Cultural discontinuities already documented by monument archi-tecture, engraved stelae, and ceramic style and technology (Besse et al., 2011; Bocksberger, 1976, 1978; Corboud & Curdy, 2009;
Derenne et al., 2020; Gallay, 1989; Gallay & Chaix, 1984) were further explored through the material investigation of the Petit‐ Chasseur ceramic assemblage. This also enabled an assessment of the raw material selection and exploitation patterns, which con-tinuously changed over the 3rdand 2ndmillennia BC.
The analyzed FN pots—exclusively related to dolmen MVI (Table1and Supporting Information Material S2)—mutually differ petrographically (glaucophane schist and calcite fabrics, Section6.1.1; Table2), mineralogically (muscovite‐and illite‐based
clay matrix), and chemically (distant main and REE loadings;
Figures8–10). They were also found to be distinct from the rest of the analyzed data set (Figures 4m–o, 5, 8, and 9, Table 2;
Section6.1.1), and their compositional characteristics are in line with a variety of paste recipes and exploited raw materials (i.e., fabrics 8 and 9; Section 6.1.1). From a typological point of view, fabric 8 (Table2) was macroscopically observed in rims likely belonging to straight‐profile bowls (Section 4.1; Supporting Information Materi-alS1andS2), whereas fabric 9 was identified in one jar‐like closed shape (Figure 3, PC01–PC02; Supporting Information MaterialS1 and S2) and one body fragment with a small lug (Supporting In-formation Material S1). Bearing in mind that FN dolmen MVI was emptied and reused during the BB period (Section 2), one cannot unequivocally say whether the analyzed pots were contemporary or not. In other words, it is not possible to assess whether the com-positional differences attest distinct butcoexistingceramic traditions or rather changes that occurred in ceramic productions throughout the dolmen's 300‐year use. In terms of domestic architecture (e.g., wood poles huts, half‐buried huts, pile dwellings, and others), the FN societies of Switzerland are characterized by synchronic variability.
The same holds true for pottery typology, which is currently classi-fied as the Lüscherz, Auvernier‐Cordé, Tamins‐Carasso, and Horgen material cultures (Gallay,1995b,2008; Maggetti,2009; and refer-ences therein). A variety of ceramic traditions coexisting during the FN was thus possible, and, given the complex geology of the region, might have been further fostered by the availability of the raw ma-terial within the Upper Rhône Valley. Besides, the occurrence of changes in the raw material selection and use over time is equally possible, as they are commonly reported for the Neolithic ceramic productions, even over the short period of time (e.g., Martineau et al., 2007, and references therein). In anthropological terms, changes in the ceramic manufacturing traditions are known to be driven by technical innovations and sociocultural factors (e.g., Cumberpatch et al.,2001; Sillar & Tite,2000).
During the ensuing BB period (BB, 10 samples; Supporting In-formation MaterialS2), major and abrupt variations were recorded in the material culture (i.e., megalithic architecture, iconography of engraved stelae, type and style of grave goods) in the middle of the 3rdmillennium BC. Indeed, the inferences about the composition of BB ceramics outline a discontinuity in the type of the raw material exploited and paste preparation recipes between the FN and BB periods (Sections6.1.1and6.1.2). This corroborates recent work on Petit‐Chasseur ceramics that which reports a discontinuity in the fabrication and decorating techniques during these times (Derenne et al.,2020). Also, the BB pottery recovered at the Petit‐Chasseur site generally shows strong variations in shape and decoration pat-terns (Bocksberger,1976,1978; Gallay,1989; Gallay & Chaix,1984).
However, the stylistic features neither match the compositional differences (Section 6.1.2) nor individual megalithic monuments where pottery was recovered (Section6.1.2). In the same monument, pots made of a different clay matrix (e.g., PC80 and PC79 from MXI;
Section6.1.2) were often found. This means that the choice of raw clays was not monument‐specific. Therefore, no correlation can be
made between compositional characteristics, typology, relative chronology, and monuments of recovery. As previously mentioned, clay material was likely tempered with granitic grus, granite‐rich glacial sediments, or crushed rocks (Section6.1.2). This supports the idea that, despite the differences in clay substrate, a somewhat common tradition in terms of ceramic paste preparation might have existed. The sole vessel rich in epidote‐rich granite (PC73; Figure3;
Section6.1.2) is of particular importance, as it is the only one in the entire Petit‐Chasseur sample set for which the suggested raw ma-terial source is located west of the necropolis (Mont Blanc, External Massif; Figure2) where no BB archaeological site is currently known.
The Mont Blanc Massif extends over a vast geographical area en-compassing the Upper Rhône Valley of western Switzerland and neighboring areas in France and Italy (Stampfli,2001; von Raumer &
Bussy,2004). It is not currently possible to ascertain whether this vessel was locally produced (i.e., in the Upper Rhône Valley, at the foot of the Mont Blanc Massif) or imported from more distant parts of the nearby Arve Valley. Imported beakers and cups from foreign producers are documented in BB funerary and settlement contexts from across Europe (Salanova et al.,2016, and reference therein), including western Switzerland and neighboring French Jura (Convertini,2001). However, the phenomenon of the appearance of the BB culture and its articulation in the Upper Rhône Valley is still little known due to the paucity of documented archaeological sites. It is, therefore, impossible to know for sure if vessel PC73 was locally produced or imported. Finally, two distinct areas where raw clays were possibly procured have been suggested on the basis of the composition of Petit‐Chasseur beakers: (i) the Aar Massif located east of the necropolis and (ii) the Mont Blanc Massif to the west (Figure2).
In general, the BB culture is known for its diffusion over a vast geographic area encompassing Europe and North Africa (Besse,2015; Lemercier,2018). The appearance of the characteristic vessel type—that is, the bell‐shaped beaker—across mainland Europe defines the emergence of a large‐scale cultural network during the 3rdmillennium BC. This compelling, widespread culture is thus lar-gely different from the previously described FN cultural patterns.
From a stylistic perspective, the Petit‐Chasseur BBs exhibit influ-ences from the north (cord‐impressed beakers) and the Mediterra-nean basin (vessel decorated with complex impressed patterns) (Besse et al., 2011). However, these distinctions are not further visible in the assemblage's ceramic composition.
With regard to the EBA, archaeometric data indicated a ceramic production relying on a variety of raw materials exploited in different ways (62 samples; Supporting Information Material S2;
Section6.1.3). Furthermore, no distinction was possible with respect to a relative EBA chronology due to a greater variability in ceramic compositional characteristics and raw material exploitation patterns (i.e., the four EBA phases; Section 4.1; Supporting Information MaterialS2). The same holds true for monuments in which pottery was recovered (Section6.1.3; Supporting Information MaterialS2).
Although some important typological changes were documented in jar shapes, decoration, and position and number of prehension
elements (Gallay & Chaix,1984), they demonstrate no correspon-dence with the compositional data. This becomes evident when examining jars related to dolmen MXI—the key monument for re-constructing EBA cultic activities—to which the majority of docu-mented petrographic groups correspond (Supporting Information MaterialS2and Table2). Even in cases where EBA vessels are fea-tured by the same type of inclusions, there is still evidence high-lighting the differences in their clay substrate (e.g., PC63, PC48, and PC66, Tables 2–5). This variety of pottery compositions may be attributed to the activity of the groups dwelling in distinct areas of the Upper Rhône Valley and possibly beyond (Section6.1.3). Their identification would provide a general idea on how far such an ancestor cult was spread. In this scenario, prehistoric communities coming from different parts of the valley gathered around megalithic monuments (Bocksberger,1976,1978; Gallay,1989,1995a; Gallay &
Chaix, 1984), built cairns, and deposited their jars, which were similar from a stylistic point of view (Sections2and 4.1), and yet fabricated respecting multiple ceramic traditions (Section6.1.3). The presence of an ancestor cult, which lasted for four or five centuries, is a strong indication of the continuity between the BB and EBA cultural identity. Finally, it can be said that the Petit‐Chasseur necropolis is an incredible source for analyzing the social organiza-tion of EBA communities dwelling in the Upper Rhône Valley during the 2ndmillennium BC.
7 | C O N C L U S I O N S
The archaeometric investigation of the Petit‐Chasseur ceramic assemblage allowed the following conclusions to be put forth:
(i) This study corroborates the cultural discontinuities demon-strated through monument architecture, engraved stelae, and ceramic style and technology. The variety of raw material choices and paste preparation practices reflect the different ceramic traditions that existed throughout the 3rdand 2nd mil-lennia BC in the area of Upper Rhône Valley.
(ii) The investigation of the FN pottery revealed multiple paste recipes and raw clay compositions. The BB pottery is largely discriminated by the type of clay material (mica‐based vs. illite‐ based) used in ceramic manufacturing, whereas the inclusion material (temper) is rather similar. During the EBA, several ceramic traditions existed concomitantly. This is likely due to the activity of the groups dwelling in disparate areas of the Upper Rhône Valley and possibly beyond, all practicing the same cultic rituals around megalithic monuments at the Petit‐ Chasseur site.
(iii) Evidence regarding the shaping technique suggests that the Petit‐Chasseur pottery was fabricated using the coiling techni-que irrespective of the archaeological period. Firing tempera-tures did not exceed 600–650°C with both oxidizing and reductive environments depending on the period and pottery fabric.
(iv) Inferences on the provenance of the raw material (i.e., clays and lithic inclusions) are in favor of a variety of exploited sources in the Upper Rhône Valley and possibly beyond.
A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S
This study was supported by the Fonds national suisse (FNS, Grant number: 172742) and by an Augustin Lombard Grant from the Société de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle de Genève (SPHN).
Further appreciation is extended to Pierre‐Yves Nicod and Sophie Broccard of the Musée d'Histoire du Valais in Sion and to Dr. Antoine de Haller for his kind assistance with the QEMSCAN®data acquisi-tion. Jessica Ryan‐Despraz and Kevin Byerly are thanked for their assistance with the English language.
O R C I D
Delia Carloni https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1006-8650 BranimirŠegvić https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3769-7249 Giovanni Zanoni https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4303-7781 Andrea Moscariello https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3698-0162 Marie Besse https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4752-9070
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