Human resource management integration and industrial collaborative relations : the case of moroccan subcontractors and french O.E.M.

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT INTEGRATION AND

INDUSTRIAL COLLABORATIVE RELATIONS: THE CASE OF

MOROCCAN SUBCONTRACTORS AND FRENCH PRINCIPALS

1

.

Michel Kalika Professor of Management

Véronique Guilloux Associate Professor of Management

Florence Laval Associate Professor of Management

IAE University of Poitiers ( CERMO), France

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this article is to analyse the developmental process of co-operative inter-organizational relationships that entails transactions between French firms and Moroccan subcontractors. The examined industries are : chemical, textile, agrobusiness, mechanic engineering, metallurgical and electronics. The model is hypothetico-deductive based on a conceptual framework developed by Ring, Van de Ven and Hakansson. The methodology is based on an exploratory research approach (bibliographical research, pre-testing, knowledge of Moroccan context; qualitative research with a longitudinal study unfolding during three years (1997-1999); quantitative study with descriptive goals: classification, typology (statistics on SPSS); quantitative study with explanatory goals, causality model (statistics with Lisrel, PLS).

1

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT INTEGRATION AND

INDUSTRIAL COLLABORATIVE RELATIONS: THE CASE OF

MAROCCAN SUBCONTRACTORS AND FRENCH OEMs .

This paper analyses the developmental process of co-operative inter-organizational relationships that entails transactions between French firms and Moroccan subcontractors. The examined industries are chemical, textile, agribusiness, mechanical engineering, metallurgical and electronics (M.M.E.I.). The model is based on an hypothetical deductive mode. The assumptions are based on the conceptual framework of Ring & Van de Ven. The dynamic aspect is relevant considering the Government impulse to get the Moroccan entrepreneurs improve their management in order to be ready for the free trade area in 2010.The three relevant variables of the model are Human resource management, inter-organizational relationships, inter-organizational integration.

The problem to be studied is: how Human resource is integrated in a Moroccan Firm which is subcontractor of a French firm and how human resource management (HRM) evolves under this relationship.

We will follow the traditional approach of an academic research (upstream phase (information research) and downstream phase (data processing).The different parts of our article are as follows:

I)-Interest of the subject and theoretical foundations II)-Methodology, models, objectives and hypotheses, III)-Empirical Study.

This first part corresponds to the conceptual phases. We formulate the research purposes and interest, and elaborate on the theoretical framework.

I.1)-Interest of the subject

Our research is based on an "Integrated Action" led by the ministry for foreign Affairs and IAE Poitiers/University Cadi Ayyad Marrakech. This research has received a government subsidy for four years (1996,1997,1998, 1999).

For the exploratory survey, in-depth several interviews were carried out in France (Yves Rocher, Sodedac Peugeot-Citroën) and in Morocco (Confection, Soabimex, Tenmar, Coopérative Laitière "Le bon Lait ”) The Research objectives are associated with an exploratory research (bibliographical research, pre-testing, knowledge of Moroccan specificities context; a Qualitative research with a longitudinal study (Menara Confection at Marrakech) unfolding for a period of three years (1997-1999); a Quantitative study with descriptive goals: classification, typology (statistics on SPSS); a Quantitative study with explanatory goals, causality model (statistics with Lisrel, PLS , see Hulland, Chow, Lam 1996). The different approaches are static (for example description of the business policy in 1996), systemic (meta-model including French principals and Moroccan subcontractors), dynamic (process (linking) and time passing (length) ).

An exhaustive bibliographical review has been undertaken covering several topics : industrial buying, Business to Business (Ring&Van de Ven, Cova, Häkansson, Goujet&Bansard&Salle, Turnbull&Valla, Blois et al) International strategy (Bartlett&Ghoshal ), Dynamic interrelations , the specificities of small and medium sized firms specificities (Marchesnay, Julien, Calori&Very&Arrègle, Garand&Fabi, Toulouse), Human Resource Management (HMR) (Besseyre des Horts, Crozet &Martory, Gazier, Louart, Mahé de Boislandelle), organization and structure (Mintzberg, Kalika), intercultural management (Allix-Desfautaux&Auregan 1996), the specificities of the Moroccan environment (membership in the World Trade (2010), geopolitical raisons, impact of strategic orientations of the European Union, Moroccan social law, counterpart agreement, law contract).

The theoretical framework is based on different research models (Dzever) : a)-Interorganizational relationships, b)-Human Resource Management (Social MIX, Strategic Human Resource Management), c)-Organizational theory.

The three parts correspond to the concept of “ triangulation methodology ” proposed by Denzin (1989). They are also in line of the research orientation of the authors : Michel Kalika is a specialist of Organisational behaviour, Florence Laval of human resource management (HRM) and Véronique Guilloux of Interorganizational relationships.

I21)-Interorganizational relationships

Studies of interorganizational relationships are linked in the literature to 1)-Network analysis 2)-Buyer-seller relationship, 3)-Interaction process.

I211)-Network:

Most researchers recognise the different levels of analysis in interorganizational relationships listed by Whetton (1982), which belong both to a descriptive dimension ((meso,macro and micro-analysis), and a dynamic dimension (the context of an interorganizational network, the characteristics of the interpersonal relationships and linkages). We can analyse as well the different levels in the network (first line, second line...) and the notions of authority, power...

I212)-Buyer-seller relationships

Dwyer and Schurr (1987) suggest that relational exchanges evolve through five stages, each of which represents a major transition in how the parties involved and perceived each other. The five stages are: awareness, exploration, expansion commitment and dissolution.

Stages over Time Inter-Relations

Awareness Exploration Expansion

Economic watch Evaluation of the obligations, benefits and burdens Little investment looking for norms

More risk investment trust Greater stability

Commitment stage Dissolution stage

-Inputs, durability, consistency

I213)-Interaction process

Ring and Van de Ven provide a temporal explanation for the emergence evolution and dissolution of cooperative IOR (interorganizational relations). They view the development and evolution of a cooperative IOR as consisting of a repetitive sequence of negotiation, commitment and execution stages (each of which is assessed in terms of efficiency and equity). In the negotiations stage, the parties develop joint expectations about their motivations, possible investments and perceived uncertainties of a business deal which is explored to undertake jointly. In the commitments stage, the wills of the parties meet, when they reach an agreement on the obligations and rules for future action in the relationship. In the executions stage, the commitments and rules of action are carried into effect.

The IMP Project group (International Marketing and Purchasing of industrial Goods Project) and the interactive approach (Hakansson 1982; Turnball & Valla 1986) cover the process, the participants, the environment and the atmosphere. The process includes the episodes (product exchange, information exchange, financial exchange, social exchange, relationships, contact, patterns, adaptations). The participants in the interaction process are the technologies, the structure, the size, the strategy as well as the personalities of the individuals involved. The environment under which the interactions takes place are : the market structure, degree of internationalism and relative size, there is the social system which includes issues like nationalism. The atmosphere affecting and being affected by interaction is tied with the economic and the control dimensions.

COMMITMENTS for future action through

formal legal contract psychological contract NEGOCIATION

of joint expectations risk & trust through

formal bargaining informal sense making

ASSESSMENTS based on: efficiency equity EXECUTIONS of commitments through rôle interactions personal interactions

I22)-Human resource management

Our model integrates the concepts like Social mix (human resource management MIX) and Strategic Human Resource Management

I221)-Social mix

Mahé de Boislandelle (1994) describes social MIX with different political axis (Employment, Remuneration, Valuing, Participation) leading to effects (direct results and social atmosphere, social image, technical/economic performances). The next diagram shows a general architecture of an integrated system of human resource.

Employment Remuneration Valuing Participation Employment Remuneration Valuing Participation Social atmosphere and behaviours Social image of the maroccan firm

Political axis Effects

Adapted from M. De Boislandelle "Gestion des Ressources humaines en PME" 1988 P143

Assessment Interpretation Action Adaptatio

General architecture of an integrated system of human ressources

Choice of an array of indicators (social balance-sheet) Objectives Comparison to results Regulation Actions on the social MIX Technical economic performances D i r e c t R e s u l t s

Choice Implementation Result Measure Diagnostic Prescription,

Environment constraints

Personal profile of the manager (*)

Environment constraints

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

INFLUENCE

(*) The personal profile of the Moroccan manager can be visualized with the

Marchesnay's PIC-CAP classification (perpetuity, independence of capital, growth )- (growth (in French croissance), autonomy of decision, continuity (in french pérénité) allows us to better grasp the archetypes of firms managers.

The managers aspirations based on "PIC" are associated with a logic of action essentially patrimonial (the firm must contribute to develop the value of properties detained by the individual and/or his family). The priority is given to perpetuity of the concern (transmission is a crucial problem) and to financial independence (refusal of foreign associates, banking indebtedness). The PIC flourishes in stable activities.

The "CAP" attaches importance to a logic of action founded more on valorisation rather than on capital amassing. The main objective is to develop the firm (new products & new markets) with profitability; The CAP thrives in turbulent environment and new activities.

The Greimas semiotic square (1983) can be also utilised to visualised the institutional image and the style management. It renders a larger complexity opposing themes along a simple scale.

Pioneer attitude Manager attitude Entrepreuneur attitude Heir attitude Discontinuity

Non discontinuity Non continuity Continuity °°°°°°°°°°°°°°°

°°°°°°°°°°°°

°°°°° relation between opposite Relation between contradiction

The four themes brought out permit to define four spirit or four attitudes (pioneer, entrepreneur, manager, heir).

Different authors have studied Human Resource as strategic management (Mahé de Boislandelle, Gazier 1993, Sire 1993,Wills&Le Louarn&Guérin 1991, Stankiewicz 1988, Besseyre des Horts 1988)

For example, Mahé de Boislandelle describes a continuum of HRM (from an administrative and operational character to a strategic management). For him, there are seven administrative and nine political domains . The administrative domains for the human resource management are:1)-the book-keeping (register, forms, lists, 2)-realization of legal declarations 3)-relations with public service, labour court,4)-wage calculation, remuneration and social charges, 5)-collection and transmission of information on work legislation and medicaid, 6)-putting into practice diverse legal dispositions (hygiene and security, amelioration of work conditions, social balance sheet), 7)-computerized treatment for administrative tasks (pay slip, data file, diverse business updating). The nine political domains are: 1)-management individual and collective works time (schedule, rhythm, rigidity, flexibility / per day, week, year), 2)-choice of modes of compensation (salary scale, progressiveness, efficiency bonus, profit-sharing, 3)-modality of evaluation of the workers (frequency, criteria), promotional practices, careers management), 4)-social advantages of diverse natures consented by the firm, 5)- individual collective of work organisation (roles and tasks definitions), 6)-management of the staff of the workforce (recruitment, rotation, lay-off...) (measure, criteria, outsourcing), 7)-choice of vocational training (allocation, nature, diversity), 8)-decisions concerning work and condition improvements, social relations, communication, participation, 9)- The forward-looking character of different domains of short term, middle term, long term policies

I23)-)-Organization

We use such concepts as juridical status, and organizational structure (standardization, formalization, centralization, planification, control).

We also attempt to analyse the concepts of differentiation and Integration.

(Mintzberg, Kalika) Organizational scales

II)-METHODOLOGY

The theoretical model consists of three sub-units: interorganizational relationships, human resource management, organization. For each hypothesis, we propose statistical analysis, the variables and the measure scale direction.

II.1)-The variables of the questionnaire and the measure scale direction.

We present the dynamic and static aspects of the questionnaire.

II.1.1)-The description of the variables (static aspect)

We present our variables in details with Ishikawa diagrams. We use in our questionnaire Likert or semantic differential scale. These scales indicate the sense of the measure and are very useful for Lisrel processing.

II.1.1.1)-Human resource management

Social balance sheet doesn’t exist in Morocco. But we have tried to reach the same logic (Crozet Martori). We have constructed our questionnaire in order to calculate many ratios/relevant indicators of human resource management.

PARTICIPATION VALUING EMPLOYMENT REMUNERATION

+

-

-

-

-

+

+ +

Participation policy

Strict observance of legal framework

Valuying policy, training policy, improvement of the work

Administrative tasks Anticipation, Forecast, employement Wage calculation Remuneration policy, incentive policy Strict observance of legal framework

HUMAN

RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT

( +) Quality and Human resource management (-) Hard, unequal, antisocial human resource management

II 1.12)-Organization PARTICIPATION VALUING EMPLOYMENT REMUNERATION

+

-

-

-

_-

+

+

+

Participative structure Non participative structure

High regard for human resource

Precariousness

Balance and adjustment

Low

remuneration

Incentive and remuneration Non high regard for human resource

EFFECTS OF

HUMAN

RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT

( +) High social performances (-) Law social performances

+

-+

Bad atmosphere Good atmosphere Good image Bad image

-SOCIAL ATMOSPHERE SOCIAL IMAGE DIFFERENTIATION

+

-

-

Many functions Few functions in

the maroccan firm

_ORGANIZATION

( +) Strong integration and differentiation Weak Weak PIC or CAP

Standardization Formalization Centralization Planification Control Strong Strong Weak Weak Strong Weak

STRUCTURE

MANAGEMENT STYLE

II 1.1.3)-Interorganizational relationships

TRADE AGREEMENT DEPENDANCE DEGREE

COMPETENCE IN DEMAND EVOLUTION OF THE RELATION

Moroccan positionning toward :

-international competitors -national competitors Types of subcontracting Idiosyncrasy Technical mode Investment Value added

INTER

ORGANIZATIONAL

RELATIONSHIP

Positionning on the continuum ( conception to Control)

from Number of differetiated tasks

Competitive factors

Principals portfolio

Process of the development

Information transfer Approval

Economic mode

(

+

) Partnership

(

-

) Work made to order

II.1.2.)-Dynamic model (process)

Our questionnaire includes several issues to understand the process of evolution of partnership between Moroccan subcontractors and French principals. We have tried to define the Moroccan manager’s perceptions at different stages (past, present, future) of the relation (negotiation, commitments, assessments, execution) and the types of assessment of the French firm (systematic, random control).

200 Interviews of Moroccan subcontrators random Assessments a posteriori Assessments a priori

systematic Negotiation Commitment Execution

Process Framework between French principal and moroccan subcontractor Temporal occurence Founding Current events Past Future 2010 Gatt 1996

The questions addressed to the Moroccan managers were for example

-“ What sort of contacts (stage A,B,C or D) had you with your main principal at the beginning of the relation? ”

-“ What sort of contact (stage A,B,C,D) have you with your actual principal ? -“ What sort of contacts (stage A,B,C,D) will you have with your main principal in 2002 ? ” Contract negotiation Contract drawing-up Manufacturing drawing Work realization Shipment Time Auditing

Assessment insurance quality supplier Developing the product

Quality Control

Time

Joint developing

Total Trust between the two partners Production Progress Plan Time Stage A Stage B Stage C

II.2)-The hypotheses

The hypotheses are indicated between the three meta-variables (Interorganizational relationships, Human resource management, Organization.

INTERORGANIZATIONA L RELATIONSHIPS ORGANIZATION -Human Resource Management Integration -Partnership Integration HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT H1, H1.1, H1.2 H3, H3.1 H2, H2.1, H2.2

II.3)-The statistical analysis

Hypothesis Statistical analysis Variable Measure scale

direction

H1

There is a continuum

from simple commercial

relation to partnership relation.

Measure of the level of partnership in 1996 Descriptive approach Firms typology Interoganizational Relationships& Organization. (-) simple commercial relation, simple structure. (+) partnership, differentiated and integrated structure. H1.1

Firm position along this continuum (cf. H1) evolves with temporal

Dynamic measure with

three temporal occurrences (past, present, future) Interoganizational Relationships& Organization. idem with comparison of measures considering temporal occurrences.

occurrences. H1.2

Interorganizational relationships depend on the organization mode and can modify it.

Correspondence

analysis and/or causal analysis. Interorganizational Relationships& Organization. Differentiation and organizational integration. c Interorganizational relations H2 There is a continuum

from (a human resource

management little integrated) to (a human resource management integrated to the firm strategy).

Measure of the level of

human resource management in 1996 (present). Descriptive approach. Firms typologies. Organization& Human Resource Management. Measure of human resource management integration and measure of the level of

human resource management. (-) small integration of human resource management, small social performances. (+) strong integration of human resource management, social performances. H2.1

Firm position along this continuum (cf. H2) evolves with temporal occurrences.

Dynamic measure of the level of human resource management (for the past, the present, the future).

Descriptive approach. Firms typologies. Organization& Human Resource Management. idem with comparison of measures considering temporal occurrences. H2.2 Human resource management depends on the organization mode and can modify it.

Correspondence

Analysis and/or causal analysis (Lisrel/PLS) Organization/Human resource management Organization& Human Resource Management. Differentiation and organizational integration. c Human resource management and results of human resource management. H3

The level of partnership fits to the level of human resource management

Correspondence

Analysis and/or causal analysis (Lisrel/PLS) Level of human ressources management/Level of partenership Organization& Human Resource Management& Interorganisational relationships Integration of the human resource management and level of human resource management.

c

Integration of the partnership and level of the partenership

H3.1

The dynamic of the Human resource management is tied with

the dynamic of the partnership.

Correspondence

Analysis and/or causal analysis (Lisrel/PLS) Level of human ressources management/Level of partenership Dynamic measure of partnership (past, present, future) Organization& Human Resource Management& Interorganisational relationships idem with comparison of measures considering temporal occurrences.

III)- EMPIRICAL STUDY

The empirical study is associated with the survey questionnaire, data collection, statistics. The next diagram shows the main deadlines.

Deadlines Realized stages

July 1996 Bibliography

October 1996 Questionnaire development

June 1997 Data collection

September 1997 Statistics and analysis (hypothesis

verification)

December 1997 Submission of the pre-report

April 1998 Presentation of the general results to

French Principals: remarks on the dyad.

We will successively analyse the pretest, the description of our target population, the sampling, the different industrial stream.

III.1)-Pretest

Our questionnaire has been pre-tested : we have presented to the CERMO Laboratory of the IAE Poitiers and to the CREGO of the IAE Montpellier. Besides Houdaïfa Ameziane, Rachid Berrada and Chafik Bentaleb have done an empirical pre-test next to Morroco managers.

For our empirical study, our sample covers the geographical areas of Rabat, Casablanca, Marrakech, and Agadir. Our questionnaire will be addressed to Moroccan subcontractors. The different managers of the different small and medium sized firms will be interviewed in June 1997 by students of Marrakech. Our questionnaire has a professional heading "National subcontracting and partnership exchange", " General Confederation of Moroccan firms" and with an academic heading "University of Cady Hayad".

We have already the exhaustive list of the target population (Moroccan subcontractors). We will then use a probability sampling as statistical sampling (simple random sampling). To respect our budgetary constraints and our time availability, we have chosen to administer only 200 questionnaires. We have two lists by sector (chemistry, textile, agribusiness, mechanic engineering, metallurgic and electronics industries): firms exporting to France and firms having French shareholder. Each list is composed of the corporate name, address, Town, Province, Date of setting up, phone and fax numbers, staff, production, export, investment, public funds, private funds, registered capital.

We have work on the data of these two lists (coding, elimination of redundancy, recoding, elaboration of a plan investigation which respects geographic constraints).

The next table describes our target population by sectors.

Sector Firms Moroccan firms with foreign capital

Textile 462 169

Chemistry 54 49

Agribusiness 143 70

Mechanic engineering,

metallurgic and electronics industries (M.M.E.I.)

165 146

Total 824 firms

Details by sectors

Manpower in Textile sector 462 firms

[1-50] 29,4% [51-100] 21,5% [101-150] 13.4% [151-200] 9.3% [201-250] 6.9% [251-300] 4,8% [301-350] _2,6% [351-900] _10,4% [901-3000] _1,7% Manpower in Chemistry sector 54 firms [1-50] 57,4% [51-100] 7,4% [101-150] 74%, [151-200] 11,1 [201-250] 5,6% [251-300] 0% [301-350] _3,7% [351-692] _7,4%

Manpower in Agribusiness sector _{143 firms} [1-50] 64,3% [51-100] 13,3% [101-150] 9,1 [151-200] 4,9% [201-250] 0% [251-300] 0,7% [301-350] _2,1% [351-941] _5,6%

Manpower in M.M.E.I. _{165 firms}

[1-50] 29,4% [51-100] 21,5% [101-150] 13,4% [151-200] 9,3% [201-250] 6,9% [251-300] 4,8% [301-350] _2,6% [351-900] _10,4% [901-3000] _1,7%

III.3)-Presentation of the different industrial stream

We can visualise the position of the moroccan subcontractor in the different industrial streams with the help of Mahé de Boislandelle’s scheme.

III.3.1)-Mahé de boislandelle’s scheme

In fact, Mahé de Boislandelle has described the forms of work improvement with a vertical division (continuum from conception to control) and with an horizontal division (number of differentiated tasks).

Adapted from M. De Boislandelle 1988 p83

(a)-Rotation refers to assign periodically the individuals to different tasks;

Conception Execution Control Horizontal Division Vertical Division 1 2 3 4 5 Work rotation FORMS OF WORK IMPROVEMENT

( c ) Number of differentiated tasks n 1 2 3 4 5 (b) 1+2+....+ n (a)

(b)-Widening refers to appoint to the underling a larger number of operations to undertake. This improves interest to work, but as well the need of learning.

(c)-Enrichment refers to charge to the underling a part or the totality of the operations of conception and control

This sort of diagram can be utilised for the mechanic, textile, pharmaceutical sectors.

III.3.2)-Mechanic engineering, metallurgic industries

forged metal metal cutting mould metal stamping hot treatment (quench hardening) toolroom lathe

miling machining center

grinding (abrasive wheel) paint assembling work packing material dispatch mark (serial number)

Operating cycles

Delivery

Mass Production Production Strickle Sweep

Methods Department (processing) Control methodology

Engineering and Design Department (product conception)

Establish clear specification

Application Reliability Safety Qualitative/quantitative aspect Cost Deadlines Development Realization phase : selection of technology material processes

realization of samples and prototypes

Qualification

Comparison of results with specifications Specimen and prototype trials

Homologation

Drawing up of quality inspection plans Design review Production Meeting of specification Quality control controlled processes Self inspection

Evaluation of quality Cost

Customer requirements

Subcontractor realization

III.3.3)-The pharmaceutical sector : pipeline concept of drug development

III.3.4)-Textile industry

TEXTILE INDUSTRY

Adapted from L. Benzoni "le textile" in Bellon & Chevalier: l'industrie en France. chemical raw materials (naphta) Agricultural raw materials sylvicluture (cellulose)

Supply raw materials preparation _{of the fibers}

(cotton, wool) washing, combing (linen, jute) swingle

(staple fiber: rayon, staple (synthetic fiber: polyamide, polyester) Interlacing of textile fibres

Non woven (cotton wadding, felt)

spinning

Macerate moulding

spinning Processing of _textiles

Textile f dyeing, coa

inishing: ting, velvet... Stitch-knitting and hosiery industry (pullover, stocking, underwear...) Household linen (tablecloth, bedding,

l) Soft furnishings

Industrial applications (packing material, drainage...)

Garment industry garment household textile Industrial products Clothing stream Garment industry (cutting, sewing) Market/ product M A R K E T I N G distribution Textile stream DRUG DISCOVERY PERIOD

Ideas for new chemical

Synthesis & testing of new chemical Chemical leed found

Additional compound are made

Candidate compound chosen & additional tests plan DRUG

DISCOVERY PERIOD

Coumpound elevated to project status

Investigational new drug application established & initiated Investigational new drug application

Clinical studies initiated New drug application approved Drug launched

DRUG DISCOVERY PERIOD

Post marketing surveillance New clinical indications pursued

New dosage forms & formulations developed Activities conducted to support marketing

Phase I,II, III

Phase IV TIME

Conclusion

This study is tied with academic and managerial ambitions. With all the secondary data (ministry, professional federations) and the primary data collected (qualitative, quantitative surveys), we hope to better understand partnership between French and Moroccan enterprises.

The procedures of data verification is based on a multi-triangulation (Denzin). Multiple triangulation

Academic researchers triangulation

Michel Kalika (1995, 1996), specialist of Organization

Florence Laval (1996), specialist of Human resource management

Véronique Guilloux (1992), specialist of Interorganizational relationships

Data collection triangulation

Longitudinal study (Wacheux 1996) Case studies (Yin 1989)

Quantitative study (SPSS, LISREL, PLS)

Theories triangulation Ring, Van de Ven (1994), Hakansson (1995)

Mahé de Boislandelle (1994) Mintzberg (1982, 1994)

We can list some limits for our research: We haven't yet studied the complete dyadic relation: the French part is for the moment weakly analysed. Besides, we haven’t integrated in our questionnaire psychological aspects as well as representations (enactment for Cossette). Another critical point is that our questionnaire is only administered to the managers and not to the employees. But we have always tried to have indirect measures : for example, to evaluate the atmosphere of the firm, we ask the manager, the number of unsolicited applications.

In conclusion, as an international project, it will strengthen the co-operation between the two institutions (researchers exchanges, conference in Marrakech, learning

(experience, sharing, interpretation, generalisation, application). The two academic teams have in fact both learning, scientific and managerial ambitions.

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