Chapter 1. Introduction
1.5 Outline of the Thesis
The thesis is structured in five chapters to elaborate the research questions mentioned above. Chapter 2 explores the relationship between biodiversity, ecosystem services and conservation policy. For this purpose it develops a framework for studying their interdependence. It is argued that a necessary (though not sufficient) condition for making a transition to a truly sustainable economy is that biodiversity conservation and its analysis take into account unwanted and avoidable indirect effects of all kinds of biodiversity policy. These indirect effects partly undo the direct conservation benefits causing the policy to be less effective than is possible. Five types of these indirect effects are identified – which are called rebound effects– and the terms biodiversity (two types), ecological, service and environmental rebound are proposed for these. The service rebound is associated with the problem of incongruence or conflicts, and thus the potential need for trade-offs, between ecosystem services or between such services and biodiversity conservation. Effective biodiversity policy requires the minimization of these various rebound effects.
Chapter 3 investigates the usefulness of the notion of ecosystem services for integrating perceptions and values into decision-making on protected areas. Socio-cultural factors have been suggested to explain perceptions and values assigned to ecosystem services. The chapter examines this by undertaking a socio-cultural valuation of ecosystem services provided by the natural park of Sant Llorenç. Four methods are used, namely a review of the literature on ecosystem services, non-participant observation, semi-structured interviews with stakeholders, and a valuation survey among visitors. The chapter assesses whether visitors and other stakeholders understand
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the term ecosystem service, finding that the concept is rather unknown or misunderstood. Among the 28 ecosystem services identified, habitat and cultural services were the most valued. The analysis involves statistically identifying socio-economic characteristics of visitors that have a main influence on their valuation of ecosystem services. It further assesses diverging preferences of all stakeholders that might give rise to conflicting views about policies for protected areas. Lessons are drawn about the usefulness of the multi-method approach and about the management of protected areas.
Chapter 4 is motivated by the idea that local participation of stakeholders in governance of protected areas is important to natural resource management and biodiversity conservation. For this purpose, social network analysis (SNA) is proposed as a useful tool for analysis because it allows the understanding of stakeholders’
relationships, interactions, and influences through communication networks. This chapter combines quantitative and qualitative data to undertake a SNA for the natural park of Sant Llorenç. This is aimed at assessing the structure of the communication network; comparing the informal communication network with the formal participatory bodies of the natural park; and selecting participants for subsequent analyses of the adequate governance structure of the natural park. The results suggest that an informal network of communication, which is reasonably well represented in participatory bodies, exists. However, this communication network is not functioning perfectly because stakeholders experience a lack of trust in the governance bodies of the park, which they perceive to be ineffective. The results show that SNA is an effective tool to support the creation of a broad representation of stakeholders in participatory processes.
Chapter 5 investigates the political implications of participatory arrangements in the governance of protected areas. In many countries, network-based forms of governance have appeared in the process of restructuring biodiversity governance over the last two decades. This has promoted the involvement of relevant stakeholders. Even though this shift has been framed as promoting stakeholder and public participation, in practice it has often hampered democratic decision-making and community empowerment by reinforcing business involvement, particularly through the creation of profitable public–private partnerships. This chapter examines these processes by analysing the role of participatory arrangements in the governance of the natural park of Sant Llorenç. In particular, it studies how these have transformed power relationships.
For this purpose, it assesses the reasons for promoting stakeholder participation, what issues are addressed in the various participatory bodies, and the specific procedures and inclusiveness characterizing these bodies. The chapter finds that participatory arrangements paradoxically led to exclusion of certain key social actors in the management of protected areas. They further facilitated a neoliberal approach to biodiversity governance by favouring the inclusion of actors with mainly economic motivations.
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Chapter 6 assesses the European Charter for Sustainable Tourism (ECST), a policy instrument implemented in the natural park of Sant Llorenç. The ECST is aimed at promoting sustainable tourism by establishing a voluntary commitment between managers of protected areas and relevant stakeholders. We assess this policy considering as performance criteria effectiveness, efficiency, equity and legitimacy, among others. As part of effectiveness, various types of unwanted and avoidable indirect, rebound effects are considered. The ECST is analysed as part of a policy mix, that is, a combination of different types of policy instruments. This chapter further compares the performance of the ECST with policy instruments used in four other European countries and identifies rebound effects of such instruments. Considering the results of comparing instruments, several recommendations are made that can improve biodiversity conservation policies.
Finally, chapter 7 draws specific and general conclusions, and suggests some avenues for further research.
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