Discussion of Program LOs

When compared with the list of competencies by Martin et al. (2017), all eight of the competencies are clearly represented within the themes. When compared with the list of

competencies by Priest and Gass (2017), all 12 of the competencies are also clearly represented within the themes. The representation of these themes within the competencies by both Priest and Gass (2017) and Martin et al. (2017) suggest that the competencies outlined by both textbooks continue to be relevant to OL training in Ontario. This is not surprising, since it is likely that either one or both of these publications may be used as required texts or recommended reading in courses, or simply reference material for curriculum design and revision of programs.

There were some themes that were not clearly identified within either of the lists of competencies in the Priest and Gass (2017) and Martin et al. (2017) texts. The Naturalist

Interpretation theme was not explicitly listed within either list of competencies, although it could be that it fits well within the “Environmental skills” competency listed by Priest and Gass

(2017). Similarly, the Theoretical and Conceptual Approaches theme was not explicitly listed within either list of competencies, although it could be argued that it belongs within the

“Foundational knowledge” competency listed by Martin et. al (2017). There were three themes that were distinctly unique, and did not appear in either list of competencies: Business

Management and Marketing; Research and Evaluation; and Legislation and Regulatory Requirements. These unique themes may be OL training areas that have gained importance in

years since the completion of early competency research, or they could be areas that are more specific to the provincial or national LOA context in Canada. Interestingly, two of these unique themes (Business Management and Marketing and Legislation and Regulatory Requirements) were only found in LOs from college programs, suggesting that they appear to be more of a priority at college programs than at university programs. While one may expect that the Research and Evaluation theme would be more applicable to university programs, it was found in LOs at both university programs (n = 2) and college programs (n = 1).

Many of the themes were present within the international standard developed by ISO, including Leadership, Judgement and Decision Making; Naturalist Interpretation; Risk Management;

Safety and Emergency Response; Professionalism; Communication; Technical Skills and Certification; Instruction and Facilitation; Activity Planning and Management; and Legislation and Regulatory Requirements. The lack of dissemination of this standard within the LOA sector in Ontario, and across Canada, may be why it has yet to be influential for OL training programs.

In the future, if this standard gains acceptance across the LOA sector in Ontario and Canada, it could become a useful tool for OL training programs as they prepare students for employment.

Beyond the prominent themes, it was surprising that there were not more LOs related specifically to Indigenous worldviews and practices, which was only mentioned by one program. This is surprising given the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada’s Call to Action #62, which called for post-secondary programs to integrate Indigenous knowledge and teaching methods into classrooms (2015). This is also surprising given the historic roots of LOAs and outdoor education in Canada, and its link to Indigenous lands and historical trade routes (Purc-Stephenson, Rawleigh, Kemp, & Asfeldt, 2019). Lowan-Trudeau (2019) identified barriers that have prevented academics from integrating Indigenous studies into their teaching, such as

“limited time, a lack of subject background and confidence, and limited curricular support” (p.

66). These barriers may be factors contributing to the absence of Indigenous related content in the program LOs. Nonetheless, Indigenous studies are clearly important to general education in post-secondary, and in LOA experiences, thus this absence is notable. It could be that Indigenous studies is present in course work, or offered in electives, but was not prominent enough for programs to highlight it in their LOs.

In Canada, LOAs could be a helpful tool for truth and reconciliation. LOA experiences in Canada often pay respects to important symbols, lands, and stories associated with Indigenous cultures (Asfeldt, Urberg, & Henderson, 2009; Mikaels & Asfeldt, 2017; Potter & Henderson, 2004; Purc-Stephenson et al., 2019). However, for LOA experiences to contribute to truth and reconciliation, the sector needs become more accessible to Indigenous people, as the LOA sector has been noted to have been historically dominated by more affluent populations (Beams,

Mackie, & Atencio, 2019; Martin & Wagstaff, 2012; Warren, Roberts, Breunig, & Alvarez, 2014). Other innovative approaches to promote truth and reconciliation should consider community-based participatory collaborations, similar to those used by Ritchie et al. (2010) to provide OL training for youth and young adults in one Indigenous community in Northeastern Ontario.

3.10 Limitations

There were several limitations to this study. The data collected only represents the programs at a point in time, and only on OL training programs in one province. According to Williams-Orser et al. (2021), there are an additional 42 OL training programs at colleges and universities in other provinces across Canada. This study was also limited to the information that key informants were able to access and share. Additionally, programs, courses, and LOs undergo cyclical review

processes, and they may have changed since the time of this study, and they will likely change in the future. Another limitation is that information from programs’ institutional web pages may not have been current at the time of data collection. Furthermore, it is possible that the LOs that each program shared were not necessarily reflected in the delivery of the programs and their courses.

Although each program and their LOs are reviewed in the ministry mandated cyclical review process, it is unknown to what degree the LOs were adequately achieved, or if courses deviated, due to the principle of academic freedom, where professors and instructors have a degree of freedom to create and deliver curriculum within a particular course.