401 402
The FAB-garden toolbox is a holistic, process-oriented methodology and complements existing studies with 403
a new, transdisciplinary point of view. To be meaningful, several considerations are to be made when 404
adopting the approach in experiments. The time investment for action research and citizen science should 405
not be underestimated. Inadequate communication about citizen science aspects or research findings will 406
cause mistakes in data gathering and participants losing their motivation. The research team should carefully 407
consider the aims of the citizen science approach and consequently which monitoring tasks are assigned to 408
volunteers. Lakeman-Fraser et al. (2016) highlight the common trade-off between outreach goals and 409
rigorous scientific data in citizen science projects. Whereas some projects focus on large, solid datasets 410
(crowd sourcing), other projects are more process oriented (social learning). The BEL-Landscape case, and 411
more generally the FAB-garden toolbox, takes on the win-win approach for both rigorous data and social 412
learning (Lakeman-Fraser et al. 2016). In the BEL-landscape case, all tasks that ask expert knowledge are 413
performed by the principal investigator (arthropod trapping, sensor installation, pest identification, herbivory 414
estimation). Tasks that require no specific knowledge and can be clearly explained in guidelines, are assigned 415
to the volunteers (watering, weeding, harvest protocols). The principal researcher frequently visits the 416
individual FAB-gardens for the expert based monitoring and is therefore able to verify the practices of the 417
volunteers and provide feedback and explanations. In the BEL-Landscape observatory, volunteers are 418
nevertheless asked to observe and share their findings on prevalence and identification of pest species to 419
stimulate learning and enthusiasm. These participant observations are helpful for the principal investigator 420
who can consequently observe this through a standardized method. In any scientific approach that is process-421
oriented, and especially when balancing social learning and crowd-sourcing, the principal researcher takes a 422
non-traditional scientific role. Facilitation skills are needed to perform a role as knowledge broker between 423
all different land users to manage the participation process. It is required to involve partners with expertise 424
in this field of action research.
425
The number of FAB-gardens needs consideration because it reflects a trade-off in research objectives. More 426
gardens render more data, at a spatially larger extent. This will, however, decrease the level of volunteer 427
involvement per measurement point. In that case, only basic monitoring can be requested from volunteers 428
because this does not require intense follow up by the researchers (towards crowd sourcing). The latter, 429
however, diminishes the possibility to construct social theories on peoples’ opinions on FAB, because no 430
frequent interactions are maintained with participants. Even more, close involvement of a limited number of 431
volunteers ensures a trust-based relationship between the researcher and citizens. In our experience, this 432
engages volunteers to assemble at least the minimal asked dataset and alert the researchers if problems 433
occur. Besides the intensity of the monitoring, the number of FAB-gardens should be in line with the number 434
and type of landscape variables that will be used as explanatory variables (Pasher et al. 2013). In the BEL-435
Landscape case we sampled 40 FAB-gardens along uncorrelated gradients of high and low green SNH. Similar 436
sampling densities along a landscape gradient are also used in other studies. Hass et al. (2019) sampled with 437
introduced bumblebee colonies in two fields (maize and oil seed rape) in 20 landscapes of 1 X 1 km² along 438
uncorrelated gradients of compositional and configuration heterogeneity. Dainese et al. (2017) sampled 26 439
field margins (three margin types) along uncorrelated gradients of arable land cover and hedgerow cover in 440
a 1 km buffer. The advantage of sampling along a landscape gradient (Dainese et al. 2017; Hass et al. 2019) 441
compared to replicated sampling in contrasting landscapes (Holzschuh et al. 2007) is that nuances between 442
different landscape compositions can be better described.
443
Given the small (1 m²) size of the FAB-gardens, no absolute values for ES but only relative differences in 444
ecosystem indicators between FAB-gardens are observed, so as to optimize landscape scale management for 445
multifunctional ecosystem performance. This will deliver insights in the effectiveness of landscape 446
management for multifunctional ecosystem performance, but not on the efficiency or absolute values at field 447
scales. The small size allows the tool to easily fit in between fields and is therefore more acceptable for land 448
users to coexist with their current practices. The time necessary to manage the FAB-garden is rather low and 449
allows volunteers to focus on the individual plants to recognize plant specific pest species and flowering 450
processes. The small scale proves to be effective to get land users in touch with ES.
451
Thoughtful use of our social-ecological framework will deliver valuable new insights on improving the 452
effectiveness of FAB strengthening efforts in many rural areas. We therefore invite other research groups, 453
society organizations and policy makers to test our toolbox with FAB-gardens, or derivatives thereof, in many 454
distinct contexts. Through their social function of triggering interest, the FAB-gardens make knowledge 455
accessible for stakeholders who are to implement research findings and thereby increase the impact of 456
scientific work.
457
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