outcomes
STI and intellectual property policies among Associa-tion of Southeast Asian NaAssocia-tions countries are, as noted, part of the regional cooperation framework, but their Table 6.6.
Overview of Association of Southeast Asian Nations’ main intellectual property cooperation initiatives
Framework Issues stipulated
Networking of science and tech-nology centres of excellence and programmes to optimize re-sources and achieve maximum results (2004–2010)
• Improving the regional intellectual property policy framework and ultimately foster learning, innovation and creativity.
• Concrete actions include:
- Fostering intellectual property creation.
- Developing an intellectual property framework of simplification, harmonization, registration and protection, promoting greater awareness and building intellectual property capacity.
- Enhancing collaborative business development services in national intellectual property offices.
Association of Southeast Asian Nations Intellectual Property Rights Action Plan (2011–2015)
• Intensifying R&D collaboration in strategic and enabling technologies and promoting technology com-mercialization.
• Concrete actions include:
- Accelerating the pace and scope of intellectual property asset creation.
- Improving the regional framework of intellectual property right policies and intellectual property institutions.
- Promoting intellectual property cooperation and collaboration with partners.
- Strengthening IP-related human and institutional capabilities in the region.
Source: Authors’ compilation based on relevant Association of Southeast Asian Nations legal frameworks.
implementation is a blend of regional and national ap-proaches.
Knowledge economy
Initial science, technology and innovation conditions among nine Association of Southeast Asian Nations economies ranked globally on their knowledge econ-omy vary greatly (table 6.7).115 Overall, their rankings have deteriorated over the past decade (Vietnam aside).
R&D expenditure and personnel
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations countries exhibit considerable diversity on R&D expenditure.
For instance, while Singapore’s 2012 R&D share in GDP was 2.2 per cent, Indonesia’s was only 0.1 per cent. This underlines major differences in efforts to develop en-dogenous capacities for innovation. Globally, several forward-looking economies have set minimum thresh-olds for R&D intensity ratios, with some of the most am-bitious targets, like the European Union’s, close to 3 per cent by 2020.
The number of R&D personnel is another component of endogenous capacity for innovation where inter-coun-try differences stand out. In 2009 Thailand had the most R&D personnel (60,344), nearly twice Malaysia’s 35,461. Similarly, Thailand had 15,000 technicians per 1 million people, compared with Malaysia’s 1,986 (United Na-tions Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,
2015a; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cul-tural Organization, 2015b).
Tertiary education enrolment and scientific publications
The productivity of the tertiary education system (measured by enrolments, publications of scientific and technical journal articles, and so on) is also important.
As was seen for India, tertiary education is crucial both to successfully transition from an efficiency-driven to a knowledge-driven economy and to efficiently absorb and diffuse technological innovations, especially in the earlier stages of development. Here too Association of Southeast Asian Nations presents a diversified picture:
most Association of Southeast Asian Nations members have consistently increased absolute enrolment in ter-tiary education, but Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam have not (table 6.8).
Publications of scientific and technical journal articles also show wide variation, but with little correspondence to enrolment: Singapore led with more than 4,543, fol-lowed by Thailand with 2,304—and ultimately Myan-mar with only nine. The disconnect between increased enrolment in tertiary education and the number of such journal articles is sharp (World Bank, 2015c).
Science and technology parks
Conditions within Association of Southeast Asian Na-tions countries also differ greatly for science and tech-nology parks, which have evolved differently in differ-ent countries. For example, Penang, Malaysia, is one of the top 10 dynamic industrial cluster locations in the world (United Nations Industrial Development Organi-zation, 2009).
Foreign direct investment
Foreign direct investment is a major exogenous factor driving innovation and is more likely to flow to econo-mies that can access technology and have the capac-ity to absorb it. Virtually all Association of Southeast Asian Nations countries have seen huge surges in for-eign direct investment inflows over past decades, with cross-country discrepancies (info 6.1) that to a degree reflect that capacity. For example, Brunei Darussalam and Lao PDR have particularly small inflows, even Table 6.7.
Association of Southeast Asian Nations coun-tries’ global knowledge economy rankings, 2000 and 2012
Country 2000 2012
Cambodia 116 132
Indonesia 105 108
Lao PDR 129 131
Malaysia 45 48
Note: Rankings are out of a total of 146 countries.
Source: World Bank (2015a).
compared with Cambodia and Myanmar, while Sin-gapore, with its substantial capacity, receives vastly larger inflows.
Capital goods imports
Association of Southeast Asian Nations countries access technological innovations originating from abroad in the form of imports of capital goods (see info 6.1). The ratio of imported to domestically produced capital goods is an indicator of access to technology, with higher ratios signifying a substantial positive ef-fect on per capita income growth, particularly among developing countries (Lee, 1994). Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Here, too, wide inter-country differences highlight the diversity of the initial condi-tions on accessing external technological innovacondi-tions by importing capital goods.
Association of Southeast Asian Nations’ intellectual property generation
Diversity in capacity to innovate is also apparent in intellectual property generation (table 6.9) across the spectrum of intellectual property categories, leading to vastly different needs and demands (as seen).
Association of Southeast Asian Nations high-technology exports
As expected, variation in innovation-related resources and capacities translates into variation in outcomes. In 2012, the shares of high-technology products out of all manufacturing exports from Malaysia, Philippines and Singapore surpassed 40 per cent, far outweighing those of other Association of Southeast Asian Nations mem-bers (figure 6.6). Cambodia’s high-technology exports Table 6.8.
Association of Southeast Asian Nations’ tertiary education enrolment, 2003–2013
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Brunei
Darussalam 4546 4917 5023 5094 5284 5607 6107 5776 6626 8336
-Cambodia 43210 45370 56810 94708 117420 137490 168003 195402 223222 -
-Indonesia 3441429 3551092 3662234 3657429 3806629 4419577 4859409 5001048 5364301 6233984
-Lao PDR 28117 33760 47424 56716 75003 89457 113341 118295 125323 126314 137092
Malaysia 725865 731077 696760 737267 805136 922239 1000694 1061421 1036354 1076675
-Myanmar - - - - 507660 - - - 659510 634306
-Philippines 2427211 2420997 2402649 2483988 - 2651466 2625385 - - -
-Singapore - - - - - 183627 198634 213446 236891 243546 255348
Thailand 2205581 2251453 2359127 2338572 2503572 2430047 2417262 2426577 2497323 2430471 2405109
Vietnam 829459 - 1354543 1427046 1587609 1654846 1774321 2020413 2229494 2261204 2250030
Source: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization(2015c).
70%
0%
FDI is a major exogenous factor driving innovation, and is more likely to flow to economies that can access technology and have the capacity to absorb it. Virtually all ASEAN countries have seen huge surges in FDI inflows over the past decades, with cross-country discrepancies that largely reflect capacity. For example, Brunei Darussalam and the Lao PDR have particularly small inflows, even compared with Cambodia and Myanmar.
ASEAN countries acquire technological innovations from abroad in imports of capital goods. Higher ratios of imported to domestically produced capital goods signify a substantial positive effect on per capita income growth, particularly among developing countries.
FDI inflows into ASEAN countries, 2013 ($ million)
Share of capital goods in total imports, ASEAN countries, 2003 to 2013
Brunei Darussalam Cambodia Indonesia Lao PDR Myanmar Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Viet Nam
Source: Puutio, 2015.
Source: Puutio, 2015.
0.175407017 0.16298856 0.311990018 0.400204586 0.332052052 0.370254512 0.348384725 0.408956179 0.397757481 0.324920132
FDI is a major exogenous factor driving innovation, and is more likely to flow to economies that can access technology and have the capacity to absorb it. Virtually all ASEAN countries have seen huge surges in FDI inflows over the past decades, with cross-country discrepancies that largely reflect capacity. For example, Brunei Darussalam and the Lao PDR have particularly small inflows, even compared with Cambodia and Myanmar.
ASEAN countries acquire technological innovations from abroad in imports of capital goods. Higher ratios of imported to domestically produced capital goods signify a substantial positive effect on per capita income growth, particularly among developing countries.
0.175407017 0.16298856 0.311990018 0.400204586 0.332052052 0.370254512 0.348384725 0.408956179 0.397757481 0.324920132
Info 6.1—FDI, capital goods imports and licensing drive ASEAN innovation
FDI, a major exogenous factor driving innovation, is more likely to flow to economies that can access technology and have the capacity to absorb it. Virtually all ASEAN countries have seen huge surges in FDI inflows over the past decades, with cross-country discrepancies that largely reflect capacity. For example, Brunei Darussalam and Lao PDR have particularly small inflows, even compared with Cambodia and Myanmar.
ASEAN countries acquire technological innovations from abroad in imports of capital goods.
Higher ratios of imported to domestically produced capital goods signify a substantial positive effect on per capita income growth, particularly among developing countries.
63,772.3
Lao PDR 296 Malaysia
16%
FDI is a major exogenous factor driving innovation, and is more likely to flow to economies that can access technology and have the capacity to absorb it. Virtually all ASEAN countries have seen huge surges in FDI inflows over the past decades, with cross-country discrepancies that largely reflect capacity. For example, Brunei Darussalam and the Lao PDR have particularly small inflows, even compared with Cambodia and Myanmar.
ASEAN countries acquire technological innovations from abroad in imports of capital goods. Higher ratios of imported to domestically produced capital goods signify a substantial positive effect on per capita income growth, particularly among developing countries.
FDI inflows into ASEAN countries, 2013 ($ million)
Share of capital goods in total imports, ASEAN countries, 2003 to 2013
Brunei Darussalam Cambodia Indonesia Lao PDR Myanmar Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Viet Nam
Source: Puutio, 2015.
Source: Puutio, 2015.
0.175407017 0.16298856 0.311990018 0.400204586 0.332052052 0.370254512 0.348384725 0.408956179 0.397757481 0.324920132
FDI is a major exogenous factor driving innovation, and is more likely to flow to economies that can access technology and have the capacity to absorb it. Virtually all ASEAN countries have seen huge surges in FDI inflows over the past decades, with cross-country discrepancies that largely reflect capacity. For example, Brunei Darussalam and the Lao PDR have particularly small inflows, even compared with Cambodia and Myanmar.
ASEAN countries acquire technological innovations from abroad in imports of capital goods. Higher ratios of imported to domestically produced capital goods signify a substantial positive effect on per capita income growth, particularly among developing countries.
0.175407017 0.16298856 0.311990018 0.400204586 0.332052052 0.370254512 0.348384725 0.408956179 0.397757481 0.324920132
Info 6.1—FDI, capital goods imports and licensing drive ASEAN innovation
FDI, a major exogenous factor driving innovation, is more likely to flow to economies that can access technology and have the capacity to absorb it. Virtually all ASEAN countries have seen huge surges in FDI inflows over the past decades, with cross-country discrepancies that largely reflect capacity. For example, Brunei Darussalam and Lao PDR have particularly small inflows, even compared with Cambodia and Myanmar.
ASEAN countries acquire technological innovations from abroad in imports of capital goods.
Higher ratios of imported to domestically produced capital goods signify a substantial positive effect on per capita income growth, particularly among developing countries.
63,772.3
Lao PDR 296 Malaysia
16%