UNITED NATIONS
ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA
"ublic Administration, Human Resources and Social 3evelowmant Division
EDUCATION STAFF TRAINING DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
REPORT OF THE REGIONAL CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT COURSE FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPERS ON THE PRINCIPLES, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
OF CURRICULUM "LANNING AND DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICAN COUNTRIES
INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR INSECT PHYSIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY (ICIPE) NqIROBI (KENYA), 3 OCTOBER - 12 NOVEMBER 1988
Planned and Organized by the
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA)
and The African Curriculum Organization (ACO) in collaboration with Tha German Foundation for International Development
December 1988
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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PART ONE
I. Organization and Venue 11. Participation
111. Resource Personnel IV. Opening of the Course
V. Rationale for the Course VI. Objectives of the Course VII. Content of the Course
A. Topics B. Assignment
C. Course materials D. Training strategy
E. Certificate of attendance
VIII. Course Proceedings 1. General concepts 2. Country reports
3. Group discussions and assignments 4. Individual exercises and assignments IX. Summary of the course proceedings
1. Concepts of curricclum and curriculum Developments
2. Models of curriculum development process 3. Objectives in curriculum development 4. Selection of content
5. Selection of learning experiences 6. Curriculum design
7. Instructional design process
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8. Curriculum design problems: Developing and sequences
9. Developing instructional materials 10. Programme evaluation
P A R T THREE
Country Reports, Group and Individual Assignments 4 0
P A R T FOUR
A. Evaluation of the Course
B. Conclusion and Recommendations C. Closing o f the Course
Annexes
List of documents used L i s t of participants
List of Resource Personnel Course Timetable
Annex I nnr.ex I 1 Annex I11 Annex IV
PART ONE
I. ORGAFJIZATIOIJ AND VENUE
The Second Curriculum Development Course on the concepts, process and techniques of curriculum development, implementation and evaluation was planned and jointly organized by t,he African Curriculum Organization (ACO) and the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) in collaboration with the German Foundation of International Development (DSE). The course was held at the International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), Nairobi, Kenya from 3rd October to 12th November 1986 i.e. six weeks. The first course which lasted a similar period of time was held at the lhlawi Institute of Education, Domasi in 1987.
The course was attended by thirty eicht 2articipants from eighteen English-speaking African Countries, viz: Botswana, Cameroon, Ethiopia, The Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, P.falawj, Mauritius, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
The participants from these countries consisted of non-graduates curriculum development workers, teacher training college tutors, persons employed in teacher advisory and education resource centres, instructional supervisors including inspectors of schools, and graduates from curricu1u.n development centres without any formed training in curriculi~m development. The full list of participants appears as Annex I1 of this report.
111. RESOURCE: PERSONNn
There were seven course tutors from the University of Ihadan, Nigeria, the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), Ethiopia; the lvlauritius Institute of Education, the National Curriculum Development Centre, Zambia; Moi University, yenya; Brandon University, Canada; and the Malawi Institute of Education. In addition there was a course co-ordinator (Administration) from the Institute of Curriculum Development, Tanzanla and full technical support from the Kenya Institute of Education. (A full list of tutors appears as Annex I11 of this report).
The ECA resource person was the professional Co-ordinator of the course, Chairman of the Course Steering Committee, and was responsible for writing the final report of tbe workshop; the overall evaluation of the course; providing guidance to participants on their ddily/weekly assignments, and on the conduct of daily sessions on
various topics as assigned to him in the Course Handbook.
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N. OPENING OF !EE COURSE
The course was opened by the I-Ion. i . Peter Gloo Aringo 1I.P.
Ilinister of Education, Kenya. In his opening remarks, the Minister expressed his pleasure to have been invited by the Course Organizers to open the six weeks course; and to r~elcome the partizipants and course tutors on behalf of the Kenyan Government to Nairobi.
Flhile the Plinister did not want to pre-empty what was going to take place in six weeks, he wished to emphasize the central role played by curriculum in education and national development. In this regard he was particularly pleased with the well-thought o'~t objectives of the course to acquaint the participants with the concepts and techniques of curriculum developffient and implementation, give them practical orientation in the state of the art; and also stimulate their interest and inculcate the habits of self-development in curriculum development and evaluation.
He continued and noted that the course provided an opportunity for both participants and tutors to delve into the areas of curriculum development and research particularly in the formulation of objectives in curriculum development, content selection, learning experiences, curriculum design and evaluation and the development of instructional materials. It was gratirying to note that this course was being held at the International Centre for Insect Physiolol~y and Ecology (ICIPE)
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a well kno1m research cer.tre from which both tutors and participants would get some ideas on research work in their fields of theirspecialization.
From the informtion he had received and what he had seen, the course was well organized and in this regard, he paid special tribute to the Chairman of ACO and Director of the Course, Professor N.O.H.
Setidisho who had done so much for the programme. He was in no doubt that he was greatly assisted by a team of competent and qualified tutors who could ensure the success of the course.
The Minister ended by paying tribute to the Kenya Institute of Education for hosting the course and to the German Foundation for International Development for sponsoring the course and thus enabling sc many participants from far and near to be able to participate in such an important programme. While wishing the participants and tutors a happy stay in Kenya, he wanted them first and foremost to have a fruitSu1 open and constructive discussions and deliberations. Hc therefore, declared the course officially opened.
In response to the bdnister, Professor N.O.H. Setidisho said that while the course was organized by the African Curriculum Organization, it would not have been possible to bring thirty eight participants and eight resource persons without the financial support
. . .. .... ,., .,
Ldii, I J.;,J/ ~.n:, V U / ' Z ~ [ S .li0A.2;
Page 3 of t h e German Foundation f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development (DSE )
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He s a i d t h a t while t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s were curriculum designers i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c o u n t r i e s , they had only had a doze of formal t r a i n i n g i n curriculum development. Thus, t h e o b j e c t i v e of t h ? course was t o sharpen t h e i r t o o l s of t h e t r a d e ; and t o introduce them t o t h e formal process of curriculum planning, development and implementation. I n , % h i s regard, 'e s a i d , tile course had a l l t h e elements of curriculum planning, curriculum development and implementation together with t h e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s of t h e s e t h e o r i e s and p r i n c i p l e s so t h a t a t t h e end of it t h e p a r t f c i p a n t s would become p r o f i c i e n t i n curriculum development processes.
He s a i d that wfth t h e tpam of t u t o r s he had drawn from Africa and abroad, he had every reason t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s would leave Nairobi b e t t e r equipped with knowledge and s k i l l s i n curriculum development, iinplementation and evaluation. This would give an added impetus t o t h e organizers of t h e programme who were planning t o have a s i m i l a r course next year.
He t h e r e f o r e wished t o thanir t h e honourable Minister f o r having taken h i s time i n s p i t e of heavy schedules of work, t o come and give them a word of encouragement i n t h e implementation of t h e programme.
V. RATIONALE FOR THE C O W E
Foremost i n t h e minds of t h e organizers of t h e c o w s e was tile view t h a t curriculum development and evaluation should be an i n t e g r a l and continuing p a r t of education development and i n p a r t i c u l a r of e d ~ c a t ~ i o n a l planning process. I n t h i s regard, t h e s e v e r a l d i s c i p l i n e s within curriculum developnent must be seen a s a continuing process which r e q u i r e s a p p r o p r i a t e n a t i o n a l mechanism t o d e a l with t h e development and evaluation of curriculum.
While curriculum, teaching and l e a r n i n g tend t o a d j u s t themselves t o change, t h e pace of such adjustment i s o f t e n t o o slow t o keep a b r e a s t with t h e changing s o c i a l and economic fortunes of a country. A t t h e same time, s t r u c t u r a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l changes i n i t i a t e d a t n a t i o n a l l e v e l o f t e n t a k e time t o be e f f e c t i v e . There i s thus t h e need f o r d e l i b e r a t e a c t ? ons t.o hasten and f a c i a l i t a t e t h e process of curriculum adjustment t o s o c i a l and economic needs of a nation
.
This should be so because curriculum assumes t h e a t t r i b u t e s of a r e g u l a t i n g mechanism reaching beyond t h e formal substance of education and touching upon t h e very core of t h e process through which n a t i o n a l goals and o b j e c t i v e s a r e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o educational p r a c t i c e , aims and o b j e c t i v e s . In t h i s regard, c u r r i c u l m a t a l l l e v e l s of t h e educational system must r e f l e c t t h e needs of t h e i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i e t y and t a k i n g cognizance of t h e p r e s e n t l y accepted knowledge of nar d i s c o v e r i e s , r e s e a r c h and technology.This course ? h ~ - - f o r e , ~ 5 s rle-ig:es i l to assist.
participants develop kllowiedge and sbllls i n u~derstanaing the concepts, processes and techniques of curriculum development, so as to play a more effective role in curriculwn plann'ng, implementation and evaluation and more particuiarly in the development of instructional ma$erials. Since participants were drawn from a cross-section of education activities, the course was designed to ensure cross-fertilization of ideas and a common purpose in the solution of education problems nnrl its teoelopment.
It was felt that a l o could be gained by such a mix of participants involved in various curriculum activities at national level, all of whom were working towards one goal: the education of the young.
VI. 0mCmVEs OF THE COURSE
(a) The general objectives of the course were to:
1. Acquaint participants with the concepts and techniques of curriculum development and implementation.
2. Give participants practical' orientation in the processes and techniques of curriculiln development.
3. Stimulate interest in and inculcate the habit of self-development in curriculum development and evaluation.
(b) Specific objectives
More specifically, at the end of the course, participants were expected to be able to:-
1. Explain tine difference between curriculum planning and curriculum development.
2. Discuss the process of curriculum ?lanning, development and implementation.
3. Describe a number of curriculum development models.
4. Explain the role of objectives in curriculum an6 development.
5. Name and describe selected curriculum designs.
6.
Explain how to select content for an approved curriculum.7.
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8. Explain the concept of evaluation.
9. Discuss some models of evaluation in terms of their usefulness in the African context including their advantages and disadvantages.
10. Formulate objectives for the curriculum and curriculum development from a set of policy guidelines, conditions and
~i~cumstances in a given country.
11. Design a a d e l of curriculum developmnt for a selected country.
12. Develop a programme from objectives and situation analysis of a selected country.
U. Select content for an approved curriculum
14.
Develop a scope and sequence for a primary or secondary school subject15. Select learning experiences for a subject at a selected level of education
16.
Develop a unit of instruction in a chosen subject for a specific level of education.17. Evaluate instructional materials in the classroon.
1 Evaluate the following:
.
A syllabus.Pupilst textbook
.
Teachers' guide.
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VII. COlVZWl' OF THE COURSE
A. The course covered the following areas of study:
%pic 1: Concepts of Curriculum and Curriculum Vevelopment The curriculum development process
The methods of a situation analysis ana its importance for curriculum development.
The selection of objectives in curriculum planning Ro@amme implementation
Resources (for planning or implementation) Topic 2: 0b.iectives in Curriculum Development
The importance of objectives in curriculum development Models of curriculum development
Developing a curriculum development model Topic
3:
Content SelectionDetermining criteria for selection of content Selecting a concept of knowledge content Selecting content
Developing a scope and sequence Developing a teaching syllabus
Topic h: Selection of Learning Experiences Criteria for selection of learning experiences Selecting and organizing experiences
Relating experiences to educational environments Selecting conception of instruction
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Topic 5: .- Curric~llurn Desicn
Main theories influencing curriculum design
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their strengths and limitations in the perspective of their implementation in African Curriculum Development CentresSkills in the process of designing a curriculum plan especially as it relates to primary and basic education
Steps in curriculum
Instructional Design Process
Designs based on specific competencies Designs based on subject disciplines
Designs based on social activities and problems Designs based on process skills
D-signs based on individ.ua1 needs and interests
Guidelines for selecting appropriate curriculum designs Curriculum design for a selected African country.
Topic
6:
Curriculum Design: Scope and Sequence Organization of content and learning experiences Criteria for developing a sco2e and sequenceAnalysis of Fupils' Books, Teacherss Guides and Syllabuses Topic 7: Curriculum Evaluation
The nature and meaning of evaluation
Evaluation ~f cxriculux change at the planning stage, the try- out stage and the implementation stage
An exercise on programme evaluation
Topic 8 Developing Instructional thterials
Teachersv Guide and PupilsV Books as aids to teaching and learning:
Planning the pupilsq book and teachersY guide Evaluation of instructional materials.
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P. Assignment
At every stage during the course, participants were requested to do practical assignments which related to every aspect of the course.
The assignments among other things, involved the following:
Description of a particular educational en'iironment
Formulation of curriculum objectives for a chosen educational envirorunent
Design of a curriculum nodel for a specific education environment.
Selection of content and learning experiences for a particular curriculum design
Developing a scope and seqGence for the selected content for a given curriculum design
Developing one or two units of instruction Evaluation of an instructional unit
Evaluation of an educational programme C. Course Ikiterisls
1. Course materials were made mailable to all course participants upon arrival at the centre. The course Director had written instructional materials to cover the specific requirements of the course. The Centre Library was also available for further reading.
2. Each course participant was required to bring the following:
(a) A docment which contained the primary school syllabus of his/her country. A similar document for secondary education could also be brought along
(b) A teaching syllabus in the prticipantss subject of specialization
(c) A scope and sequence chart in any two subjects including the participantss subject of specialization
(d) Current National Education Development Plan or any other docwent which spelled out the national policy for education (e) Sample Pupil's Textbooks (at least two) which were being
used in primary schools
(f) Sample Teacherss Guides which went along with the PupilsF Textbooks which participants were bringing to the course
D. Training Strategy
For each topic, there was a series of presentations and discussions. These were followed immediately by practical sessions which were designed to translate theory into practice.
Course prticipants were divided into two or three groups of between ten and fifteen participants each. Each group had a Tutorial Assistant who helped with the following:
(a) Further explanation of principles which had not been understooii.
(b) Translat,ion of theory into practice and an application of the principles of curriculum development as they related to each topic under discussion.
(c) Provision of any other materials which were required by course participants.
(d) Professional problems and difficulties of course participants.
E. Certificate of Attendance
At the end of the course a Certificate of Attendance was issued to course participants who had attended the whole course and who had satisfactorily completed the prescribed assignments.
Approximately 50 per cent of the time was devoted to practical assignments.
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PART lW0 VIII. COURSE PFimmGS
On the basis of content indicated in Section VII of the report, each of the eight topics was presented in plenary by one or two resource persons and followed by group discussions and practical exercises designed to translate theory into practice.
At the end of six weeks, the topics which follow here under had been presented in plenary discussed in groups and exercises conducted on them.
1. General Concepts
(a) Systems Approach to curriculum development (b) Task analysis
(c ) Curriculum development process (d) Curriculum designs
(e) Models of curriculum development (f) Instrcctlonaldesign process
(g) Instructional design: Module development (h) Objectives in curriculum development (i) Selection of learning experiences ( j ) Selection of content
(k) Writing instructional objectives (1) Scope and sequence
(m) Curriculum evaluation (n) Analysis of a syllabus
(0) Developing a teaching syllabus (p) Developing instructional materials:
(i) Writing a pupils textbook
(ii) Writing a pupils book (two or tlree units) (q) Analysis of a pupils book
(r ) Developing a teachers g~ide (s) Analysis of a teachersv guide (t) Evaluating a pupils' textbook (u) Evaluating a teachersv guide (v) Selected models of evalcation (w ) Programme evaluation
(x) Writing an evaluation proposal (y) Preparation of an evaluation plan
( 2 ) Evaluation of the Curriculum Development Course.
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2. Country Reports
Course participants from each country were required to present a brief country report highlighting on each countryss education structure, aims and objectives of education and curriculum development activities. They were, therefore, eighteen country reports (representing the total number of participating countries) during the six weeks.
3. Group Discussions and Assigmnents
Apart from plenary presentations and country reports, course parti-ipants were divided into three groups (A, B and C) of twelve to thirteen each. The three groups had two tutors each assigned to them so as to assist thc participants with the following:-
(i) further explanations of principles and concepts which had not been well understood
(ii) translation of theory into practice and an application of the principle of curriculum development as they related to each topic under discussion
(iii) provision of any other materials which were required by the course participants; and
(iv) professional problems and difficulties of course particpants
Approximately fifty per cent of the time was devoted to practical assisgnments done either individually or in groups. What follows heredunder is a brief account of what happened both in plenary and in groups.
4.
Individual Exercises and AssignmentsA most important element of the training programme was the translation of theory intc practice by individual participants of the Curriculum Development Process. In this regard, each participant was required to develop a scope and sequence chart, three teaching units together with the appropiate teacher's guide in the subject of their specialization. A . f u n e h e t explanation of what actually transpired in these exercises appears later in this report (Part Three).
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IX. SUMMARY OF TAE COURSE PROCEEDINGS
A s indicated i n Sectior? VII of t h i s r e p o r t , e i g h t t o p i c s were t o be covered during t h e s i x weeks course. Tl~e e i g h t main t o p i c s were further subdivided i n t o sub-topics, themes, o r teaching u n i t s and indicated i n Section VIII item 1 ( a ) t o ( 2 ) . What follows here under a r e a b s t r a c t s of p r e s e n t a t i o n s and discussions of t h o s e t o p i c s .
7. Concepts of Curriculum and Curriculum Dcvelopnent
I n t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h i s t o p i c , it was emphasized t h a t t h e r e a r e f i v e phases of curriculum development:
( a ) t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n of goals, aims and o b j e c t i v e s ;
( b ) s e l e c t i o n of l e a r n i n g experiences ( teaching/leerning experiences ) ;
( c ) s e l e c t i o n of content
(d ) organization and i n t e g r a t i o n of l e a r n i n g experiences and content; and
( e ) evaluation
As regards, t h e f i r s t of t h e s e phases i . e . , goals, t h r e e l e v e l s of goals were discussed v i z : t h e ultL?late, mediate and proximate goals.
An u l t i m a t e goal was explained a s t h e kind of behzviour expected t o be observed a f t e r a long time of say s i x or more y e a r s whereas t h e mediate goals were t h e kind of vehaviour observed w i t h i n a given l e v e l a t each successive grade of t h e system leading t o t h e achivement of u l t i m a t e goals. The proximate goals were explained a s t h e s p e c i f i c statements of ictended outcomes. These a r e measurable and permit evaluation.
A number of examples were given i n r e s p e c t of t h e s e goals:
( 1 ( a ) t o develop p o s i t i v e t r a i t s of character and e t h i c a l values ( u l t i m a t e goal = i n t h e Affective ~ o n r s i n )
( b ) t o h e l p l e a r n e r s develop a s r e s o u r c e f u l people aware of t h e i r own p o t e n t i a l (Ultimate Goal i n t h e Affective Domain)
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( i i ) ( a ) be a b l e t o add any two whole numbers with carrying f r o 3 t h e hundreds t o t h e thousands only (Mediate Goal i n t h e Cognitive comain)
( i i i ) ( a ) t o be a b l e t o add any two whole numbers without c a r r y i n g (Proximate Goal i n t h e Cocgitive Domain)
( b ) t o be a b l e t o r e p a i r a b i c y c l e puncture a f t e r a demonstration (Proximate Goal i n Psycho-Motor Domain) A s regards phase two of t h e s e l e c t i o n of t h e appropriate l e a r n i n g experiences it was explained that one should s e l e c t l e a r n i n g experiences by which t h e goals w i l l be a t t a i n e d . One should a l s o give consideration of t h e various l e v e l s of .objectives t o be a t t a i n e d and s e l e c t t h e
lenrninv experiences accordingly.
The problem however was hard t o s e l e c t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l e a r n i n g experiences given t h e o b j e c t i v e s . The problem i s compounded by t h e lack of c l e a r l y a r t i c u l a t e d o b j e c t i v e s or intended outcomes. It i s important t o note, t h e r e f o r e t h a t l e a r n i n g experiences can be achieved by having a medium through which outcomes can be achieved
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t h a t medium i s content and t h i s w a s explained a s t h e t h i r d phase of curriculum development.I n discussing t h i s t h i r d phase it was emphasized t h a t every l e a r n i n g experience involves content. F i r s t it was necessary t o t r a n s l a t e goals and o b j e c t i v e s i n t o o p e r a t i o n a l goals before s e l e c t i n g l e a r n i n g experiences &nd content; t h a t g e n e r a l aims of education should be t r a n s l a t e d i n t o more s p e c i f i c o p e r a t i o n a l goals t o ensure t h a t t h e r e i s d i r e c t i o n i n t h e teaching:learning process; and t h a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l e a r n i n g experiences can only be provided through s u b j e c t matter content.
I n discussing t h e f o u r t h phase of organization and i n t e g r a t i o n of l e a r n i n g experiences and content, a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s was given of t h e scope and sequence i n t h e content of a programme; and t h e development of a syllabus and s u b j e c t matter. It w a s important t o combine l e a r n i n g experiences and content so a s t o achieve t h e intended l e a r n i n g o b j e c t i v e s ; and t h e organization of content and l e a r n i n g experiences i n which teaching w i l l be inade possible.
I n examining content c u r r i c u l w design w i l l have t o be examined, i.e., look a t t h e goals, c l a r i P j them, s e l e c t l e a r n i n g experiences and content using s e l e c t i o n c r i t e r i a and combine a l l t h e s e i n order t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e teaching/learning process i n t h e classroom.
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The fifth phase was evaluation which was concerned with the failure or success of the educational enterprise ?.JY means of nezsuremeni; acd assessment of change in behaviour. Co-ordination answers such questions as: were the teaching/learning experiences chosen suitable for attaining the operational objectives; was the content selected appropriate; was the integration effective: were the selected areas or subject mtter
learned/tau&ht in s compartimentalized fashion, etc.
Follswing t.his presentation and the general discussion, participants Irere divided into three groups under the guidance of the resource persons to do assignments as detailed in Assignment 1 as described in the Course t!
Handbookss made available to participants and resource persons. All the questions relating to this assignment were completed and a verbal report presented to the plenary.
2. Models of Curriculum Development Process
Selecced models of curriculum development process were discussed and comparisons made, v z : the Tyler Model; Taba, Wheeler's Kerr's;
Lawton's Models. Other models were mentioned but not discussed in detail.
A major point emphasized abour; curriculun mode1.s was that they assist in:
(i) focusing attention on the purpose of what we are trying to do, theret~y clarifying our hazy and fuzzy ideas;
(ii) anticipating certain problems which if identified at the planning stage could be attended to;
(iii) helping to serve on time, effort, energy, inoney, etc., especially when properly channelled;
(iv) planning. sequencing the curriculum development process and synchronizing various plans accordingly; and
( v ) making life easier for a curriculum worker by reducing unnecessary stress.
A critical review was made of what passes as curriculum phnning by examining in detail the work of five scholars !Pyler, T a h , Wheeler, Kerr and Lawton. The Models of these scholars were critically reviewed.
Having examined some of these models, it was concluded that curriculum is all the learning which is planned and guided by the school whether it is carried out in groups or individually, or inside/outside the school.
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Following this analysis and presentation, participints were given ample time to discuss in groups the merits and demerits of these models based on Assignment 2 according to the details in the "Course Handbook."
3. Objectives in Ci-rricuium - D v -. lopnznt
During the discussion on curriculum models, a lot was mentioned about aims, goals and objectives. It was necessary therefore to examine the role of these in curriculum development. Thus curriculum aims were defined as statements that describe expective life outcomes based on some value either consciously or unconsciously borrowed from philosophy. They do not directly relate to school or classroom because they are removed from classroom/school situation as the degree of their achievement is determinable only after completion of school.
I ,
The term curriculum goals sras used to refer to school outcomes"
reflecting either outcomes specified at the individual school level or at the general school systerc. Curriculum goals are often long- range and removed from imediate classroom assessment. They can therefore be referred to as general objectives in the sense that they focus on activities and are gen-rally broader in character than specific objectives.
In analysing objectives in curriculum planning, it was pointed out that in this regard an objective refers to an intended change to be brought about in a learner described in terms of neasurable learner behaviour. It must thercfsri >2 ~i.-,3'~:cly specific, ~ 3 r e readily observable and measurable so that one can determine whether a learner is making progress during %he course.
Examples of the aims and goals of education of various countries particularly of Zambia, Malawi and Sierra Leone were given and analysed and how national policies on education can be used as sources for curriculum aims and goals.
Ample time was spent on preparing educational and instructional objectives, i.e., the classification of educational objectives, their characteristics and how to formulate/statre? them in lectures, discussions and assignments.
In a detailed analysis of objectives, it was emphasized that an objective is an intent communicated by a statement describing a proposed change in a learner. It is a description of a pattern of behaviour we want the learner to be able to demonstrate after undergoing a learning situation. The statement of objectives must denote measurable attributes observable in the learner.
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It can only communicate one's i n t e n t i o n t o t h e extent t o which one has described ( i ) what t h e l e a r n e r w i l l be doing when demostrating w h a t he has learned and ( i i ) how one w i l l know when t h e learner i s doing it.
I n t h e i r t h r e e groups, p a r t i c i p z n t s were given a s e t of n a t i o n a l goals of education a s per d e t a i l s i n Assignment 3 of t h e Course Handbook from which they formulated and derived a s e t of primary education objectives as seen f i t i n each group. These were reported i n plenary and discussed i n d e t a i l .
I n t h e presentation of t h i s t o p i c , it was pointed out t h a t content i s t h e source of t h e curriculum; it i s t h e foundation of curriculum because a l l c u r r i c u l a have content.
When t h e school s p e c i a l i s t speaks of content, he r e f e r s t o t h e compendium of information which comprises t h e learning material f o r a p a r t i c u l a r course or a given grade. Thus content w a s defined a s
I t
that which i s presented t o students o r t h a t which i s made a v a i l a b l e t o students f o r possible uses'.
Content s e l e c t i o n r e q u i r e s not only t h e designation of t h e Laws, p r i n c i p l e s , generalizations, concepts and f a c t s ( t h e substantive
s t r u c t u r e ) but a l s o specifying t h e procedures, methodologies, techniques and evaluative t e s t s r e q u i s i t e f o r using t h e content ( t h e s y n t a c t i c a l o r s t r u c t u r e ) .
IQ curriculum development, comprehending content and i t s knowledge source allows t h e curriculum developers t o d e a l with t h e explosion of knowledge, making t h e concepts and generalizations t h e focuses of t h e content, incrorporates vast amo'unts of knowledge f o r student learning. S t r e s s i n g f a c t s i n t h e curriculum presents teachers and students with t h e t a s k of teaching and learning a l l f a c t s extant.
Organization content around conceptual l o c i enables one t o decide u s e f u l t o p i c s and t o s e l e c t p e r t i n e n t f a c t s . Thus while content (subject matter ) i s a compendium of f a c t s , concepts, generalizations, p r i n c i p l e s , r u l e s and t h e o r i e s , it i s similar t o d i s c i p l i n e d knowledge.
I n f a c t , content i s r e a l l y another term f o r knowledge. It i s a bunch o f knowledge presented t o students.
Discussion on t h e s e l e c t i o n of content centred on:
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organization of content according t o c e r t a i n r u l e s t o make it manageable;ECA/PHSD/HRP/88/29 [ 5.1/OA. 2
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the selection of content from three angles viz: vertical, horizontal or transverse-
criteria for selection of content according to which nine elements were discussed: validity, significance, learnability, feasibility, continuity and sequence; usefilness,
humandevelopment, relevance and balance;
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sources of content from culSure by asking philosophical social, psychological and curricular questions-
the agents of content reform and-
coherence and integration of content.Following presentations and detailed discussions on the selection of content, participants did in their groups assignment 5 as contained in the Course Handbook.
5:
Selection of Learning ExperiencesThe first task in presenting this topic was to explain the term learning experience". First, it was pointed out that learning 71
is change within the individual not something which is done to him/her. In a classroom the instructor does not transmit learning.
In effect he helps the learner to acquire or change some behaviour through interactions between the learner and the external conditions.
Looked at in this way, a learning experience refers to the interaction between the individual learner and the external conditions in the emrironment to which the learner can react. Learning takes place through the active participation of the student. It is what he/she does that he/she learns, and not what the teacher does.
Learning experience therefore involves the interaction of the student and his environment in which the student participates actively. A teacher can provide an educational experience through Setting UQ an environment and structuring the situation so as to stimulate the desired type of reaction. The teacher's method of controlling the learning experience is through the manipulation of the environment by setting up stimulating situations to evoke the desired behaviour.
Having defined a learning experience, the workshop examined at length the criteria for selecting learning experiences viz:
validity, varlety, comprehensiveness, suitability, pattern, balance and continuity.
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The workshop considered other factors for considering learning experiences, but not as exhaustively as the seven factors. These included practical continuity, cumulation; repetition of experiences;
multiple learning, relevance to life, significance and the learners participating in planning. These factors like others were fully explaihed in the course mnuals used during the workshop.
Following an explanation of the foregoing issues, participants worked on Assignment No. as shown in the Course Handbook. This assignment like all others was reviewed and assessed by the tutors of the course..
In presenting this topic, it was emphasized that a lot had been written about "curriculum" and literature was full of writings about the definitions and concept of curriculum; curriculum design, curriculum system, etc. These definitions and terms were thoroughly reviewed during the course so that the concepts being discussed were not to be misunderstood.
It was emphasized that the word curriculum may be used in three ways: as a curriculum, i.e., as a written document; as the name of a system of schooling; and as a title of a field of study. In this regard, curriculum theory contains two primary dimensions or sub-theories, viz: (a) curriculum design and (b) curriculum engineering. The definitions of these two sub-divisions of curriculum are given later in this section of the report.
The theoretical issues associated with the concept of curriculum as a document fall under the heading of Curriculum Design defined as "the substance and organization of goals and culture content so arranged as to reveal potential progression through levels of schooling. In this regard, curriculum design becomes a focal point in all curriculum thinking."
The workshop identified three notions of curriculum design as:
(i) an arrangement of selected and ordered learning outcomes intended to be achieved through instruction;
(ii) an arrangement of selected and ordered learning experiences to he provided in an instructional situation; and
(iii) a scheme for planning and providing learning experiences.
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Given these notions, curriculum design must have at least a minimum of t,hree characteristics, viz: (a) it must be a written document, (b) it must contain statements containing goals, for the school for which the curriculum is designed and (c) it must contain a body of culture content that tentatively has the potential for the mobilization of the goals.
In addition, a curriculum design must contain z statement of intention for use of the document as a guide for planning instructional strategies and it should also have an evaluation scheme.
In short then, curriculum should be conceived as a written document depicting the scope and arrangement of the projected education programme for a school.
(1) Elements of a c~rrriculun
Curriculum is a written document because it is composed of elements with form and st.ructure. Schooling has two sub-systems viz: (i) curriculum and (ii) instruction. The content of a curriculum are dependent on whether both curriculum strategy and instructional strategy are encompassed in curriculum design. However if the aims of schooling are to be achieved, it is necessary to base curriculum design on the elements of curriculum viz:
-
an arrangement of objectives-
subject matter chose6 (i.e, content)-
specific a.ction plans for teaching-. all forms of instructional materials to be used
-
time schedules-
act,ivity descriptions etc.These elements were discussed by looking at curriculum design as composed of four key elements, i.e., four key questions:
1. For whom is the course being developed?
2. What do we want them to learn?
3. iIow is the skills best developed?
.
How do we determine the extent to which the learning has been achieved?I t was t'nen pointed out tha-i;:
( a ) t h e f i r s t ouestion r e l a t e s t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e l e a r n e r
( b ) t h e serond r e l a t e s t o t h e o b j s c t i v e s of t,he course programme
( c ) t h e t h i r d f3cllses on t h e teach in^-learning methods;
( d ) t h e f o u r t h i s evaluation
(2) Approaches t o Curricullm Design
This i s sometimes r e f e r r e d t o a s organizational p a t t e r n s , i.e., t h e way c u r r i c u l a a c q u i r e t h e i r names from t h e i r design. I n e f f e c t t h e i s s u e of approach i s e s s e n t i a l l y one of focus or o r i e n t a t i o n . What gives a curriculum i t s o r e i e n t a t i o n a r e t h e f a c t o r s o r v a r i a b l e s which a f f e c t or influence it.
It i s necessary t o have an approach t o t h e development of a curriculum because l e a r n e r s cannot l e a r n everything and because t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n t ways of organizing curriculum content f o r i n s t r u c t i o n a l purposes.
During t h e c o u r s e , it was emphasized t h a t t h e r e a r e many designs t o curriculum development. Some of them a r e :
( a ) Experience-central Design
..
(b) Separate Subject Design ( c ) Broad F i e l d s Design (dl F'used Curriculum Design
( e ) RIajor S o c i a l Functions Design ( f ) Core Curricula Design
(g) Centres of I n t e r e s t s DEsign ( h ) Problem-centred Design
Although t h e r e a r e more than n dozen d i f f e r e n t designs almost a l l of t'nem f a l l under t h r e e basic c a t e e o r i e s of curriculum designs viz:
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(1) Subject-centred Designs which include (i) Separate subject design; (ii) Disciplines design and (iii) Borad fields design (2) Learner-centred Designs which include (i) Activity/experience
design (ii) Open classroom design (iii) Humanistic design;
( 3 ) Problem-centred Desims which include (i) Area of living design
(ii) personal/social concerns of youth design and (iii) core curricula design.
A description of some of these was given.
In the discussions that followed, it was emphasized that whatever approach was used, the following questions could prove very useful:
(i) Is the curriculum developed in tune with the philosophy, problems, needs, concerns and cultural realities of the nation where it is to be used in terms of content, instrcutional strategies and objectives to be achieved?
(ii) Does the curriculum have balance of breadth and depth?
Is a wide range of subject matter areas covered superficially or is a small area of subject matter covered in depth?
(iil) Does the curriculum so developed make it possible for the achievement of a wide range of objectives covering the *hree major areas of human behaviour
-
cognitive, affective and psychomu-cor domains?(iv) Is the curriculum appropriate to the abilities (intellectual) needs and interests of the learners for whom it is intended, and
(v) Does the curriculum reflect contenprary scientific thinking and is this knowledge fundamental to the subject matter area under consideration?
In response to the above questions, the curriculum developer should as far as possible:
(a) be aware of the wide range of the alternative curriculum approach which are available;
(b) appreciate that no approach is perfect; each approach has its strengths and weaknesses;
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( c ) understand t h a t i n a given c u l t u r e , curriculum approaches need t o be modified or changed i f and when circumstances warrant it;
( d l r e a l i z e that i n determining t h e b e s t approach, it i s not an easy t a s k a s it requires an in-depth study of t h e c u l t u r e under consideration, and
( e ) r e a l i z e that t h e r e i s a good d e a l of overlap of elements from d i f f e r e n t approaches.
7. I n s t r u c t i o n a l Desiln Process
Having considered curriculum design, t h e workshop considered t h e key elements i n t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l design process
( a ) Key elements of t h e I n s t r u c t i o n a l Design Process
T h e r e a r e fourfundamental elements i n t h e Instruictional Design Process.
( i ) For whom i s t h e course o r prsgramme being developed?
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e l e a r n e r s .
( i i ) What do you want t h e l e a r n e r s t o l e a r n o r t o be a b l e t o do. The objectives.
( i i i ) How i s t h e subject content of s k i l l best learned?
leaching
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Learning Methods and A c t i v i t i e s .( i v ) How do you determine t h e exterlt t o which t h e learning has been achieved? Evaluation,
These four fundamental elements: l e a r n e r s , objectives, methods and evaluation form t h e framework f o r systematic i n s t r u c t i o n a l planning.
( b ) The Complete I n s t r u c t i o n a l Design Plan
I n a comprehensive i n s t r u c t i o n a l design plan we may consider t e n elements a s follows:
( i ) Assessment of learning needs f o r t h e design of an i n s t r u c t i o n a l plan. STate t h e goals, c o n s t r a i n t s and p r i o r i t i e s which must be recognized.
( i i ) Selection of t o p i c s o r job t a s k s t o be t r e a t e d and i n d i c a t i o n of general purposes t o be served
ECA/PHSD/HRP/88/29[5.1/OA. 2..
Page 23 ( i i i ) Examination of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e l e a r n e r s
which r e c e i v e a t t e n t i o n during t h e planning
( i v ) I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of s u b j e c t content and a n a l y s i s of t a s k components r e l a t i n g t o t h e s t a t e d goals and purpose ( v ) Statement of l e a r n i n g o b j e c t i v e s t o be accomplished
i n terms of s u b j e c t content and t a s k components
( v i ) Design of teaching and learning a c t i v i t i e s t o accomplish t h e s t a t e d o b j e c t i v e s
( v i i ) S e i e c t i o n of resources t o support t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s
( v i i i ) S p e c i f i c a t i o n of support s e r v i c e s required f o r developing and implementing a c t i v i t i e s and acquiring o r producing m a t e r i a l s
(ix) Evaluation of l e a r n i n g and outcomes of t h e t r a i n i n g programme
(x) Determination of readiness of l e a r n e r s t o study t h e t o p i c : P r e t e s t .
Following t,he p r e s e n t a t i o n s of t o p i c s 6 and 7, p a r t i c i p a n t s worked i n t h e i r groups on:
-
Assignment 8 a s i n d i c a t e d i n t h e "course and book" t o develop a curriculum design f o r given educational system.-
The assignment a l s o involves P2:odule Development of curriculum t a k i n g a case study of malaria viewed from d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s of study e.g. English o r bkthematics. Groups i n t h e Module development were based on s u b j e c t s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . The English Group during t h i s assignment developed a psem which appears i n examples of group work i n P a r t 111.8. Curriculum Design Problems: Developing scope and sequences
Among t h e major problems of curricillum design a r e and sequence. During t h e workshop it was pointed out t h a t t h e s e l e c t i n g end organizing of content r e q u i r e s contemplating s e v e r a l key problems
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of which scope and sequence a r e .Scope r e f e r s t o t h e breadth and depth of t h e content. It i s not t h e r e f o r e s u f f i c i e n t simply t o l i s t content and t h e major t o p i c s t o be covered because scope i s a continued i s s u e f o r knowledge production i s dynecxic. Scope of curriculum content i s regulated i n p a r t by t h e goals and a o b j e c t i v e s generated during t h e diagnosis s t a t e i n curriculum planning.
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On t h e other hand, sequence d e a l s with t h e question of ;?hat content and experiences a r e t o follow what content and what experiences. Sequence addresses t h e problem of ordering t h e curriculum o f f e r i n g s so a s t o optimize t h e s t u d e n t ' s learning.
During t h e workshop, it was emphasized t h a t t h e c r i t e r i a used f o r s e l e c t i n g content should a l s o be used f o r l e a r n i n g experiences t o determine scope. A s ' e ~ a r d s sequence emphasis was placed on t h e f a c t t h a t sequence c e n t r e s around tirning and placing t h e m a t e r i a l s e l e c t e d on t h e WHAT? It chen becomes necessary t o ask t h e questions
....
-
I! When i s it t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e time f o r l e a r n e r s t o a c q u i r e t h e s k i l l needed?"-
What must follow each t o p i c and why must t h i s be so, i . e . , why should Topic B follow t o p i c A?-
When should t h e m a t e r i a l i n u n i t 1 be taught t o t h e learners.It was t h e r e f o r e recommended t h a t t h e following guidelines could prove u s e f u l i n developing scope and sequence:
( i ) Arrange i n t e l e c t u a i s k i l l s from simple t o complex ( i i ) Ensure t h a t p r e r e q u i s i t e l e a r n i n g a r e accomplished ( i i i ) Proceed i n chronological order
( i v ) Folio.. logic of t h e d i s c i p l i n e
( v ) Topics should be word and concept r e l a t e d ( v i ) Topics t o be l e a r n e r - r e l a t e d
( v i i ) Topics t o be inquiry-related ( v i i i ) Topics t o be u t i l i z a t i o n - r e l a t e d
( i x ) The need f o r double sequence
( x ) That t h e content should be put i n t o a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system, i . e . , h i e r a r c h i c a l , psychological and l o g i c a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .
It was a l s o emphasized t h a t t h e main purpose of scope and sequence was t o :
( a ) Organize content according t o some r a t i o n a l sequence for l e a r n i n g ;
ECA/PHSD/HRP/~~/~~[~. 1/OA. 21 Page 25 (b) Develop topic titles which can have meaning to curriculum
specialists;
(c) Provide an overall map of what should be learned and when;
(d) To provide a guide to curriculum writers in preparing text- books and teachers guides; and
(e) Provide evaluators with a guide for developing instruments for measuring student outcomes.
During the course, and individual assi,gment on scope and sequence (Assignment 7 in the Course Handbook) was given to participants so that they could develop a scope and sequence chart in the subject of specialization. It was mandatory on every participant t9 complete the scope and sequence chart and have it submitted to the tutors for comments and assessment.
9.
Developing Instructional MaterialsA. General Considerations
I ,
During the course it was pointed out that the term educational materials" covers both the hardware such as apparatus, equipment and teaching aids; and software, e.g., books, textbooks, stationery and teaching aids.
In the arrangement of instructional materials particularly the learners textbook and the teachers' guide, the main problem for the administrator is that of increasing the quality of the material whilst decreasing the cost. These costs can be:
(i) those related to design and conception including experimental costs ;
(ii) productim costs;
(iii) distribution costs;
(iv) costs incurred in use, e.g., promotion costs, teacher training, teachersq guides, etc.
The constraints affecting costs and quality depend upon different decision makers, e.g., planners, school administrators, curriculum specialists, authors, editors, printers, etc. In effect, the following factors should be taken into account in the development of instructional materials, viz:
ECA/PHSD/HRP/~~/Z~L 5.1/0A.2 j Page 26
(a) Administrative Decisions which affect production costs as regards
( i ) planning and programing;
(ii) decisions about production structures;
(iii) legislation on the choice and selection of school textbooks:,
(iv) intended dwation for the use of textbook.
(b) Educational choices to be made
(i) Definition of the optimum number of pages for a tcxt, books to be used at a given m a d e or level
(ii) number of textbooks for each given level;
(iii) care in presentation, page layout and legibility;
(iv) use of colour;
(v) addition of notes;
(vi) use of original illustrations;
(vii) mode of utilization of textbook; (collective or individual)
(c ) Technical points
(i) Full employment of available resources within the framework of the national publishing sector;
(ii) Choice of format;
( iii ) Choice of product,ion methods ; (iv) Quality of paper;
(v) Strength of binding and cover;
(vi ) Judicious planning a3d production ;
(vii) Division of tasks between:
(1) education sector (planning, testing prototypes, defining specifications; controlling quality, management distribution and follow-up; and
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B. Planning and Developing the Manuscript: Pupils Book and Teachers s Guide
This aspect was related to the pupils' books and teachers guide.
A learner's book should be considered as an aid to learning and teaching. It must be suitable for normal class conditions in a given area.
Planning a book has two aspects, v i ~ :
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the problem of subject matter which must contribute to the students education, i.e., what is basic to the subject being written on; and the book must help the learner to understand the world around him; and-
the problem of how the subject is to be taughtIn developing a manuscript, the author should consider:
1. Language, (clear and simple language) 2. Length of sentences and paras
3. The relative merits of written text 4. Diagrms
5.
Illustration6.
Cueing7.
Type settingBefore embarking on these start with a Clear definition of objectives. To do this examine the following points:
First an introduction to the book. Then:
1. Use of appropriate language
Use simple words and sentences instead of. compound and hard words.
2. Format
Author should decide:
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upon the plan of the bookECA/PHSD/HRP/88/29 [ 5.1/OA. 2
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what the immediate objectives of the book are-
what format-
what level of language for +,he grade-
breaking down topics into teacheable unitsIf this approach is taken then one may follow these elements:
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rationale-
objectives-
background information-
Teachir.g/learning materials-
required knowledge-
teaching-learning experiences-
s m r y-
pupil assessment-
level of mastery-
time allocation 3. Illustrations4.
Cueing clevices5. Consistency in style, language, etc
6.
Grading the material7. Preliminary and final pages; What is there
8.
The final manuscript-
typed, all aspects of it-
evaluation of it-
revision of manuscript9 . Trial-testing the material and what to work for when trying
msterials
Following the above analysis, account was made of the issues raised as follows:
1. Criteria for Reviewing a Syllabus
I ") Crl~.ria for Reviewina a Syllabus Subject Content,
1. Topics
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sequenced2. Content details 3. Objectives:
(i) General objectives (ii) Specific objectives 4. Teaching-learning experiences
