18. The girl child is defined within the context of the Convention on the Rights of the Child as a girl from birth to 18 years of age. Different countries, however, may have different ages of majority and
p. 6.
UNICEF, Report of the Inter-regional Consultation on the Girl Child (mimeo), New York, 1994,
varying legal age provisions for marriage, civil rights and obligations. Within the life cycle, the age cohorts (0-5, 6-12 and 13-18 years) may be studied to distinguish the incidence, severity and diversity of problems and concerns.6
A. Demographic factors
19 Women constitute approximately 52 per cent of the population of Africa, where nearly 55 per cent of the total population is under 20 years of age. In 1990, girls aged 0 to 15 years accounted for 40 to 52 per cent of the female population in most African countries: 40 per cent in Egypt and Morocco, 44 per cent in Algeria and Mauritania, 45 per cent in Ethiopia and Mali, 46 per cent in Djibouti and Somalia, 48 per cent in Nigeria, Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania, 50 per cent in C6te d'lvoire and 52 per cent in Kenya. In numerical terms, there were over 10.6 million, 6.5 million and 27.4 million girl children under 15 years of age in Egypt, Kenya and Nigeria respectively.7
20 This youthful population places very high demands on resources in terms of health, nutrition, educa tion and employment. The inability to meet their needs would have serious implications, considering their numbers This is evident in many countries in Africa already where growing poverty is manifested in increased unemployment, crime, teenage pregnancy, street children, drug and alcohol addiction, prostitution, neglect, sexual abuse, HIV/AIDS, school dropouts and exploitation. Girls are considerably more vulnerable
to these problems.
21 Rapid rural-to-urban migration is also a critical factor in the African region, where young people move to towns and cities to look for better opportunities. With the deteriorating economic conditions, these young people find fewer opportunities and are often caught up in the problems of housing, poor health, unemployment, exploitation and poverty. It is estimated that 47 per cent of African youth aged 15-24 will live in the urban areas by the year 2000.8
B. Socio-culturai factors
22 Although circumstances of African girls differ from culture to culture, some generalizations can be made about the disadvantages they suffer, compared to their brothers. In almost all cultures, girls are less valued than boys. Social systems that prepare them for their lives as young people, adults and parents are set to perpetuate their different roles, responsibilities and values and enforce conformity.
23 Gender discrimination starts even before birth, with parental and societal attitudes that stress the value of sons against daughters. The preference for the boy child results in the girl child being less welcome at birth Chances are high that the mother of the baby girl will cease to breast feed earlier to try another pregnancy Although statistics in many countries do not show any marked differences between the health and nutrition of boy and girl children in the early stages, it is clear that disparities exist. Girls are more likely to suffer from harmful traditional practices such as female genital mutilation, a practice prevalent m
most countries of Africa.
6 UNICEF, "Achievements made in the implementation of the UNICEF Policy on Women and Development, including the situation of the girl child: Progress report", E/ICEF/1992/L.5, p. 11.
7 OAU/UNICEF, "Africa's Children, Africa's Future - Background Sectoral Papers" prepared for the OAU Conference on Assistance to African Children, Dakar, November 1992, p. 143.
8 Center for Popular Options, "Adolescent and Unsafe Abortion in Developing Countries: A
preventable Tragedy", Washington, D.C., 1992, p. 11.
24. In many cultures, girls are socialized to be self-sacrificing, destined for biological reproduction and
service to others, especially to the family. In contrast, the boys are valued as the future primary economicproviders for the family and ageing parents, expected to continue the family name, enjoy social power and religious traditional authority. As such, boys are given priority in the allocation of family resources. In most traditions, they have the sole inheritance rights to family land and other properties.9 Social factors therefore
determine the care of girls and affect parental choice and behaviour.25. In conditions of severe poverty, the situation of girls gets exacerbated. She becomes the easy solu tion in several ways - forced into early marriage to get dowry, engage in work outside of the home to earn money, assume responsibilities for domestic duties or take over mother's role in the home. In other words, girls become part of the inter-generational cycle of gender discrimination and exploitation, often perpetuated
by women themselves.26. Religious beliefs also play a crucial role in reinforcing gender discrimination. In all religions, women and girls are accorded inferior status to that of males. The custodians of religion are usually males, whose interpretation and enforcement of religious teachings is often influenced by their own attitudes and
vested interests.C. Health and nutrition
27. Studies in different African countries indicate that there are no significant differences in the rates of infant and child mortality and morbidity between girls and boys under the age of five years. However, dis parities emerge after age six and accelerate as girls take on heavy workloads associated with responsibilities in the house, face the risks associated with female genital mutilation, early marriage, teenage pregnancies,
commercial sex, HIV/AIDS, abortion, poor nutrition and other social and health-related problems.28. Women and girls face different health problems than men and boys, because of the biological differences. Child-bearing, in particular, exposes them to an array of health risks and complications. Inade quate nutrition during puberty limits the physical development of girls and compromises their later develop ment. The nutritional deprivation, combined with heavy workloads, has severe consequences for their owii physical development and the survival and development of the children they will bear.
29. In some African traditional societies, it is common for boys and men to eat first and best. Girls learn from an early age to deny themselves food in favour of the males, especially in times of shortages.
In some cultures, they also face food taboos as they approach puberty which tend to discriminate against the food intake of girls. In a recent study in Cameroon,10 stunting and the prevalence of anaemia was reported
among 12 per cent of the girls surveyed in the age group 12-19 years old.D. Harmful traditional practices
30. In many countries in Africa, the transition of girls into womanhood is marked by initiation rites, most of which are harmful to their health. The most serious of these practices is female genital mutilation which includes circumcision, infibulation and excision. The estimated prevalence rates of female genital
9 Wamahiu, S., "The Female Child in Kenya", study commissioned by the Kenya Alliance for
Advocacy for Children and UNICEF, Kenya, 1991, p. 28.
10 International Center for Research on Women, "Investing in the future: Six principles for promoting
the nutritional status of adolescent girls in developing countries," Washington, D.C., 1994, p. 12.
mutilation in countries of Africa ranges from 10 to 98 per cent.11 Infibulation is by far the severest and most harmful of all these practices. This practice is based on cultural, religious, health and moral basis but the root causes lie in the social systems, in which women are seen as objects of male control. In certain countries, like the Sudan, Somalia and Djibouti, 80 to 90 per cent of all female genital mutilation is infibula tion. It is also practiced on a smaller scale in part of Mali, Ethiopia, Eritrea, the Gambia and Egypt.12 In many of these societies, the knowledge about the serious consequences is contradicted by the strong and deep-rooted beliefs about the virtues of the practice which is often carried out by women practitioners, using
crude instruments under unhygienic conditions.31. The consequences of female genital mutilation to girls are devastating both immediately and in later life. They could suffer from shock due to pain and bleeding, infections, damage to the urine and stool passages, chronic problems during sexual intercourse, difficult and risky child births, foetal loss, foetal brain damage, vesicovaginal and rectovaginal fistula, psychological and psychosexual problems.13
32. Female circumcision is perhaps the most painful manifestation of the powerlessness of African women and girls. The untold suffering under this practice is directed at controlling the sexuality of girls and women, curtailing sexual pleasure and subordinating them to male sexual exploitation and pleasure.
Ironically, women are the staunchest defenders and perpetuators of this practice, in their role as mothers, counsellors, practitioners or social custodians. Efforts at eradicating the practice must, therefore, address women's empowerment and sensitization precluding them from being perpetrators of their own oppression.
33. There has been a global outcry against this shameful practice, widespread advocacy and legislative efforts. A number of African countries have issued decrees abolishing the practice. However, such decrees have to be enforced through community action and concerted efforts by political, social, religious institutions and the media. In some societies, the practice is shrouded in secrecy, making it difficult to assess the extent and to eradicate. In seeking solutions to the problem therefore, it is extremely important to consider the per spectives of the victims as well as the societies in which these practices occur, in order to find workable
solutions.
34. Early sexual activity and marriage are also harmful practices that are encouraged as part of the initia tion ceremonies. In some cultures, boys' initiation rites, such as circumcision, encourage them to test and practise their manhood on girls, thus putting girls at risk of exploitation, unwanted pregnancy, infection and
abuse. In other cultures, girls are married following the initiation rites.E. Earlv marriage
35. In Africa, as many as 60 to 70 per cent of girls are married by the age of 19 years. In some cases, they are married as early as 11 years for social, religious and economic reasons, including fear of pre-marital pregnancy, preservation of chastity, acquisition of bride-wealth and poverty. For example, in C6te d'lvoire more than 40 per cent of girls aged 20 years or younger were married as compared to less than 10 per cent of boys. The same trend is evident in Zimbabwe, Ethiopia and Morocco, with 20, 45 and 15 per cent of
11 Toubia, Nahid, "Female Genital Mutilation: A Call for Global Action", Women, Inc., New York,
1993, p. 24.
12
Ibid-, p. 11.
13 Ras-Work, Berhane, "Eradication of harmful traditional practices for the empowerment of girls",
paper presented at the UNICEF Inter-regional Consultation on the Girl Child, India, February 1994, p. 3.
girls under 20 years being married respectively.14 These girls enter marriage without education, thus lacking knowledge of the requirements for health and reproduction and physically, with bodies inadequately
developed for pregnancy and birth.36. The low self-esteem, illiteracy, drop-out from school and low aspirations among girls perpetuate the custom of early marriage, early child-bearing and related harmful traditional practices such as female genital mutilation. Frequently, the child wife is totally dependent on her husband and is unlikely to have power of decision making about her sexuality, fertility and productivity. Deprived of the opportunity for education, the child wife is likely to be illiterate,unskilled and powerless. Early marriage and childbearing adds to the young woman's vulnerability. In the absence of legal protection and economic assets, she encounters destitu tion through neglect and desertion by her husband as well as the added responsibilities of a single parent for
the care of her offspring, often at a young age.
F. Early pregnancy
37. In most societies, the age of the first sexual encounter among the youth is declining and early sexual activity adds to the problems faced by girls, they are also unlikely to know about contraception to plan or control their pregnancies. A survey in Nigeria found that 43 per cent of school girls aged 14-19 years were sexually active.15 Another survey showed that in a number of African countries on average, more than 20 per cent of girls aged between 15-19 years were sexually active and an average of 5 per cent had given birth.16 Early sexual activity has serious consequences, including unwanted pregnancy, abortions, STDs including HIV/AIDS, poor performance in school, low social esteem and low aspirations.
38. The health status of girls is worsened by early pregnancies and negative socio-cultural practices.
Africa has the world's highest rate of adolescent pregnancy. The rate of pregnancy among African girls aged between 15 and 19 years is 18 per cent, compared to 8 per cent in Latin America, 5 per cent in North America and 3 per cent in Europe.17 This early entry into reproductive life increases the risk of health problems such as anaemia, malnutrition, sexually transmitted diseases including HIV/AIDS, the complica tions associated with pregnancy as well as risks of maternal mortality.
39. In spite of increased access and use of family planning in some parts of the continent, teen-age pregnancy continues to be an issue of major social and demographic importance. Data from Demographic and Health Surveys show that births to girls between 15 and 19 years account for between 15 to 20 per cent of all births.18 The numbers involved are alarming. As the chart in figure II shows, these range from 3
per cent in Burundi to 45 per cent in Mali, with Liberia, Uganda and Botswana reporting figures of 37, 30 and 24 per cent respectively.40. High rates of teenage pregnancy are directly related to high rates of maternal mortality as well as infant and child mortality, which exist in most African countries. The United Nations publication, The
14 UNICEF, "Girls and Women: A UNICEF Development Priority", New York, 1994, p. 10.
15 Center for Population Options, "Adolescents' Fertility in Sub-Saharan Africa: Strategies for a New
Generation", Washington, D.C., 1992, p. 12.
16 Ibid-, P- 15.
17 Ibjd., p. 12.
IS Ibid., p. 4.
World's Women, states that teenage mothers have a higher risk - twice that of mothers aged 20 to 24 years.19
41. Young women often opt for unsafe and illegal abortions as a means of preventing unwanted births, which also contributes to maternal deaths. The other health risks of early sexuality and childbearing include the risks of contracting HIV/AIDS and other STDs; infections due to unsafe abortion, perforated uterus, ectopic pregnancy, infertility and death. This lack of basic information and education, inadequate parental guidance and support, the breakdown of traditional systems of education and poor access to services further contribute to the increasing rate of teenage pregnancies.
G. HIV/AIDS
42. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that about half of the HIV infections world-wide occur among people younger than 25 years. Similarly, the rates of sexually transmitted diseases are also higher among adolescents than for any other age group. In the case of girls and women who are engaged in commercial sex, the risk of STDs is enhanced. Some cities in Africa report over 80 per cent HIV prevalence among sex workers. In some African countries, 30 per cent of women of reproductive age are infected, contracting HIV at lower ages and larger numbers than men. For example, in Zimbabwe, HIV infection among 15 to 19 year olds is six times higher in girls than in boys.20 In Malawi, nearly 3 per cent of the girls aged 15-19 are reported to have AIDS, compared to less than 1 per cent for boys of the same age. The figure increases to nearly 12 per cent of those between 20 and 24 years, compared with less than 5 per cent of men in the same age group. It is speculated that this situation is the result of the sugar daddy"
syndrome of older men luring young girls because they are considered safe partners.21 HIV is also a threat to a woman's child bearing since 30 per cent of babies born to HIV-infected mothers contract the virus in the womb.
43. The AIDS pandemic poses a major threat to girls whose lack of empowerment socially, legally and economically makes them extremely vulnerable. The increased violence against women and girls poses addi tional risks. The empowerment of girls is urgent and critical so that they become more assertive, defend themselves and protect themselves from high-risk behaviour,
H. Education and training
44. "Over 100 million children, including at least 60 million girls, have no access to primary educa
tion. "n This means that nearly two-thirds of the children deprived of schooling are girls. In sub-Saharan
Africa, half of the adult population is illiterate; this percentage reaches 62 per cent among the female popula tion - female illiteracy reaches the record highs of between 80 and 90 per cent of the total in Burkina Faso, Sierra Leone, the Sudan, Guinea, Benin, the Niger, Chad, Mozambique and Mauritania.23 What then are the prospects for the education of women and girls in Africa for the twenty-first century?19 United Nations, "The World's Women; Trends and Statistics 1970-1990", New York, 1991, p. 59.
20 UN1CEF, "Girls and Women", ibid., p. 11.
21 AIDS Secretariat, Malawi: Report dated February 1994.
22 UNICEF, "The State of the World's Children", New York, 1990, p. 47.
23 UNICEF, "Statistical Yearbook", 1992.
45. Gender disparities in education are reflected in enrolment, access, retention, performance (especially with regard to science, technology and mathematics); the type and quality of education; opportunities for alternative types of education; and achievements. Even in countries where enrolment figures for girls and boys have reached or are approaching parity, as in Cameroon, the Congo, Senegal, Swaziland, the United Republic of Tanzania and Zaire, high drop-out rates for girls as they go up the education ladder tend to offset the gains made in enrolment. The disparities between female and male achievements in education is explicitly illustrated in their secondary school enrolment ratios. Except Botswana and Lesotho, where the female rates are higher, the rates are lower for girls and in countries such as Benin, the'Niger and
Mozambique, it is lower than 2:1.24
46. The economic benefits of educating girls are obvious but even more relevant are the benefits of girls' primary education. It was found that if allowance is made for both direct and indirect economic benefits of education to women as independent income earners, to their families and country, then even the high social and private returns to girls' primary education underestimates the true value of that education.
47'■ Social impact of female illiteracy: Recent findings leave no doubt that women's education does have a powerful social impact. There is a correlation between girls' education and decreased fertility, increased child health and decreased child mortality. There is also the positive impact of a mother's education on her children's education. What are the factors that determine female education? Research on gender equity indicates that there are various fairly consistent traditional and economic factors which influence girls' and
women's achievement, access and participation in education:25(a) Distance and travel to schools: Distance to school and the need to travel have often been
cited as major deterrents to female school attendance. Parents often perceive a physical and moral threat
to their daughters' security if they have to travel or distances are great. Attendance decreases dramatically
(a) Distance and travel to schools: Distance to school and the need to travel have often been
cited as major deterrents to female school attendance. Parents often perceive a physical and moral threat
to their daughters' security if they have to travel or distances are great. Attendance decreases dramatically
Dans le document
Education, health and social issues Part II B
(Page 54-63)