Land Use/Land Cover

The pastoral community resource base, land and water are the source of all sorts of needs for the use of the pastoral community. The main types of land use in the study area are;

➢ Moderately cultivated land with shrub land

➢ Moderately cultivated with grass land

➢ Shrub land and grass land

➢ Bush land with shrub land, and grass land with rock, bare soil (rock) and

➢ Urban areas 4.1.4 Local Geology

Somali Region is part of the Ogaden plain, which is mostly occupied by gypsiferous formation made up of gypseous clay, alternated with marls of thick beds of massif gypsum of dolomite and thick salty rock layer. Recent deposits consist of alluvial and debris cones resulting from intermittent river flooding coupled with weathering action and in particular of wind erosion deposits. Apparently a relatively decline of the Ogaden plateau has occurred in the recent past.

4.1.5 Soils

Soil fertility is high around rivers (permanent and seasonal) which flood seasonally. These areas are cultivated by agro pastoralists and riverine communities. Most of the Hawd area has sandy soils which are very porous and does not support crop production. Many parts are rocky and hilly.

4.1.6 Climate

Mostly the region is arid/semi-arid in lowland areas and cooler/wetter in the higher areas. Annual rainfall ranges from 150 - 1000 mm per year. Temperatures range from 19°C (Jijiga zone) to 40°C (the southern zones, particularly the Shabelle, Dawa and Genale River Basins) and northern Shinile zone gets very hot between May and October. Annual evaporation is high and estimated about 3,500 mm.

The region can be divided into two areas based on the seasons of the year: Shinile and Jigjiga zones to the north and the remaining seven zones to the south. The rainfall pattern for both areas is bimodal occurring in April to May and September to October but the timings differ slightly as illustrated below.

The major rainfall patterns in the region are “Deyr” and “Karan”.

“Deyr” receiving areas: The “Deyr” receiving areas dominate the region and include, Daghabur, Korahe, Warder, Gode, Afder, Liben and Fik zones. These zones receive the main rains of “Gu” from April to June followed by “Deyr” from October to November. In addition, the “Deyr” zone suffers from “Jilaal” season which is the most difficult time of the year (where food and water supply shortage is prominent for both pastoralists and agro-pastoralists). The “Jilaal” stretches from December to March.

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“Karan” receiving areas of the region are Jigjiga and Shinile zones and resemble the low land and medium highland agro-ecological zones of the nation.

4.1.7 Water Resource

The region has four major rivers, Wabi Shebelle, Genale, Dawa and Weyib which carry large amount of water throughout the year. The region has also high underground water potential. Wabi Shebelle, Weib, Genale, Dawa, which are the main rivers that form the main drainage systems of the region and Erer, Jerer, Daketa, Fafen valleys that are seasonal rivers. The Somali Region has a significant surface and underground water resource, which can be utilized for irrigation and hydroelectric power generation as well as domestic needs. It is estimated that these rivers can irrigate over 600,000 ha of land of which currently only some 3.3% is irrigated.

The permanent rivers include the Ganale (Liban and Afder), the Shabelle (Afder/Gode border) and the Dawa (in Liban Zone, becoming seasonal in Dolo Ado District). Seasonal rivers include the Erer, Hurso and Chow rivers (Shinile Zone), the Wayib River (Afder Zone), part of the Dawa River (Liban Zone), and the Fafan, Jerer, Errer and Dakhata rivers (in Jijiga, Fik, Degahbur and Korahe Zones).

Mainly rivers, shallow/deep wells, natural ponds, berkads (artificial reservoirs) and boreholes are found in the region. Shallow wells (mostly in seasonal river-beds) are found in all zones; their yields and quality decline in the dry seasons. Berkads are found mainly in the Hawd areas (Warder, eastern Korahe, eastern Degahbur and Jigjiga Zone) where permanent water sources do not exist. Historical, permanent, deep wells are found in Warder Zone, particularly in Warder District. Other sources include natural depressions (balleys) which collect rain water, or hand-dug ponds. Water quality is often a problem for all sources – boreholes are better but are very few. Water scarcity is an endemic problem in most areas, particularly those with no permanent water points. Areas that are known for their chronic water shortages in the dry seasons are all berkad-dependent areas (see above), and most of Fik, and parts of Gode, Liban and Afder, which depend on shallow wells and balleys.

4.2 Biological Environment (Flora and Fauna)

4.2.1 Vegetation (Flora)

Mostly the vegetation composition is made up of small trees and shrubs, which are 3-4 m in height. The dominant species include Acacia mellifera, Acacia oerfata, Acacia brevispica and several species of Comifora species. The area is also characterized by grassland, open shrub land, dense shrub land, dense bush land, wooded grassland and riparian woodland/bush land. The dominant grass species include Ischamum species and Chrysopogon species. The area is generally rich in floral diversity as in the case of other parts of the Ethiopian Somali-Massai Biome-East African evergreen vegetation type.

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4.2.2 Wild Animals (Fauna)

The natural environment of the study area is endowed with rich wildlife resources and dry land vegetations having significant social, economic and environmental benefits. However, the increase in population pressure and more and more demand for livestock grazing land as well as poaching have destroyed much of the wildlife habitat in the area. Hence, only those wild animals that could survive or coup up in such disturbed conditions are found, especially in the plain areas. Despite this, there is still significant number and diversity of wildlife species in the area.

The most common wildlife species that exist in the area at present includes Hyena (Crocuta crocuta), Fox, Rabbit and Antelopes (Grant’s gazelle, Beisa Oryx, Gerenuk and Lesser Kudu). Moreover, the number of bird species found in the project area is also great. Some of the birds are Ostrich, Egyptian Eagle, Abyssinian Roller, and Crested Francolin.

4.3 Socio-Economic Environment

4.3.1 Demographic Features

Population is the crucial and initial point of study in multi-purpose water infrastructure projects.

Particularly, in developing countries, it is a basic source of data in understanding the dynamics of the population and thereby designing feasible development projects.

The demography patterns have their own impact on the implementation of the project sites development activities. According to the socio-economic report data of the consultant, the total population of Ethiopian Somali National Regional State is 5,748,998 constituting of 3,094,002 (54%) males and 2,654,996 (46%) females (CSA 2013 projected to 2013-2014). Out of the total population of the region 598,482 (10.4%) are living in the five DRSLP-I intervention Woredas (districts) namely Birkod, Adigala, Marsin, Ararso, and Goljano.

Ethnic and Religious Composition: As it is true for other regions of the country, Ethiopian Somali region consists of heterogeneous population in terms of ethnic composition. In view of this, Somali, Oromo, Amhara and Tigray are the main ethnic groups living in the region. Similarly, the population of the region is heterogeneous in terms of religion. Thus, adherents of the religion are Muslim, Orthodox Christian and Protestant.

Population Structure: Population structure in terms of age-sex composition is very important in demographic studies. Age structure is very important variable in measuring potential school age population, voting population, and working age population. The population of the region is in broader age category.

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As to the case of the program target Woredas, the highest portion of the population is falling under less than 15 years age group, the other highest percent falling in the working age group (15-64) and very small percent are 65 years and plus age groups.

Dependency Ratio: Large ratio of dependents in a population of an area indicates the burden put up on the active population. Although children are often engaged in productive activities as of age 7 particularly in rural Ethiopia, it is conventional to categorize children under 15 as dependents. On the other hand, old people above the age of 65 too are considered as dependents.

4.3.2 Economic Activities (Agriculture)

Traditional agriculture (Animal Rearing) is the dominant livelihood strategy of the majority of the population in the region. The region’s community is predominantly pastorals mostly livestock rearing is taking place in the five-program target woreda.

4.3.2.1 Livestock Production

Livestock production is the major livelihood of the households in the program target Woredas.

Subsistence livestock production mainly for milking is the main purpose particularly in the areas.

Livestock production is mainly for production of meat, milk and milk products both for household consumption and for markets and for transportation.

According to the project target Woredas agricultural offices data, there are 545,086 cattle population, 1,978,396 heads of shoats, 180,783 equines and 675,003 head of camel population in the five-program target Woredas of Birkod, Adigala, Marsin, Ararso, and Goljano shown in table 3.2.

Table 3. 2 Livestock Population in the five Program Target Woredas

No Woreda Livestock Species/Type

Cattle Shoats Equine Camel

1 Birkod 37,051 281,165 2,009 87,462

2 Adigala 120,737 540,175 15,896 10,899

3 Marsin 17,320 488,707 9,187 321,336

4 Ararso 12,433 110,531 1,588 16,607

5 Goljano 357,545 557,818 152,103 238,699

Total 545,086 1,978,396 180,783 675,003

Source: Project Target Woredas Pastoralist Offices, 2018

4.3.2.2 Crop Production

Due to the dry nature of the program target areas, only irrigated agriculture is practiced. The major types of crops grown in the areas are Sorghum, Maize and Onion. Based on the information gained from

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the respective program target Woredas coordinators and Woredas line officers, the agricultural products are basically used for household consumption but some surplus product will be used for market consumption.

4.4 Energy

4.4.1 Fuel Wood Utilization

Energy is vital for preparation of food and as a source of heat and light for domestic uses. In the program target Woredas, like other parts of the country, households consume a large amount of energy derived from biomass fuels. Fire wood obtained from forest and bushes is the energy source of all households in the project areas.

4.4.2 Power Supply

The program target Woredas have the national hydro-electric power grid system; however, the hydropower interrupts from time to time. As a result, except urban households, the projects area communities do not have access to modern energy sources like electricity. Thus, the current sole dependency of the rural community solely on fuel wood sources of energy is hazardous in terms of both the environment and soil fertility.

4.5 Social Services and Infrastructures

Good infrastructural facilities are cornerstones for any development efforts anywhere in the world.

Education as backbone for human resource development, health facilities as improvement of life span of human beings and creating a healthy development actor, communication facilities (road networks) as main way for input supply to the area and output distribution to different markets. Water supply is vital to sustain life and creating clean areas in the program target Woredas. Hence accessing their availability and accessibility is required by doing different promotional activities.

4.5.1 Education

Education is a back bone for human resource development. Therefore, the construction and expansion of schools plays a significant role in the development of the region as well as the country. There are 25 primary schools (first and second cycle) in the program target Woredas.

4.5.2 Public Health

4.5.2.1 Disease Prevalence

According to the health center data of program target Woredas, the main diseases are Pneumonia, Typhoid, Dyspepsia, Diarrhea, Malaria, Anemia and Skin Infection. Though the incidence of malaria is currently decreasing due to distribution of malaria net, chemicals spray and a frequent awareness

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creation program, it is still the major epidemic disease in the program target kebeles. According to the information from the health institutions, malaria is the leading health problem in the project areas.

Thus, a considerable attention shall be required to control and prevent the spread of malaria which directly affects the working force.

Diarrhea is also one of the major causes of morbidity and mortality in the program target areas, is caused by unprotected water and poor sanitation and hygienic condition. Though access to safe and adequate water has increased for the last consecutive years, still, availability of adequate and clean water is the major problem in the project target kebeles. Using unprotected water sources is the cause of morbidity of the community in the expected beneficiary kebeles through water borne diseases. The disease is highly aggravated for children under five years.

Malnutrition is a serious problem and a cause of high incidence diseases. Poor nutrition undermines child development and the cognitive abilities of school children. Nutritional deficiency has greatly interacted with diseases like diarrhea, acute respiratory infection and typhoid. Likewise, malnutrition has also affected adult working population which has an adverse impact on livestock productivity.

4.5.2.2 Health Services (Institutions and Manpower)

Secondary data from program target Woredas Health Offices (2017) indicated that there are 7 health centers and 35 health posts in the project’s beneficiary Woredas. The distribution of health facilities varies by Woredas and kebeles and it is better in the program target woreda towns. The woreda and kebele level trained health personnel comprise of doctors, nurses, laboratory technicians and Health Extension Workers. Thus, majority of the program beneficiary kebeles are represented by health assistance and/or by health extension workers.

Health infrastructures in the proposed program target Woredas and kebeles are inadequate in terms of their population size. The data implied that majority of the project areas population has forced to travel to other areas to get health care services.

4.6 Access to Potable Water Supply

4.6.1 Water Supply

A piped water supply is available in the main urban center of the Woredas but for the largest part of the program target population (excluding urban centers) water is obtained from unprotected sources such as river, streams, springs and ponds. During dry season even some of the unprotected surface sources dry up and ground water sources decrease their yield forcing rural people (particularly women) to travel long distances to fetch water. The condition of livestock watering is even worse. Cattle are watered traveling long distance between grazing area and water point in the program target Woredas.

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Providing access to safe and adequate water is one of the key factors for socio-economic transformation since, among other things, water has an interactive linkage with health and education. Good health is crucial to enhance the productive capacity of the community and improve attendance and performance of students, especially for girls by reducing water fetching burden. Thus, availability of clean and sufficient water plays a vital role for sustainability of any development project.

4.6.2 Sanitation & Waste Disposal

Proper sanitation and personal hygiene is crucial to promote health, improves the quality of the environment and thus, the quality of life in a community. During the site visit we observe, like any other kebeles of the area, the sanitation and hygienic coverage of the project area is very low. Moreover, lack of proper collection and disposal of liquid and solid waste management system in the project area as well as in the target and adjacent kebeles will significantly degrade the environment and adversely affect human health.

People living in urban center of the woreda are also served by poor sanitary facilitates, because in most of the places there is a shortage of emptying machinery and as a result people prefer to defecate on open areas.

In rural areas people defecate in the open area which finally would get in to rivers and hence enhance facial oral diseases because majority of people obtain their drinking water from open, non-protected sources. Another factor hindering progress in sanitation is the rural people’s negative attitude towards the use of latrines. The reason they gave when asked is the bad smell of latrines. Therefore, provision of ventilated improved pit is required together with active health education program to enhance the attitude of the rural people to use latrines.

Moreover, the people in the project area dump their solid wastes outside mostly near to their houses.

The housing condition is also very poor since in most of the villages the houses have roof thatched with plastic/grass and no walls. The metal thatched roof houses in the towns also have narrow round room with no partition for animals and one for tools and utensils as a result there is high risk of animal to human transmission of diseases.

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5. PROJECT ALTERNATIVES

Analysis of alternatives is therefore part of the ESIA process. The purpose is to identify and select best alternative among all possible options. The alternatives analyzed in this ESIA study refer to creating human and livestock domestic water supply accesses. The major known principles of alternatives selection that can help in optimizing possible expected adverse impacts of development projects are:

• Locating projects on sites where negative physical, biological and socio-economic impacts are minimized and most possible advantages obtained;

• Promoting project effectiveness

• Restoring or conserve and promote sustainable use of environmental resources

The purpose of analyzing alternatives is used to ensure the projects sustainability and select the best site among the possible options. To implement this project different options are analyzed to choose the feasible alternative that brings sustainable development by considering biophysical, social, economic, cultural and technical factors.

No Project Alternative: The “do nothing option” prevents the implementation of the multi-purpose water infrastructures in the area. This means it limits the socio-economic development of the projects area and prohibits the advantages of the local community that gains from modern structures. As a result, the benefits such as increased income (production) and improvement of living standard of the community will be lost.

Project Site and Design Alternative: The project site alternatives are analyzed based on the sitting of the head works (reservoir and water point), construction techniques, and operation & maintenance procedures. With regard to this different site were investigated in the program target five Woredas of different Kebeles. The investigation involves an evaluation of physical (hydrology, geology and topography) biological and social parameters. Among the different sites the proposed projects sites are preferred due to its geological stability (having bedrock foundation), low adverse environmental impacts, and low construction cost. The proposed water supply site has been selected primarily due to their high socio-economic benefits and low adverse environmental impacts over the other options.

Time Schedule Alternative: The schedule for infrastructure works should be arranged after the rainy and agricultural off seasons, because the local community should be involved during construction works.

Resource Alternative: The materials used to construct the project structures are coarse aggregates of different size, fine aggregates, cement, water, angle iron, sand and selective materials. These materials

Resource Alternative: The materials used to construct the project structures are coarse aggregates of different size, fine aggregates, cement, water, angle iron, sand and selective materials. These materials

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