Studies have highlighted the association of student and family factors in relation to mathematics achievement for elementary students (Goforth, Noltemeyer, Patton, Bush, & Bergen, 2014). Because of this, the parent and student questionnaires aimed to capture measures of student and home characteristics to understand more fully their relation to student achievement in science and mathematics. In this section, student
characteristics, such as gender, socioeconomic status (SES), immigration status, language spoken at home, and students’ feelings of tiredness or hunger are all considered in relation to mathematics and science achievement.
Gender
Inclusive education is valued in Canadian provinces and territories and has led to the development of policies and resources to support inclusion. One aspect of inclusive education relates to gender identity. In the
Canadian version of the TIMSS 2019 questionnaires for students, teachers, and principals, the question about gender was expanded from the female/male choices of previous assessments to allow two additional choices, as shown in the box below.
How do you identify yourself?
(Please select one response.) Female
MaleI identify myself in another way.
I prefer not to say.
In Canada, equal proportions of students self‑identified as females and males (46 percent), 3 percent identified themselves in another way and 5 percent preferred to not say.
Students who identified in another way achieved the highest scores in science (540 points), significantly higher than girls but not significantly different than boys (524 and 528, respectively) (Figure 2.5;
Appendix B.2.3). Students who identified as boys and those who identified in another way outperformed their peers who identified as girls, in mathematics.
Figure 2.5 Relationship between gender and achievement
505 522 524
Girls Boys I iden�fy myself
Average score in mathema�cs
Mathema�cs Percentage
Note: Darker shade denotes significant difference compared to the I identify myself in another way category.
Home resources for learning
Students’ SES is also associated with differing levels of student achievement. The Home Resources for Learning index combines data reported by Grade 4 students and their parents and serves as a proxy for students’ SES. The index consists of five items from the parent questionnaire shown in Table 2.1. Students provided information about the number of books in their home and the number of home study supports while parents were asked about the number of children’s books as well as information about their education and occupation. The scale comprises three categories: many resources, some resources, and few resources.
The “many resource” category corresponded to students reporting more than 100 books, both an internet connection and own room at home study supports, and parents reporting more than 25 children’s books at home and at least one parent had completed university and one parent had a professional occupation.
524 528 540
Girls Boys I prefer
not to say
Percentage
Average score in science
Science Percentage I iden�fy
myself in another
way
Students categorized as owning few resources reported having 25 or fewer books with no study support at home, and parents in this category reported that there were 10 or fewer children’s books in the home, and that neither parent had continued education beyond secondary school, was a small business owner, or worked in a clerical or professional occupation. All other students were categorized as possessing some resources.
Table 2.1 Home resources for learning scale Student questionnaire
Number of books in the home
(students) 1) 0-11
2) 11-25 3) 26-100 4) 101-200 5) More than 200 Number of home study supports
(students) 1) None
2) Internet connection or own room 3) Both internet connection and own room Parent questionnaire
Number of children’s books in the home
(parents) 1) 0-10
2) 11-25 3) 26-50 4) 51-100 5) More than 100 Highest level of education of either parent
(parents) 1) Finished some primary or lower secondary or did not go to school 2) Finished lower secondary
3) Finished upper secondary
4) Finished post-secondary education 5) Finished university or higher Highest level of occupation of either parent
(parents) 1) Has never worked outside home for pay, general labourer, or semi-professional
2) Clerical
3) Small business owner 4) Professional
In Canada, 36 percent of students had many resources available at home, while 64 percent of students had some or few resources at home. These proportions were less stark than the ratio seen in the international averages of 17 and 83 percent, respectively (Figure 2.6; Appendix B.2.4). Although the international report includes data for each of the three categories in this scale, the some resources and few resources categories were combined for Canada because of the limited number of observations for the few resources category. As shown in Figure 2.7, Canadian students who reported having many resources for learning at home scored 35 more points in mathematics and 38 more points in science than those with some or few resources.
Figure 2.6 Percentage of students with home resources for learning for mathematics and science
Many resources Some and few resources
Figure 2.7 Relationship between home resources for learning and achievement
546
Many resources Some and few resources
Percentage
Average score in mathema�cs
Mathema�cs Percentage
Note: Darker shade denotes significant difference compared to the many resources category.
Immigration status
Canada has the second‑largest foreign‑born population in the world in proportion to its overall population, behind only Australia (CMEC, 2015; Duff & Becker‑Zayas, 2017; Parkin, 2015). Research has found that children in immigrant families are more likely to be educationally disadvantaged (Andon, Thompson,
& Becker, 2014; Bruckauf, 2016; OECD, 2010). Using data from earlier cycles of the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), and the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), Andon et al. (2014) have concluded that an achievement gap exists between immigrant and non‑immigrant students in the three domains of reading, mathematics, and science across OECD countries.
558
Many resources Some and few resources
Percentage
Average score in science
Science Percentage
In Canada, immigrants are more likely than non‑immigrants to fall into low‑income categories (Collin &
Jensen, 2009; CMEC, 2015). Despite this disadvantage, Canada is among the OECD countries that are more successful in closing the “immigrant achievement gap” (Parkin, 2015; Wech & Weinkam, 2016).
Based on the TIMSS 2019 data, approximately 89 percent of participating students were born in Canada.
This was similar to the international average of 93 percent being born in the country of the assessment.
Newfoundland and Labrador had the highest rate of students born in Canada (94 percent), while Manitoba had the lowest rate of students born in Canada (82 percent) (Figure 2.8; Appendix B.2.5). As shown in Figure 2.9, there was no significant difference in achievement between immigrant and non‑immigrant students in Canada in either mathematics or science. This is consistent with the finding for 15‑year‑olds in PISA 2018 (O’Grady, Deussing, Scerbina, Tao, Fung, Elez, & Monk, 2019).
Figure 2.8 Percentage of immigrant students
93
Non-immigrant students Immigrant students Note: U – data too unreliable to be published.
Figure 2.9 Relationship between immigration status and achievement
522 529
Average score in mathema�cs
Percentage Mathema�cs
Note: Darker shade denotes significant difference compared to the non-immigrant category.
533 527
Average score in science
Science Percentage
Speaking the language of the test at home
Canada is a multilingual and multicultural country with various immigrant and Indigenous populations. In the 2016 census, over 200 languages were reported as a mother tongue (Statistics Canada, 2017). “Mother tongue,” as used in Statistics Canada data reports, may be considered synonymous with “first language spoken.” Canada’s language groups may be classified into three distinct categories: official languages, non‑
official or heritage languages, and Indigenous languages (Duff & Becker‑Zayas, 2017).
In Canada, approximately one in four students sometimes or never speak the language of the test at home.
Quebec has the highest rate of students who do not speak the language of the test at home (26 percent), while Newfoundland and Labrador has the lowest rate (eight percent) (Figure 2.10; Appendix B.2.6). Students who sometimes or never spoke the language of the test at home scored slightly lower in science than those who always or almost always spoke it, while the difference is not statistically significant in mathematics (Figure 2.11).
Figure 2.10 Percentage of students who speak the language of the test at home
78 76
79 76 75 74
92
22 24
21 24 25 26
8
0 20 40 60 80 100
INT CAN AB MB ON QC NL
Percentage
Always or almost always Some�mes or never
Figure 2.11 Relationship between percentage of students who speak the language of the test at home and
Average score in mathema�cs
Percentage Mathema�cs
Note: Darker shade denotes significant difference compared to the always or almost always category.
Students feeling tired or hungry
Before engaging with learning content, students must have positive physiological dispositions, free of nutritional problems (Taras, 2005) or sleep deprivation (Dewald, Meijer, Oort, Kerkhof, & Bögels, 2010).
Otherwise, students’ ability to learn in school may be affected by how tired or hungry they feel. In Canada, one in five Grade 4 students experience feeling tired at school every day or almost every day (22 percent). This was higher than the international proportion of students who expressed feeling tired every day (19 percent).
Another 47 percent of students in Canada reported feeling tired at school sometimes, and roughly 10 percent reported never feeling tired at school. Newfoundland and Labrador and Manitoba had the highest rates of students reporting feeling tired every day (29 percent) while Quebec had the lowest rate of students reporting the same (16 percent) (Figure 2.12; Appendix B.2.7).
Figure 2.12 Percentage of students who feel tired at school
19
Every day Almost every day Some�mes Never
527 515
Average score in science
Percentage Science
Canadian students who reported experiencing feeling tired at school every day achieved lower scores in mathematics (483 points) and science (507 points) than their peers who only sometimes felt tired (523 points and 531 points, respectively) (Figure 2.13). Similarly, students who reported experiencing feeling tired
at school almost every day achieved lower scores in mathematics (516 points) than their peers who only sometimes felt tired. However, those who reported never feeling tired at school scored slightly lower in science than students who sometimes felt tired.
Figure 2.13 Relationship between feeling of tiredness and achievement
483
Average score in mathema�cs
Mathema�cs Percentage Almos
t every da
y
Note: Darker shade denotes significant difference compared to the sometimes category.
With reference to hunger, 18 percent of students in Canada experience feeling hungry every day at school.
This is greater than the international average of 16 percent who reported feeling the same. Over 21 percent of students in Quebec experience hunger every day at school, while 17 percent of students in Alberta, Ontario, and Newfoundland and Labrador experience the same (Figure 2.14; Appendix B.2.8).
Figure 2.14 Percentage of students who feel hungry at school
16
Every day Almost every day Some�mes Never
507
Average score in science
Science Percentage Almos
t every da
y
Parallel to feelings of tiredness, students who reported experiencing feeling hungry at school every day had lower average scores in mathematics (494 points) and in science (507 points) than their peers who reported feeling hungry at school sometimes (516 points and 529 points, respectively). In a similar manner, those who reported never feeling hungry at school were associated with the highest mathematics score (526 points) and science score (536 points) (Figure 2.15). Multiple studies have shown that Canadian students who eat breakfast have better achievement results. However, the proportion of students never or almost never eating breakfast increases between Grade 4 (7 percent in TIMSS 2015 and PIRLS 2016) and Grade 8 (14 percent in TIMSS 2015) and remains high in Grade 10 (24 percent in PISA 2015) (CMEC, 2020).
Figure 2.15 Relationship between feeling of hunger and achievement
494 506 516 526
18 15
every daySome�mes Never
Percentage
Average score in mathema�cs
Mathema�cs Percentage
Note: Darker shade denotes significant difference compared to the sometimes category.
In-school factors
Preschool
In Canada, formal primary/elementary schooling begins in Grade 1, typically when the student is six years old. However, many families opt to enrol their children into kindergarten, a form of early childhood education and care. As such, though not mandatory in most provinces and territories, a large majority of students begin schooling in either Junior Kindergarten (“JK”) at the age of four years or Senior Kindergarten (“SK”) at the age of five years. Indeed, school readiness in the form of early literacy and numeracy skills and knowledge, even in advance of entering preschool, can bolster academic achievement later in students’
academic trajectories (Pagani & Fitzpatrick, 2014). To this end, TIMSS 2019 asked students and their parents to report the number of years of having attended preschool, the frequency of having engaged in early literacy and numeracy activities before entering preschool, and the student’s age at start of primary/elementary school.
Preschool attendance
In Canada, approximately 46 percent of parents reported that their child attended preschool for three or more years. In Quebec, this rate was notably higher: 65 percent of parents reported three or more years of preschool attendance for their children. In each of the other provinces, less than 40 percent of parents reported the same (Figure 2.16; Appendix B.2.9).
507 517 529 536
18 15
every daySome�mes Never
Percentage
Average score in science
Science Percentage
Figure 2.16 Percentage of students who attended preschool
Did not a�end 1 year or less 2 years 3 years or more
Students who were reported as not having attended any preschool achieved a mathematics score of 504 points and a science score of 521 points, 15 points and 11 points lower, respectively, than their peers who attended preschool for two years (Figure 2.17). As for students who attended preschool for three or more years, they achieved an average mathematics score of 533 points and an average science score of 537 points.
Figure 2.17 Relationship between preschool attendance and achievement
504 519 519 533
11 18 25
less 2 years 3 years or more
Percentage
Average score in mathema�cs
Mathema�cs Percentage
Note: Darker shade denotes significant difference compared to the 2 years category.
Early literacy and numeracy activities before preschool
To gauge students’ activity level in literacy and numeracy before entering preschool, parents were asked to report the frequency that they or someone else in their home had engaged the child in activities at home.
Parents were asked to select one of three response options (i.e., often, sometimes, never/almost never) to report on the frequency of their child’s engagement in 18 different types of activities that ranged from reading, playing, writing, measuring, and drawing, among others (see Table 2.2). Based on these parent responses, an
521 535 533 537
11 18 25
less 2 years 3 years or more
Percentage
Average score in science
Science Percentage
Early Literacy and Numeracy scale was developed with three categories. The “often” category corresponded to students who had often engaged in nine of the 18 activities, the “never or almost never” category
corresponded to students who never engaged in nine of the activities along with sometimes engaging in nine of the other activities. All other students were assigned the “sometimes” category.
Table 2.2 Early literacy and numeracy activities before preschool (Home Questionnaire) Before your child began primary/elementary school, how often did you or someone else in your home do the following activities with him/her?
1) Read books 2) Tell stories 3) Sing songs
4) Play with alphabet toys (e.g., block with letters of the alphabet) 5) Talk about thing you had done
6) Talk about what you had read 7) Play word games
8) Write letters or words 9) Read aloud signs and labels
10) Say counting rhymes or sing counting songs 11) Play with number toys (e.g. blocks with numbers) 12) Count different things
13) Play games involving shapes (e.g., shape shorting toys, puzzles) 14) Play with building blocks or construction toys
15) Play board or card games 16) Write numbers
17) Draw shapes
18) Measure or weigh things (e.g., when cooking)
Over half of parents in Canada reported that their children often participated in literacy and numeracy activities even prior to entering preschool (Figure 2.18; Appendix B.2.10). In Newfoundland and Labrador this rate was particularly high compared to other participating provinces, with three quarters of parents reporting that their children often participated in such activities prior to preschool. In Canada, students who often engaged in early literacy and numeracy activities achieved on average 530 points in mathematics and 541 points in science (Figure 2.19).
Figure 2.18 Percentage of students who engaged in early literacy and numeracy activities before preschool
42
O�en Some�mes Never or almost never Note: U – data too unreliable to be published.
Figure 2.19 Relationship between early literacy and numeracy activities and achievement
O�en Some�mes Never or almost
never
Percentage
Average score in mathema�cs
Mathema�cs Percentage
Note: Darker shade denotes significant difference compared to the sometimes category.
Age at start of primary/elementary school
In Canada, a majority of students began primary/elementary school at the age of six years. In Quebec, the largest proportion of students entered school at this age (72 percent), whereas in Newfoundland and Labrador and Manitoba, the smallest proportion of students (59 percent) had begun school at the age of six (Figure 2.20; Appendix B.2.11). Compared to those who began primary/elementary school at 6 years of age, students in Canada who began primary/elementary school at the age of 5 years achieved a lower mathematics score (511 points vs. 530 points) and a lower science score (522 points vs. 538 points) (Figure 2.21).
Figure 2.20 Students’ age at the start of primary school
15
5 years old our younger 6 years old 7 years old or older Note: U – data too unreliable to be published.
541
O�en Some�mes Never or almost
never
Percentage
Average score in science
Science Percentage
Figure 2.21 Relationship between students’ age at the start of primary school and achievement
our younger 6 years
old 7 years old or older
Percentage
Average score in mathema�cs
Mathema�cs Percentage
Note: Darker shade denotes significant difference compared to the 6 years old category.