MEASUREMENT OF DISCHARGE BY PRECALIBRATED MEASURING STRUCTURES
7.7 DESIGN OF MEASURING STRUCTURES
7.7.1 Installation
A flow-measuring structure consists of an approach channel, the measuring structure itself and a downstream channel. The structure should be rigid, watertight and capable of withstanding peak flows without damage. Its axis should be in line with the direction of flow. The surfaces should be
Table I.7.8. Dimensions of all sizes of standard Parshall flumes
Widths Axial lengths Wall depth Vertical distance
below crest Converging Gauge points Size throat
width Upstream
end
Down-stream end
Converging section Throat
section Diverging
section Converging section Dip at
throat Lower end of flume Wall
length* Ha dist upstream of crest**
Hb
W D C B F G E N K A X Y
m m m m m m m m m m m m m
0.025 0.167 0.093 0.357 0.076 0.204 0.153-0.229 0.029 0.019 0.363 0.241 0.008 0.013
0.051 0.213 0.135 0.405 0.114 0.253 0.153-0.253 0.043 0.022 0.415 0.277 0.016 0.025
0.076 0.259 0.178 0.457 0.152 0.30 0.305-0.610 0.057 0.025 0.466 0.311 0.025 0.038
0.152 0.396 0.393 0.610 0.30 0.61 0.61 0.114 0.076 0.719 0.415 0.051 0.076
0.229 0.573 0.381 0.862 0.30 0.46 0.76 0.114 0.076 0.878 0.588 0.051 0.076
0.305 0.844 0.610 1.34 0.61 0.91 0.91 0.228 0.076 1.37 0.914 0.051 0.076
0.457 1.02 0.762 1.42 0.61 0.91 0.91 0.228 0.076 1.45 0.966 0.051 0.076
0.610 1.21 0.914 1.50 0.61 0.91 0.91 0.228 0.076 1.52 1.01 0.051 0.076
0.914 1.57 1.22 1.64 0.61 0.91 0.91 0.228 0.076 1.68 1.12 0.051 0.076
1.22 1.93 1.52 1.79 0.61 0.91 0.91 0.228 0.076 1.83 1.22 0.051 0.076
1.52 2.30 1.83 1.94 0.61 0.91 0.91 0.228 0.076 1.98 1.32 0.051 0.076
1.83 2.67 2.13 2.09 0.61 0.91 0.91 0.228 0.076 2.13 1.42 0.051 0.076
2.13 3.03 2.44 2.24 0.61 0.91 0.91 0.228 0.076 2.29 1.52 0.051 0.076
2.44 3.40 2.74 2.39 0.61 0.91 0.91 0.228 0.076 2.44 1.62 0.051 0.076
3.05 4.75 3.66 4.27 0.91 1.83 1.22 0.34 0.152 2.74 1.83
3.66 5.61 4.47 4.88 1.22 2.44 1.52 0.34 0.152 3.05 2.03
4.57 7.62 5.59 7.62 1.83 3.05 1.83 0.46 0.229 3.50 2.34
6.10 9.14 7.31 7.62 1.83 3.66 2.13 0.68 0.31 4.27 2.84
7.62 10.67 8.94 7.62 1.83 3.96 2.13 0.68 0.31 5.03 3.35
9.14 12.31 10.57 7.62 1.83 4.27 2.13 0.68 0.31 5.79 3.86
12.19 15.48 13.82 8.23 1.83 4.88 2.13 0.68 0.31 7.31 4.88
15.24 18.53 17.27 8.23 1.83 6.10 2.13 0.68 0.31 8.84 5.89
* For sizes 0.3 m to 2.4 m, A = W + 1.2.
2
** Ha located 2 A distance from crest for all sizes, distance is wall length, not axial.
3
NOTE: Flume sizes 0.076 m through 2.4 m have approach aprons rising at a 1 : 4 slope and the following entrance roundings: 0.076 m through 0.228 m, radius 0.4 m; 0.30 m through 0.90, radius 0.51 m; 1.2 m through 2.4 m, radius 0.60 m.
smooth and the structure should be built to close tolerances. Parallel vertical side walls should flank the structure and these should extend upstream to at least the head measuring position. The approach channel should extend a distance upstream for at least five times the width of the structure.
7.7.2 Design curves
Design curves should be established by a making few direct discharge measurements in order to determine the elevation of the structure and the effect on the upstream and tailwater levels. The design curves also provide an approximation of the modular limit.
Flow is modular when it is independent of variations in tailwater level. Figure I.7.11 shows typical design curves for a compound Crump weir measuring in both the modular and non-modular range, curves B and C being the predicted modular discharge curves for the low and upper crests respectively. In the case of the Crump weir this is 75 per cent of the upstream head, curve A. (Herschy et al., 1977.)
7.7.3 Measurement of head
The water surface profile upstream of the measuring structure is not horizontal and the choice of location of the head measurement depends on this Table I.7.9. Discharge characteristics of Parlshall flumes.
Throat width b in metres
Discharge range
in m3 s-1 x 10-3 Equation
Q = K hua Head range
in metres Modular limit
minimum maximum (metric) minimum maximum hb/ha
0.025 0.09 5.4 0.0604 ha1.55 0.015 0.21 0.50
0.051 0.18 13.2 0.1207 ha1.55 0.015 0.24 0.50
0.076 0.77 32.1 0.1771 ha1.55 0.03 0.33 0.50
0.152 1.50 111 0.3812 ha1.58 0.03 0.45 0.60
0.229 2.50 251 0.5354 ha1.53 0.03 0.61 0.60
0.305 3.32 457 0.6909 ha1.522 0.03 0.76 0.70
0.457 4.80 695 1.056 ha1.538 0.03 0.76 0.70
0.610 12.1 937 1.428 ha1.550 0.046 0.76 0.70
0.914 17.6 1427 2.184 ha1.566 0.046 0.76 0.70
1.219 35.8 1923 2.953 ha1.578 0.06 0.76 0.70
1.524 44.1 2424 3.732 ha1.587 0.06 0.76 0.70
1.829 74.1 2929 4.519 ha1.595 0.076 0.76 0.70
2.134 85.8 3438 5.312 ha1.601 0.076 0.76 0.70
2.438 97.2 3949 6.112 ha1.607 0.076 0.76 0.70
in m3 s-1
3.048 0.16 8.28 7.463 ha1.60 0.09 1.07 0.80
3.658 0.19 14.68 8.859 ha1.60 0.09 1.37 0.80
4.572 0.23 25.04 10.96 ha1.60 0.09 1.67 0.80
6.096 0.31 37.97 14.45 ha1.60 0.09 1.83 0.80
7.620 0.38 47.14 17.94 ha1.60 0.09 1.83 0.80
9.144 0.46 56.33 21.44 ha1.60 0.09 1.83 0.80
12.192 0.60 74.70 28.43 ha1.60 0.09 1.83 0.80
15.240 0.75 93.04 35.41 ha1.60 0.09 1.83 0.80
profile. The water surface immediately upstream of the structure has the form of a drawdown curve and the pressure is not therefore hydrostatic.
Further upstream friction forces produce a water surface slope towards the structure. The location for measuring the upstream head should avoid the drawdown area but should not be so far upstream to be influenced by significant friction losses.
Usually this location is specified as 2 to 4 times the maximum head since the above effects will be predominant at high heads rather than at low heads. Table I.7.10 gives the recommendations for the location of the head measuring section for various structures.
Table I.7.10. Measuring structure and location of head measuring section
Measuring structure Location of head measuring section Thin plate
weirs Triangular notch 3-4hmax Rectangular notch 3-4hmax Broad crested
weirs Triangular (Crump) 2Hmax (from crest line) Round nosed 2-3Hmax
Rectangular 2-3Hmax
Flat V 10H’ or 2Hmax from crest line whichever is the greater
* Upstream of the leading edge of the entrance transition.
** Upstream from the crest along wall (see Table I.7.8).
7.7.4 Zero setting
Initial zero setting of the reference gauge and recorder from the weir crest (or flume floor) and regular checking thereafter is essential if overall accuracy is to be attained. The reference gauge (outside) should be carefully levelled-in by an instrument giving an accuracy of at least 1 mm.
Staff gauges fixed to a wall are difficult to read to
± 3 mm and electronic data loggers (EDLs) are more accurately checked by means of 2 datums, one fixed on top of the wing wall directly above the upstream head measuring section and the second above the stilling well. Unless the head is accurately recorded, serious error in discharge will occur. For example, a 10 mm uncertainty in recording a 150 mm head over a Crump weir will give a 10 per cent uncertainty in discharge. It has been found that for broad-crested weirs an intake pipe of 100 mm diameter is a suitable size giving best results. For flumes, about half that size is acceptable to ensure that the lag between a rise or fall in the river level and the corresponding rise or fall in the gauge well is within the recommended limits. The soffit of the inlet pipe should be set at crest level and the pipe should run straight to the well. It may run obliquely from the side wall but the end should be cut flush with the wall face and a removable cap or plate should be attached to the end of the pipe, through which a number of tapping holes are drilled. The edges of the holes should not be rounded or burred. A typical single crest Crump weir installation is shown in Figures I.7.12 and I.7.13.
7.7.5 Froude number
Measuring structures should not be built in rivers having a high Froude number (Fr), where Fr v / gd , (d = average depth of flow and v = average velocity). In practice it is sufficient to
CURVE C Modular flow Lower Crest
drowned Drowned flow D/S TOTAL HEAD, DISCHARGE CURVE D
(Tailwater discharge curve)
TOTAL HEAD (Flank weir) (m)
TOTAL HEAD (Low weir) (m)
Figure I.7.11. Typical design curves for a measuring structure
Figure I.7.12. River Kennet at Theale. South East England. Single crest crump weir.
determine Fr in the natural channel corresponding to the highest discharge to be gauged accurately, before design of the weir or flume. For the best results the value of Fr should not exceed 0.5. It can be assumed that the value calculated before construction of the weir or flume will not be exceeded after construction.
7.7.6 Compound weirs
It is permissible to incorporate weirs at different crest elevations in a single gauging structure provided the sections with different crest elevations are physically separated by means of intermediate piers so that two-dimensional flow is preserved over each section. The intermediate piers should be of sufficient height to exceed maximum flow levels.
The parallel section of the piers should commence at a point located at a distance corresponding to hmax from the upstream vertical face of the weir or its toe in the case of triangular weirs, and should extend to the end of the weir at its junction with the downstream invert.
Intermediate piers should have streamlined noses, for example of semicircular or semi-elliptical profile.
Flow conditions at or near the pier cutwaters will be improved if the bed level upstream of the low crest section is set below that of the high crest sections, to yield similar values of h/P at the highest discharge to be measured. To compute discharge, total head level is assumed constant over the full width of the weir and is obtained by adding onto the observed static head, the velocity head appropriate to the individual crest section at which the water level is observed.
Compound Crump weirs enable a wide range of flows to be measured and have operated successfully in the United Kingdom national network. They
have, however, certain disadvantages: the need for divide (intermediate) walls, the loss of accuracy when the head over the upper crest is small and the fact that the length of straight channel upstream is no longer equal to five times the width of structure.
Measurement of a thin sheet of water (low head) on a broad-crested weir is subject to several problems, including uncertainty of the discharge coefficient, adhesion of nappe to the weir face, and dispersion by wind. A large percentage error in the results may occur even with small errors in measuring the head in such cases. The Flat-V weir (see Figure I.7.14) was also introduced to measure a wide range of flows and by careful selection of crest breadth and cross slope provides sensitivity at low flows without the necessity of divide piers. Nevertheless in many circumstances the compound Crump weir is still preferred.
7.7.7 Computation of discharge
Where the discharge formula is quoted in terms of total head (H) the discharge should be computed using a successive approximation technique.
Alternatively, the coefficient of velocity (Cv) method may be used (see Herschy et al., 1977).
7.8 TRANSFERABILITY OF LABORATORY