 100-1. 300 masl {Johansen 1973:601. The mountainous regionis roughly 100 km wide.
Small ice caps exist in restricted parts of the mountains today; to the north of Sognefjordis acs c edaksbreen and at the head of Har danqerfjot-d is Har-danqerjake Len (Fig. 2).
There are many small rivers and elongated lakes on the mountain plateaus and moving throughout the entire reclion is relatively easy. There are also many places appropriate for at least seasonal settlement. The central position of the mountain plateaus within southern Noway may have made them appropriate meeting grounds for groups from southern.
eastern, western and even northwestern Norway.
The physiography of western Norway provides a rn1'dad of strikingly different environmental situationsover relatively short distances. Althcugh there is"icertain degree of variability within each of the four physiographic regions, the general characteristics of each are different from one another and people would have used the outer coast, inner coast. fjord and river valleys and mountain plateaus
23 coast. fjor d an driver vall e y s andmount a i n platea us diff e r entlyin thepast as they do toda y.
2. 3Lith i csour c es
The most predomi na nt typ e s of stone found inStoneAq e si t es inwestern Norway include fli nt. qua rtzite, cuer tc, crystal qu a rtz . rhy o li t e , mylonit e, greenstone, diabaee , soa pstone andslate. Other types we r eused,but arenot.:1:::
preva len t . Th e terms used for thematerialsare those commonly usedby archaeolog is tsandare not qeoLoq Loa Lly spec ific. As stoneto o l sand flake s are themost common ar t ifac t cla ss inwest Norw e gia n Stone Age sites. the loca t ionof specif icsource;,the distri butionof t.hese ma t er ia l s , the tec hn olo g i c al seep s in quar ry in gand producinq tools and thech a ng es inresourceuse th rou ghtime<Ill provid e sig n i fic a nt da t a concerni ngsett lement and co mmuni ca tionduri ngthe StoneAge. Alt ho u gh nosvst.emattc stu dyof all th e li t h icresources has beencompLet. ed , some init i a l comments canbemade. Th e sou r c es for rhyoli te
txfeexer 198 4) andslate (S0berg 1988)havebeenreviewedand studied,but these ar e prima ri lyassociat ed with the Neolithi c inNordhordlandandwi llnotbeela bo ratedbere .
Materials use d fo rmak i ng flak ed st on e toolsof var Iouc kir.-lsare flint. quartz it e , quart z. crystalquar t z, endnrJm~
24 t"lP8S ofmylonite. Flint does not occur in natural bedrock formationsin Norway but is found along former shorelines and derivesfrom glacially deposited cobbles from sources in Denmark and southernSweden (E..robensen 1957 ). These loose cobbles are foundalong the coast of southern. western and northern Norway (Bjerck1983:lOO). The distributionof quartziteis variableand al t hough severalquarries have been id e n t i f i e d on the mountain plateaus lJohansen1977 , Indrelid 19 8 6: 28 7 1 . quartzite isalso found in bedrock of lowerly i ng areasof western Norway (Skjerlie; in 8)0rgo 1981-Appendixat . Somesour c es of crystal quarta have been located on Hardanger plateau (Indrelid 1986:238)andjust to the southeastof the plateau (Martens and Hagen 196 1 : 6 6 ) . The quality of quartz varies greatly and it occursin a large varietyof places throughoutwesternNorway. The sources forthe different kinds of mylonite.particu larlya green-yellowand a mottled grey myloni tewhich occur in Mes o li th i c contexts in western Norway, have not beenlocated,
Thesources for someof the materialsused to make gr ound stoneax es/ ad zes ar e known (Br ue n Olsen1981, A1saker 1987. Gjerland 1990) and two major quarrys Ltes have been do cume n ted andstudiedindetail. On a smaller islandoff t.h ecoa s t. of acmto. HotdalandIF'i g.2) .a large greenstone quarryhas been Lcceted and the distributionof adzeand axes
25
fromthis quarry has been analyzed (Alsaker19S:l, 1')87).
t.tkewtse , d quarry of adistinctivediabase was found ill Flora, S090 09 Fjordane (Fig. L}; The distribut i on of,n: ~ "
ofth i s materialhas alsobeen studied (Br u e n Olsen 1981). Bruen Olsen and Alsaker (1984:79\suggest that the s e two quarries we reactivelyworkedfromabo u t 9,500BP to'1,0 00 nr. The distributio ns of axes/adzesindicatethe y supplied two more or less distinc t regionswhi ch overlap in thenort hern part of Nordhordland. These regionshave been int erpt' et ed,l~:
representingtwos LmfLe r socialterritories (ibid .:9'7 ). Some sources of soapstone are knownlo c a lly in CO,Js t .J ]
areas CBj 0 r g o 1981, Simpson199 2:51. Soapstone was lined in th eMesolith ic fo r making fishi ng weights and some of t.hr- perfo rat.ed ston es. It was alsoextensive lyused inlclL<? r periodsfor makingvessels and as a build ingmeceriet and jr;
is likely that thequarri esus e d in theStoneAge helve bee-n extensivelyalte redin more recent times.
Th e fewdetailedst ud i e s of speci fic rnat.e riaLsMIdUI'ji / distr i bu tioninwe s t e r n Norway have contri butedqr cotLyt,", our unde r s t an d ing of the settleme ntpatte r ns and soctcI netwo r ks (Bj0rgo1981. Alsaker and Bruen Olsen19 84) ancl ad d i ti on a l st udies of th isty pe sho uldbe equally fruit.Lul.
26 2.4 Ea r li estoccupa t Lon
mer eissomeevidencecha tpeoplereachedthesout hand coa s t s of Norway before 10,000 BP and occu p i edice -f r e e area sdur i n g t.he Aller0d (11.800-11, 00 0 BP}and 8011iog 113,000 -1 2 , 00 0 SP) interstadialsof the last glacia t ion. The fi nds fr omat cmvaa. si t uated on one of the west, coast islands ii-'i g . 21 . presentsome intriguing evidencethat hints at such an early occupa t ion . Here, the faunal remainsof whales.
seals.seabirds, fish. shellfish and reindeerwere fo und bene a thglac ia lmorainedeposi tsand radiocarbonda tedto the B0 11i ng interstad i a l (Mangerud 197 0 . Indrelid 1975: 12). No une q ui voc a l tools were fo und in associationwiththisdeposit and they may be the result of a catastrophic event. but an equ a lly viableexplanat ionforsuch a faunal assemblage. whi ch includ e s reindeer. wouldbethe presence of peopleat that time (Hag en 1983:13-14). The exact timing of thefinal gl acia l retreat along thewe s t coast of Norway varies; it ret r e ated from th e islandof aemtcin southwestern Hordaland (Pi g .21by ca.12.8 00 BPtsind r e198 01andfr o msc on e s in northwesternHordaland byabout 10,000BPtxeLand 1984:236 ). All coastal areas of Norway wereic e - fr ee by about 10. 000 BP an d thi s is generallycon s idere dto mark the first su sta ined occupa t i o n of No r way (Hagen 19S3:15 ).
27 2.5 EarlyMeso lithic {Pr e bor ea l : 10000 • ~O O OBPI
Compared to theAt l a n t i c Period . the envtronaenc of the prebo realand Boreal are charact.eri zedby mor e Ina t.a bilLt.y- and chang e an d thi:lmust haveinfluencedthe way peopl e or ga nizedthemselvesacross the la ndsca pe. Between 10. 00 0 and8."700 BP more andmore landwa s beingexposedalongr.he coas t .:!'"ithesea-levelre g r e sse d rapidly(Fig. Jl byup to 24mat ron ne.r IKaland1984:21l). This was la t er foll owedby a transgre s sio n whi chwoul d haveaffect ed shor e-bo und stces datin g between ca.9500·80 0 0 BP. Concurrentl y, on the mount a inplat e a us t.he glacia lretreat beganaro und 9.aooBP
(Ar.und s enand Simonsen19681 and aftera brief periodof gla c ia l regrowtharound 9600 BP the plateausbecametceetrc. by9.000 BP(Ande r s e n 19801.
Th ecoastalve g e t at i o n was character izedby a re l a tivel y openlands ca peand incl udedva riousgrasses. sedges. shr u bs likewillow and juniper andone tree species: birch IKa L'lnd 1984 :211 1 . Vegetati onon theMo unt a in plateaus did not becomewell establi s hed untilaft erthe area wa sde-qjccieted, Thr oug hout thePreborea l theveaece cronbecamemore and more dense in all ar eas.
Exactly when and howmoose . reddeer. ot ter an d po s s ib l y beave r cametooccupyar e a sof western Nor way ha s no t been deter mi ned butit was probably duri ng thelate pr-ebcr eeI ILir...
28
1'128:2311. In addition to these land animals. there was sur",ly a varietyof marine animals present including various species of whale, seal, seabird and fish. Species associated withmore arctic climatest.oday , such as the harpand ringed seals, may have been present but as there are no faunal remains from this time period, this remains unknown. I tis known thatthe ocean at this time was colderand the salt content. rover because of the addition of gldcialmeltwaters and the circulationof polar and subpolarwaters (Jansen and Bj0rkland1985:2561. fish species not as tolerant of cold water and low salt content musthave been affected and were either not presentor not ascommon as they were duringthe AtlanticOptimum.
Early Mesolithicsites arecharacterizedbya predominance of large. roughly flaked flint debitage and ir r egu l a r blades. The fewtco Ls found include flakeand core axes, t.anqed points, single edged points, microliths {primarilylancetmicrolithsl, burins. scrapers, retouched blades and flakes. The predominantraw material is flint, although some fine-grained quartziteshave beenfo u n d onsome sites (Agot n e s 1981:25. BruenOlsen 19 92 : 190 ) . Crude cores with acute platform anglesare also typical (Bjerck 1986: 107.
Ny gk d 1990:229, Br u e n Olsen 1992:123). Only recently have radiocarbondates been obtained from EarlyMe s o li t h i c sites
29 in sout.hernNorway (Bang Andersen1990,Bruenol sen 1992) ,11\.1 these suggestanag e ofat le a s t 9600 • 900 0 BP I o r such assemblages .
Typolog icallysimilarEarlyMe s o li t h icsites a re fO\l1\d in east ern No rway, alongthewe s t coastfromgoqaLand to North Tro nd el ag and relatedassemblagesare foundin 'ri-oms andFinnma r k (Fi g . 1; NygAr d1~89 : 781. The absenceof s ttos along the southerncoast ispr o ba bl y because the E.uly Me s o li thi c shoreline liesunderwate r today <Nummedal 1933:239-2 4 4 ; And e r s e n19 80). Theeconomyduring the Ea t"]y Mes o l ithic is not we ll understood as no faunalrema inshave been found from this periodandoth e ror g a nicremains cr-e
Most of the si tesare assoc i ated wi t hthe cocs t. thoug ha fe w ha v e beenfound in the interio rto theso u t hof Hord aland (BangAnderse n1990). Rei ndeer is assumedto h,w (!
been the majorla ndanimal hunted , though it is possib let.hat,
redde erandmoos e wereavailab leat least inth e Ioce r pa rt of thepre bo r eal . The concentrat ionofsitesne a rthe coast suggestsa stro n g mari n e ori e n ta t i on (Ind r eli d19 7 8 :1 51, NygArd 1989:761 . The reLa tiveIysmallsit esare see nas th E' remainsof si ng l eoccupationsbysmallgroupsof highly mobileopport un i sticforagers /NygAr d1990:232). Othe rsfind more variation in the material and int e rp r etsites inthe Ea rl y Mes oli thicas the re ma i n sof mor eLoqLatic a Lfy
30
Early r-resotit.htc as theremains of morelogis t i ca l l y o rqan i z edgroups (BangAndersen 1990: 2 24. Be rg s v ik19 91:2 5 61.
2.6 Mi ddl e Me s o li t h ic (Boreal: 9000 - 8000 BP)
Thesea-level curveat Fon nes re ac hed a low of about 4 m abov e cod eyte sea-l evelat 8,700 BP(F ig .]). Two hu ndre d yea rs later ma rkedthebe g i nning of the trans g res s ionin thi s area andthe rate ofsea-level rise wa smos t rapid be t ween 8500 - 8000 BP. All sho r e -bound sites fro mthisperiod wo ul d ha ve beenaffected Ly this tran s g r es sion. On themountai n plateauthe pla nt s that coloni zerec e ntlydeglaciat edareas, such aslichens . mo s sand other ar ctic plant s, beg an totak e hold after 9000 BP tmve n 1975; etvenand Ry v ar d en 19751 . By 8,500 sp,bir chand pinewere introduced to thehi g h l an d plateaus andsoo nafterth e cr eennereac hedan elev at io n of 1,;)50rnasL, about 300mhighe r t.han t.od ay ' s (Moeec ar• 1978 :76·78) .
Concu r r ent with the ri se inthe sea-levelat 8,700 BP was aris e inthe haze lpo llen curve in westernNorway (Kal artd1984:209). whi c hsugge stsaconti nuedameliora t i on of thecl imat e . Th evegetatio non the coa st an dthe lower elev at ion s ofthe fj or ds wasdomina t edbybirch, pine. an d haze l IfJ!gri 19 4 4 , Hageoo1967, Kal and 1970, Moe etal.
1978:761. Pine was moreprevalentininne r fjordarea s than
31 out on the coast. The trend Juring this enc.Lreperi od \~,l r:
towards a more heavily forestedlandscape, The ctrmar e became morestable around 8500BPand it was slig ht l y warme-r tha n today Oresre and Kvamme19911 .
During the early part ofcu e Boreal , the ame lior . jtinq climate and the direct land connection between the Scandinavian Peninsulaand co nt i n e n t a l Europe re su lt.ed in thc major migrationof land mammals into Norway (Lie 199 0 : 68 ). Those species that had not. migratedin the Preboreal, like wi l d boar and other small mammals moved into Norway at r.ntc time (i b i d .:691 . Sometimeafter 9000BP, when vege tationl10Id becomeestablished . it is thought that reinde ermo ved onto themountainpla tea us lMoeet; a l . 1978:7 3). Be twe en 8500 ,mol 80 00 BP the treeline washi g he r than todayandwinter for.:l{Jr~
for reindeer was greatlyreduced and it is pos s i ble tna t moose occupied forested pares of the aardenaer pl.at.ea u(MOl!
et OIl. 197 8 : 8 0), Exactly what species comprised theeertne faunais not known although the oceanwaters were warme r (Kar-pu z and Jansen 1992,Jansen andBj<llrklund198 5:2 5 6 1,)n ,j
thiscertainly influencedthevariety and abundan ce of m,lr 111':
animals present.
Sites from this time period in Nordhordlandare no t "": J I known, The shore-boundsiteshave been at tect edby se a -l '!',' :l changes, and the few surveys in areas at slightlyhigher
32
'"l",,'I'Jti,;ns neve not r eve eLedsites that. could beda t e d to
thispe riod.The only ra di o c a r bon dated sites betwee-nca. 89DO- 8QOO BP havebee n obtained from th eadjacent mountain nicceeos...herethe oldest datedcomponenton Hardangervidda ts CiL 8200 8P (Indrelid1986:186). In spiteof this lack of do t.a , it is clearthat asse mblages pre-dati ngthis periodare dif f erent from those that post-date it and th es echanges occur sometimebetweenca. 9000-80008P taier-ck1986, Nygli rd 19£'7, 1989, 1990,Bruen Olsen 19921. The majorchan g e sno t e d u r e that flint axe/ a d zes go out ofuse and areeven tuall y replaced by groundstoneaxes/adz e s: ta nged and single-edged points are replaced bycompo s i te bl ade tools: bl ades beco me ne rrower, mor e requ lar- and even; multi facialcoreswi t hone platformare found and a few geometric microl ithsoccur.
tjrindinq slabs,drills, mi c robjad a sandmicroblade coresare octdic IoneIelements foundthat post-dat ethisperiod.
The subsistenceand se ttlemen tpa tte rns reconstructed I o r thi s ti me period areba sed onami n i mal numberofpoorly dated sitesan d mustbecon s i der e dten tat iveat best. The sitesap pear tobe slightly large r thanthe Earl yMesc li th i c Gite s and are the reforeinterp re t ed asrepresenti n g occupations of long erdur a tio n (Nyg.!l r d 1990:232). Other w ise, stte loca tio n seems to be simi l a r tothatof the Early Mesolithic. The hig h mountain pl ateaus becom einha b i ta b l e
33 and evidence that peopl e used themoccu r s tow.u-dt ill'l'lI d this pe ri od. The gr ea t e r varietyof l~'n,ilOdr. un,llg pr(': ;~'l\t mus t haveaffected subsLs ter.ce andsettle men tdk' i l'L"; ,
2,7 Midd le Meso l ithi c (Edr l y Atla nti c : 8000• 70 0 0 Bf·') The re t.eof thetr a n s gr es s i onslowsdownccns uter.rbtv after- 8000 BPand itre a ch eda reaxirru.rrn heig ht of 11 m.m1 ,It rcnnes by7200BP, aft er\..hich itst a bt lIzed [or the> noxt 1000 yea rs (l"i g . 3). Aro un d 7800-7700BP al der l.11('!t·,l,.;od ill abundanceand assoc i atedwi ththiswas a markedden '~,1 ~';I;l in theshr ubs andherbsindicatinga genera llycrccedfur'~Ht:
environ ment wi thbir ch. al der andhazel be ingtheprL'<!omi l l,lll l speciesin the co astal ar ea (h.,:oland 1984:209). Pill!! Wdf~IIUJI"
prevalentfarther inl a n d. xrc und B.000BP thepinecur. V'!
began to de cline from therou nt.atnplat eau indicatluq., slig h t clima t i ccooling Woe1977 )an d by 7500BP the tr e e l i ne approximated tha t of t.cdey" s {I ndr-e l id 1981;::U'i]I.
The ocean water temperat ur est.abilizedafter 130 0 0Ill'.Hl d
reneLnecthesame unti1 5000 BPIKa r puzand.rensen[9'j2 ).
Both land and marine environment swer e'Hanneran dr cm.rinod relatively stableover a long period ofti me.
Evidencehas recently beengat h e r ed .indicat;l(lt/th dt scme creebetween 7500 and7000BPa tsuna mi which'11·1 ri triggered byasubmarinelan d s li de.i.repacted tne ccent ...-)f
34
I!l)r~.o. y. Ini t i al proje c t i onsindicate that wi t hi n dmat te r of
hour s thesea - l ev e l ros ebet wee n 5to 10 me t er s (Sv ends e nand Mange.r"ud199 0 .andper sonalcommuni c ation ). Thismus t have had an impacton th ecoast al populationat that t ime.and should betak enintoconsideration wheneval uat ingsi t e for ma tion pxocessez • as itwoul d have erodedand dis turbed somesit elocat i onsanddepos i t edfin esan dsonothers .
Se vera l faun alcollectionscanbe dated to the Atlanti c per iodand a varietyof land e ndma rineani mals arepr e s e nt.
These aredi s cus sedin de t a i l in Cha pter 3.
Many of the typologicalcha nges that began in the Bo r ea l wer e completedby this t.ime. Ground stone axes/adzes are common exce pt on mountai n plateau sites, dr i lls andengr a vin g tools are coneo n as are mi cr o blades andconical cores.
Tange d and single edge d points ar enot present, and ther eis now evidenceof sl ot t ed belletools lBjerc k 1986, NygAr d 1990).
Other bone tools suchas fish hooks , gorges and harpoo n s are fi rs t foundprese rv edfr om this per i od ,butit is likelytha t the s e were alsopresen t earlier. F'l in t is still thedominant mater ial used on ccascersit es inwestern Norway , though this cha nges towards theendofthi speriodILbi.d.L. Some occu pationscont a i ning perf o ratedstones havebeen dat e dto this peri od (Br u e nOls e n1992:124, Krfbger 19921.
35 on l y a few coas t a lsite s can be secure ly d.atedt ...lth i.c\
time perio d as many shore -boundsi tes bevebeen .1C(CCtL'.!by th e transgressi on, Severa l sit es onHa rdd nqe rv i Jd ,l I:IV('bee-n dat.ed to th is t.imeperi od (In d reli d 1986 :185-186). The coasta l sitesseemtobesimi l ar insize to thosefromtill' Borea l, bu t the y are now located near go o d fishinqIoc.uIou.. (Ny gArd 19 90: 233) . Theoccup ation s fromxct.ed aren. whiL'h form the ba sis of thisthesis, are fromthela tt er pcrtof this time period and ...illbe disc uss edindet a i l late r.
2.8 Lat e Mesolithi c (Middl e &Late Atlan ti c: 7000 - 5;;00IH' ) Thisrepresents thefirst. time during th e pos teqlaci.rl period th a tno major change s inse a-l eve loc cu r red andi.t w..1: : not until about 6.000 BP th a tthe sea-le v e lcu r veqt"clU!J,l lly star ted to declineaga i n{F ig. 31.
Th e close d forestdomi na te d bybirch,alderand hen'?I whichhad been inexis te nce since theearlyxt Ienttc r-ertod continuedto domina te . Othe rspeci eswe representandthe exact compositionof the fo res t in speci f icar easdepcnded on elevation. slope,dr a i nage and und e rl yi n gsci is. Ald e r beq.c n to expandonto thehigh l andpteeeeuaround 70 00 BPand reached it s maximum at~OOO BP, sugges tinga mor ehum i d climate (Moe et;al.197e:81 ) . aochoce a n (Si mmo nset et.
19 8 1:11 7 . xerpue and Jansen 1992 ) and landIS e l sing and
36 wtebmen 1984:127,ue sjeet a1. 19 91 ,Ne s j e and Kvamme 1991) tenmerc tures wereslightly warmer than theyare today. 'The we ste rIy wi nd s and we a t her patterns that exist today were present during the Atlantic Period ($e1siogan dWishman 1984:1J2). Th e climate and vegetatio n of the region changed slightly after ca. 6000 BP whenthe averageairtemperature
fellby l"C tueefeand Kvamme 1991l, andamixed oakforest
developed on the coast sometime after 5700-5500BP (FoJlgri 1940:82, Kaland1984:209 ) .
several faunal assemblages dating tothis time period in Ncrdhcr-d Lend have been recovered andthese form the basis for the reconstruction of animalresources as presented in Chapter 3.
The assemblages for the LateMes o l i t hi c of the west coast of Norwayare dominatedbynarrowmicroblades . Both bipo Lar coresand conicalmicrobladecoresare present.
Whether these arete mpor a l markers, with one occurring earlier tna-i the otheras suggestedbyBruen Olsen (1992 gIl remains to be tes t e d. The r e is an inc rease inthe varietyof mater ia lsusedfor flaked stone tools in this part of western Norway. The ass emblagesare also comp r isedofgroundat one axe/adzes, blade bores, scrapers. grindinq slabs andvari ous bonetools. Transvers earrows , thoug h ra r e, appear sometime after 6000BP (Nyg,a; rd 1990:230 ) . The r eare two ap parent ly
37 unique characteristicsof Late Mesolithic as semblage s from coastal we s cem Norway. One isthe presenceof seel L, soapstone weights (Bjerck 1986:110; Bj0rgo 1981 1. arxt the ot he r is a marked increaseinthe variety ofmaterld l s usect for flaked too ls (Bru e n Ol sen 1992 : 841. Thi sLn d tcates some regional differentiation betweeneastern andwestern NOI'way which becomes moredistinct in the Neolit.hic(Ny g<'Jrd 1l)fl9.
Bruen Olsen 1992: 15"1). Some large siteswith thick deposits are noted at thisti me and hint at a change in subsistence and settlement practices which has been inte rpretedas sedentary or semi-sedentary occupationalon g th eCOd S t (Ny g Ar d 1990). Thiswi llbe discussedin more detai lin chapter 4.
2.9 Neolithic {5200 - 3500 BP}
The sea-level curve reveals a cont i n ued gradual ucctr ne to its present elevation (F i g . ]).The vegetat.iona l chanqer, tha t.occ u r r ed s Lncethebeg i nni ng of the Neolithicwillnot be describedin detail . T...o impo r t a nt changesoccurredand th e s e are related to the adoption of agricul turein the region. Around 4, 000-],500BPthe increase in ronarboreei pollenin the pollen diagrams has been interpreted as the establishment of cerealfarming in the region and marked th e!
beginning of the deforestation process (Kaland1974: )5). The
