Consequently, in 1986, women constituted 63% of the manufacturing labour force. Women preponderate in the semi sIo11ed jobs
inthe export oriented mctories and
inthe food processing plants, where their wages, generally, are only 213 of men's
with similareducational background.
100. In Botswana, Lesotho and Namibia, population growth rates are
high.Women outnumber men in total numbers as weD as in enrobnent rates at primary and secondary schoolleve\s. In Lesotho they
alsooutnumber men
invocational and technical schools,
8SweD as in the
university.Unfurtunately
highpregnancy rates neutralize the
highenrobnent rates as is the case in Nambia where secondary school retention rate was only 14% fur girls compared to 20% for boys in 1991. By the age of17,19% of the girls are already sexually active and by 19,45% are already mothers or expecting. At the higher schools, more boys also end
upstaying in school than girls.
101. Botswana, Lesotho and Nannbia have adhered to customary and Roman Dutch Laws whlch foster disparities between male and
femalestatus. Women's share in parliament, therefore, is only 7%
in Namibia, 5% in Botswana and 2% in Lesotho. Botswana and Namibia have oruytwo women cabinet
posts each out of20 ministers. Lesotho, a monarchy, is even less gender-sensitive and in spite of the visibility of women everywhere they are hardly found at top policy decision-making organs.
102. None of the three countries has signed CEDA W or the ILO Convention on Equality in Employment and Occupations. Namibia, however, has signed the Convention on Equal Remuneration.
Gender inequalities are thus evident in such issues as property ownership, inheritance, child custody and access to land and credit whereby women are treated as minors. The visibility of women due to
high
school enrohnent and high employment rates tend to make the impact of gender inequalities even greater.103. The Southern Afiican countries are a closter with a tru1ly mixed bag ( see Tables 13( a) and 13(b) of relatively high economic growth, minimal gender gap in educatioual enrolments even at the secondary level where in some countries women are even more than men, and a relatively large gender gap in economic participation rates ( 0.40 and 0.31). Large gender gaps are particularly evident in the industrial sector. Representation of women in decision-making at the highest level is also poor. The
high
levels of education that women have enjoyed have therefore not been sufficient to break the old discriminatory practices of keeping them out of the mines and decision-making.Table 13 (8) OJ' THE SOUTHERN AFRICAMELANGEo ECONOMIC GRowm MiD GENDKREQUITY AT LOGGERHEADS - . - -
-INDICATOR Mauritius Seychelles SOll1h Africa
Women's ecmrnnic activity.rate 19.49% 20.59% 33.68%
Wcm:u:n's paIticipatioo. nrte in the agriculture sector 22.50% 7.10% 7.24%
Women's participatirn.ratein thetertiary sedor 62.80% 71.90% 70.02%
Participat.icn rl!l.e of women in (induslry) rrulllufarturing 14.80% 21.40% 8.92%
Share of the agricuhural sector in GDP 10.95% 5.66% 4.66%
Share of the tertiary sedor in GDP 55.74% 73.86% 44.68%
Share of govemmmt ~xp.nditure in GDP 28.00% 60.00% 34.00%
Debt service ratio 8.13% 7.07% 1.00%
Share of manufactured goods in tctal exports 62.31% 0.06% 3].67%
Urbanization 40.50% 70.50% 49.21%
Totalfertility (birthsper woman) 1.90 2.80 5.49
F ema1e headed hOlL<d:J.olds 19.00% 10.000/0 45.00%
Female primary mrohnmt rate 130.93% 94.00% 105.00%
Female seandar)' mrolment ratio 56.00% 29.80% 45.00%
Ratificatim of.l1,O coovenlirn 100 100.0% 100.0% 0.0%
Ra1:ificat.i.oo. oraD coovCDtim III 0% 0% 0%
Ratificatim ofCEDAW 0% 0% 0%
GOP indicator (+is in favour of men: -is in favour rS "-'Omen)
Gender gap in ecoo.omic activity rate 0.49 0.44 0.26
Gender gap in agricuhural activities 0.Q2 0.28 0.46
Gender gap intertiary activities '{).12 '{).18 0.01
Gtttder gap in industria (manufaduring) activities 0.29 0.29 0.42
Gendtt g.<Ip in life expectancy .{).05 .{).06 .{).05
Gmder gap in literacy .rate 0.07 .{).04 0.01
Gender gap in secrndary sdlool mrolment 0.D2 0.04 0.03
Source: UNIDO, .... Participation of Women in Manufacturing", 1995
<
I
Worn"". participation rate in the tertiary sector 14.30% 10.30% 51.00% 18.53%
---1
Participation rate of women in (indumy) mllllufac:turing 4.300/. 4.40% 2.50% 3.734%
Share o[the agricultural sector in GDP 16,06% 5.69"10 10.81% 10.85%
-Share of the tertiary sector in GDP 48.17% 30.17% 50.60% 43.01%
Share ofgowrnmeot expenditure in GDP 41.00% 45.00% 35.00% 40.33%
Debt service ratio 5,30% 3.270/. 2.82% 3.800/. '
- - - --
-Share ofmanufuctured goods in total exports 52.80% 89.10% 89.64% 77.18%
---~---1
Urbanization 21.10% 3030% 29.00% 2 7 . 0 0 % ,
T otalfertility (births per woman) 5.80 6.40 5.10
;.~~---I
Female headed households 25.00% 36.00% 40.00% 33.67% I
Female primary enrolment ratc 115.00% lIZ. 000/, 99.00% 108.67%
Female seccndary enrolment ratio 30.00% 7.00% 47,00% 28.00%
Ratification ofILO oonvention 100 0.0% 0.0% 100.0% 33.0%
Ratification of ILO convention III 0% 0% 0% 0%
Ratification of CEDAW 0'11> 0% 0% 00/0
GDP indic.lor (+ is in filvour of men; -is in favour of Ml!Ilen)
Gender gap in economic activity r.te 0.12 0.28 0.52 0.31
,
-i
Gender gap in agricultural activities -0,02 -0.15 -0.11 -0.11
Gender gap io tertiary activities 0,03 002 -0.20 -0.05
Gender gap io industria (manufacturing) activities O.lS 0.68 0.86 0.57
Gender gap in life expectancy -0.04 -0.05 -0,02 -0.04
Gender gap in literacy rate -0.15 O.ll 0.02 0,01
Gender gap in secondary .. hool enrolment -0.19 -0.04 -0.1 I -0,11
SOURCE: UNIDO, "Participati"" of Women in Manufacturing", 1995
.I>
\D
50
(vii) Observations from focus on the African subregions
104. In focusing on the subregions, an attempt is made to detennine whether any patterns emerge on the participation of women in the economic sector. The UNIDO study on women in manu&cturing suggests that high participation of women is correlated to high urbanization, low
fertility
rates and high school enrolment. It further suggests that as the modern sector grows, demand for male labour also grows and women labour is edged out until the country attains the industrialization stage when once again, female labour is solicited in greater numbers.105. An attempt at a qualitative analysis of the gap between women's and men's participation in the economic sector in
specific
subregions, however, reveals patterns that do not quite conform to the above suggestions. For instance, in the case of Southern Afiican countries such as Botswana, Namibia and SouthAfiica,
women have acquired relatively high school enrolment rates at the secondary and tertiary levels. Yet, women are not only excluded from the industrial sector, i e. mining, but they are also not present in significant numhers at the managerial levels of the tertiary sector. Instead, they are found in relatively large numbers in the professional and administrative categories.106. In
Mauritius,
Seychelles and Tunis, all in the middle income category, the rate of economic activities among women is categorized as relatively high. Closer examination of the nature of their participation, however, reveals that women's participation is indeed in the industrial sector, but at the lowest levels, particularly in the area of textile and food processing. While women are in high demand in the EPZ of Mauritius, for example, well educated women are experiencing unemplyment problems because the jobs available only require lowskills
and generally oHer poor employment benefits.Similarly in Tunisia, the industrial sector uses both permanent and seasonal workers, the latter of whom are mostly women.
107. Participation in certain economic sectors therefore seems unrelated to either women's education status or the state of development of a given country. Instead, both traditional and partriachal values that determine roles according to gender rather than skills and individnal preferences continue to play an important part in the dynamics of women participation in the economic sector. The quantatitive and qualitative nature of their participation continue to depend on the traditional values unless women can become part of the decision making process and influence the policies and laws within which participation is enacted.