During this study, several questions emerged. Some were able to be answered in the follow up stages of the study (for example, why the monitored case study SPF was lower than expected), but others remained unanswered. The most important unanswered questions are:
What would be the final purchased electricity (and associated peak loads) for more realistic scenarios of HP &
PV systems development, in accordance with regional thermal strategies (i.e. including the development of other decarbonized heat production systems, including medium and deep geothermal energy, combined heat and power and the use of district heating)?
What would be the system performance when other heat sources are considered, like waste heat (from ex-hausted air, used domestic hot water or industrial waste heat)?
What would be the advantage of dual (or multi) source heat pump systems (e.g. combining air with geother-mal: geothermal would replace air in the coldest days, and could be recharged by air in summer)? If there is an advantage, would the improvement in performance compensate the added complexity of the system?
What would be the advantage of using two separate heat pumps, one for space heating and other for domes-tic hot water?
Is there a margin for optimisation of hydraulic configurations and if so, what would be the impact in the sys-tem performance?
Should we aim for heat pump systems that cover 100% of the demand? Wouldn’t it be financially better and environmentally acceptable to have bivalent systems (e.g. heat pump system for base load heat plus gas boil-er for heat peaks)? What pboil-erformance indicators are the most pboil-ertinent for these systems?
Should we aim to develop decentralized heat pumps or would it be better to have centralized heat pumps, connected to district heating/cooling? Or both? What would be the criteria to choose one or another?
Some of these questions will be partially or fully answered in future work of the Energy Systems Group of the Univer-sity of Geneva. In fact, several heat pump systems will be monitored and analysed in the following years. These sys-tems include: air heat pump syssys-tems (mono and bivalent); waste heat heat pump syssys-tems (exhausted air and used domestic hot water); and a centralized groundwater + industrial waste heat heat pump system.
List of Figures
Figure 1:1 Energy consumed (GWh) by the heating sector in Geneva, in 2014 (source: Quiquerez et al., 2016) ... 1 Figure 1:2 Geneva building stock, in 2010. Left: Number of buildings; Right: Heated surface (SRE).
(source: Khoury, 2014) ... 2 Figure 2:1 Left: studied housing complex and monitored block (source: Google maps). Right: solar
collector array. ... 10 Figure 2:2 Hydraulic diagram of the system. ... 11 Figure 2:3 SH and DHW distribution temperatures vs. outdoor temperature, studied block (July
2012 - Feb 2013, hourly values) ... 13 Figure 2:4 SH and DHW demand vs. outdoor temperature, entire building (Jan - Dec 2012, daily
values) ... 13 Figure 2:5 Solar collector heat production: modelled vs measured data (Dec 2012 - Aug 2013,
filtered hourly values). ... 15 Figure 2:6 Heat pump COP and thermodynamic efficiency vs. temperature difference between
condenser output and evaporator input (Nov - Dec 2012, hourly values). ... 16 Figure 2:7 Net daily heat storage: modeled vs measured data. (Jan - Dec 2012, daily values)... 17 Figure 2:8 Temperature levels for SH mode (left) and DHW mode (right) vs. outdoor temperature
(July 2012 - Feb 2013, hourly values). ... 18 Figure 2:9 System dynamic on a cold day (9th December 2012, 5 min values): Distribution and
production temperatures (top); Demand and production load, as well as global solar irradiance on the collector plane (bottom). ... 19 Figure 2:10 System dynamic on a mid-season day (10th March 2013, 5 min values): Distribution
and production temperatures (top); Demand and production load, as well as global solar irradiance on the collector plane (bottom). ... 19 Figure 2:11 Daily average temperatures of the upper and lower heat storages, from top to
bottom (1 to 4), January to December 2012. ... 20 Figure 2:12 Sankey diagram of the studied block, 2012 (units: kWh/m2) ... 21 Figure 2:13 Electricity consumption for heat production and system SPF3 as a function of DHW
demand for 2012 (monitored block and other 9 blocks of the building complex). ... 23
List of Figures
Figure 3:5 System energy flows. Top: Decentralized DHW storage layout; Bottom: Centralized SH and DHW storage layout. ... 39 Figure 3:6 System energy flows, in kWh per heat floor area (kWh/m2). Left: monthly profiles,
monitoring (doted line) and simulation (solid line). Right: yearly values, monitoring (Mon) and simulation (Sim)... 41 Figure 3:7 System performance with normalized weather and heat demand: monitored demand,
2012 (Validation); modelled heat demand, 2012 (Norm 2012); modelled heat demand, standard weather data (Norm Std). ... 43 Figure 3:8 System performance with normalization of system layout: decentralized DHW storage
(Norm Std); centralized DHW storage (Base); centralized DHW storage + insulated solar collectors (Base / insul.). ... 44 Figure 3:9 HP performance (left) and System performance (right) as a function of specific solar
collector area (m2 per m2 heated area); Parameters: HP capacity (nominal capacity / maximal heat demand) and storage capacity (L per m2 heated area). ... 45 Figure 3:10 System performance as a function of HP evaporator temperature limit. ... 47 Figure 3:11 System performance, sensitivity to building heat demand (in parentheses: SH
distribution temperature – DHW/SH ratio). ... 49 Figure 3:12 System performance (top and middle) and specific solar collector area (m2 per m2
heated area) (bottom) as a function of specific solar collector area (m2 per kW of HP capacity, with HPsized for 100% demand coverage). ... 50 Figure 4:1 Geneva final energy consumption, in 2014. Energy consumption for the heating sector
surrounded by the red dashes (source: Quiquerez, 2017)... 56 Figure 4:2 Left - Main groundwater areas in the Canton of Geneva (source: PGG, 2011) Right -
Heating demand density of the Canton of Geneva (source: Quiquerez et al., 2016) ... 59 Figure 4:3 Dynamic profile of air and hydrothermal temperatures (top) and global horizontal solar
irradiation (bottom), hourly values (2010)... 61 Figure 4:4 Benchmarking with the SH demand of the multi-family building stock of Geneva
(source: Khoury, 2014). ... 63 Figure 4:5 Benchmarking with the heat for DHW demand of the multi-family building stock of
Geneva (source: Quiquerez et al., 2017). ... 64 Figure 4:6 Space heating (SH) and domestic hot water (DHW) demand of the building sample
(adjusted to 2010 weather data) as well as SH distribution temperature at 0°C outdoor temperature (dots, right axis). ... 65 Figure 4:7 Heat demand (Qdem) of the building sample (adjusted to 2010 weather data) in daily
values. ... 65 Figure 4:8 System layout and associated energy flows. Top: with solar resource; ... 67 Figure 4:9 HP performance, sensitivity to building heat demand and heat resource (in
parentheses: SH distribution temperature – DHW ratio). ... 72 Figure 4:10 SPFhp , sensitivity to resource temperature (HP heat weighted average temperature of
the resource). ... 72 Figure 4:11 System performance, sensitivity to building heat demand and heat resource. ... 73
List of Figures
Figure 4:12 System performance with a limited roof/ground area of 0.2 m2 per m2 of heated area ... 77 Figure 4:13 System performance with a limited roof/ground area of 0.1 m2 per m2 of heated area ... 77 Figure 4:14 Simplified diagram of the heating system’s electricity flows. ... 78 Figure 4:15 System performance (Esys, Epv and Enet) of a HP and PV system in a low-rise building
(limited roof/ground area of 0.2 m2 per m2 of heated area). ... 80 Figure 4:16 System performance (Efinal, Einject , Eself and Enet) of a HP and PV system in a low-rise
building (limited roof/ground area of 0.2 m2 per m2 of heated area). ... 80 Figure 4:17 System performance (Esys, Epv and Enet) of a HP and PV system in a high-rise building
(limited roof/ground area of 0.1 m2 per m2 of heated area). ... 81 Figure 4:18 System performance (Efinal, Einject , Eself and Enet) of a HP and PV system in a high-rise
building (limited roof/ground area of 0.1 m2 per m2 of heated area). ... 81 Figure 4:19 System performance (SPFfinal) of a HP and PV system in a low-rise building. ... 82 Figure 4:20 System performance (SPFfinal) of a HP and PV system in a high-rise building ... 82 Figure 4:21 Final purchased Efinal and injected Einject electricity by the HP and PV systems, in daily
values, for a low-rise building (0.2 m2/m2). The canton of Geneva load curve is represented in black. ... 84 Figure 4:22 Final purchased Efinal and injected Einject electricity by the HP and PV systems, in daily
values, for a high-rise building (0.1 m2/m2)... 85 Figure 4:23 System performance (Efinalin annual energy and daily peak load, and SPFfinal) of the
combined HP & PV systems, for a low-rise (left) and high-rise (right) buildings. ... 87 Figure 4:24 System performance (Einject in annual energy and daily peak load) of the combined HP
& PV systems, for a low-rise (left) and high-rise (right) buildings. ... 88
List of Tables
Table 2:1 Average outdoor temperature and solar irradiance at Cointrin and Satigny, 2012 ... 12 Table 2:2 Energy flows in the studied block from January to December 2012 (kWh per m2 of
heated surface) ... 21 Table 3:1 Normalization scenarios with respective border conditions. ... 42 Table 3:2 Sensitivity to building heat demand: scenario parameters. ... 48 Table 4:1 Availability (local or regional) and resource type (extensive or intensive). ... 58 Table 4:2 Benchmarking of air and hydrothermal temperatures. Top - comparison of the
reference year (2010) with the decade average (2006 – 2015); Bottom - comparison of the reference year (2010) with standard weather data (SIA 2028). ... 60 Table 4:3 Benchmarking of global solar irradiance, in horizontal plane. Left - comparison of the
reference year (2010) with the decade average (2006 – 2015); Right - comparison of the reference year (2010) with standard weather data (SIA 2028). ... 60 Table 4:4 Main characteristics of the building sample (with climatic correction of SH demand to
standard weather data)... 62 Table 4:5 Heat demand (SH + DHW) statistics of the 19.3 million m2 multi-family building stock of
Geneva (source: Khoury, 2014). ... 62 Table 4:6 Building heat demand and correspondent sizing of the system components. ... 69 Table 4:7 Sizing of system components for the different building types, taking into account the
roof/ground area limitation ... 75
List of Annexes
Annex A Heat pump data as given by the manufacturer. ... 113 Annex B Simulated energy flows of Chapter 3 scenarios. ... 114 Annex C Monitoring uncertainties (Mon) and difference between simulated and
monitored energy flows (Sim). ... 115 Annex D Standard and 2012’s weather data for Geneva ... 116 Annex E System energy flows of both monitoring (doted line) and simulation “Norm
2012” (solid line). ... 117 Annex F Simulated input energy flows: monthly profiles of Chapter 3 scenarios. ... 118 Annex G Demand load curves of Chapter 3 scenarios. ... 120 Annex H Hourly sorted profiles of the various resources (2006 – 2015) ... 121 Annex I System operating modes in non-solar HP systems... 122 Annex J Geothermal HP system with water as heat carrier ... 123 Annex K Simulated electricity flows of all HP systems, in all building types and for
high-rise and low-rise buildings. ... 124 Annex L Self-consumed electricity, HP & PV systems, daily values. ... 126 Annex M TRNSYS deck (DCK) code. ... 127 Annex N Output data from PileSim simulations (with anti-freeze heat carrier) ... 142
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