Conclusion - the copyright of the original publisher.

Even though not registered in this indication, Currently, the management of infections caused tigecycline might become one alternative of choice by MDR pneumococci can still continue to be based for MDR pneumococci. Like most cephalosporins, on use of classical antibacterial choices (β-lactams, it can be administered by the intravenous route ketolides, fluoroquinolones). The success rate will only.

^[164]

The absence of cross-resistance with cur- be determined by the correct appraisal of pharmaco-rently available anti-pneumococcal or anti-MRSA dynamic parameters, which involve not only the use antibacterials pushed the FDA to authorise the off- of appropriate dosages, but also the selection of the label use of this drug for MDR pneumonia. New more potent agents in the class.

compounds, such as MK 2764 (PTK 0796), are be- However, in a world of active research, where ing developed as oral and intravenous formulations new, highly potent molecules will soon arrive on the

2 The issue of quinolone toxicity is so topical that a website (http://www.fqresearch.org/index.htm) is devoted to the follow-up of adverse events and changes brought to package inserts as a consequence of pharmacovigilance studies.

This material is

cus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002 Jan; 46

market, a burning question concerns the place these

(1): 125-31

molecules could occupy in our future therapeutic

9. Depardieu F, Courvalin P. Mutation in 23S rRNA responsible for resistance to 16-membered macrolides and streptogramins

arsenal.

^[219]

As long as the total antimicrobial

con-in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother

sumption stays flat, these new antibacterials would

2001 Jan; 45 (1): 319-23

reduce the utilisation of current drugs, and hence,

10. Reinert RR, Wild A, Appelbaum P, et al. Ribosomal mutations conferring resistance to macrolides in Streptococcus

pneumo-avoid further increase in resistance. But a

non-negli-niae clinical strains isolated in Germany. Antimicrob Agents

gible risk exists that the introduction of new mole-

Chemother 2003 Jul; 47 (7): 2319-22

11. Tait-Kamradt A, Davies T, Cronan M, et al. Mutations in 23S

cules renews the confidence of clinicians in the

rRNA and ribosomal protein L4 account for resistance in

success of antibacterial therapy and stimulates their

pneumococcal strains selected in vitro by macrolide passage.

Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000 Aug; 44 (8): 2118-25

wide-scale use, which will unavoidably lead to the

12. Pan XS, Ambler J, Mehtar S, et al. Involvement of

topoisomer-development of new resistance mechanisms.

ase IV and DNA gyrase as ciprofloxacin targets in

Streptococ-Vaccination remains an interesting alternative to

cus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996 Oct; 40 (10): 2321-6

reduce the risk of developing infection; however,

13. Jones ME, Critchley IA, Karlowsky JA, et al. In vitro activities

the limitation of this approach consists in the diffi-

of novel nonfluorinated quinolones PGE 9262932 and PGE 9509924 against clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus and

culty to include the most prevalent serotypes, which

Streptococcus pneumoniae with defined mutations in DNA

can result in the selection of non-vaccinal MDR

gyrase and topoisomerase IV. Antimicrob Agents Chemother

clones.

2002 Jun; 46 (6): 1651-7

14. Van Bambeke F, Michot JM, Van Eldere J, et al. Quinolones in 2005: an update. Clin Microbiol Infect 2005 Apr; 11 (4):

256-Acknowledgements

₈₀

15. Gill MJ, Brenwald NP, Wise R. Identification of an efflux pump Dr Van Bambeke is Maˆitre de Recherches of the Belgian gene, pmrA, associated with fluoroquinolone resistance in Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique - Fonds National de la Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother Recherche Scientifique. Dr Van Bambeke has acted as a 1999 Jan; 43 (1): 187-9

16. Marrer E, Schad K, Satoh AT, et al. Involvement of the putative consultant to Targanta, Dr Reinert has received honoraria for

ATP-dependent efflux proteins PatA and PatB in fluoroqui-consultancies from Wyeth and GSK, and a research grant

nolone resistance of a multidrug-resistant mutant of Strepto-from Wyeth. Drs Appelbaum, Tulkens and Peetermans have

coccus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006 Feb;

no conflicts of interest that are directly relevant to the content 50 (2): 685-93

of this review. No sources of funding were used to assist in 17. Coffey TJ, Dowson CG, Daniels M, et al. Horizontal transfer of the preparation of this review. multiple penicillin-binding protein genes, and capsular biosyn-thetic genes, in natural populations of Streptococcus pneumo-niae. Mol Microbiol 1991 Sep; 5 (9): 2255-60

References

18. Widdowson CA, Klugman KP. Molecular mechanisms of resis-tance to commonly used non-betalactam drugs in Streptococ-1. Musher DM. Infections caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae:

cus pneumoniae. Semin Respir Infect 1999 Sep; 14 (3): 255-68 clinical spectrum, pathogenesis, immunity, and treatment. Clin

Infect Dis 1992 Apr; 14 (4): 801-7 19. Syrogiannopoulos GA, Grivea IN, Tait-Kamradt A, et al. Identi-fication of an erm(A) erythromycin resistance methylase gene 2. Ortqvist A, Hedlund J, Kalin M. Streptococcus pneumoniae:

in Streptococcus pneumoniae isolated in Greece. Antimicrob epidemiology, risk factors, and clinical features. Semin Respir

Agents Chemother 2001 Jan; 45 (1): 342-4 Crit Care Med 2005 Dec; 26 (6): 563-74

3. Appelbaum PC. Resistance among Streptococcus pneumoniae: 20. Meka VG, Gold HS. Antimicrobial resistance to linezolid. Clin implications for drug selection. Clin Infect Dis 2002 Jun 15; 34 Infect Dis 2004 Oct 1; 39 (7): 1010-5

(12): 1613-20 21. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. CLSI guidelines

4. Lynch III JP, Zhanel GG. Escalation of antimicrobial resistance [online]. Available from URL: http://www.clsi.org/source/or-among Streptococcus pneumoniae: implications for therapy. ders/index.cfm?section=Shop&task=3&CATEGORY=MI&-Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2005 Dec; 26 (6): 575-616 PRODUCT_TYPE=SALES&SKU=M100S17E [Accessed

2007 Sep 11]

5. Hakenbeck R, Briese T, Chalkley L, et al. Antigenic variation of

penicillin-binding proteins from penicillin-resistant clinical 22. European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae. J Infect Dis 1991 Aug; [online]. Available from URL: http://www.escmid.org

[Ac-164 (2): 313-9 cessed 2007 Sep 11]

6. Reinert RR. Clinical efficacy of ketolides in the treatment of 23. Schurek KN, Adam HJ, Hoban DJ, et al. Call for the internation-respiratory tract infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004 Jun; al adoption of microbiological breakpoints for

fluoroqui-53 (6): 918-27 nolones and Streptococcus pneumoniae. Int J Antimicrob

Agents 2006 Sep; 28 (3): 266-9 7. Sutcliffe J, Tait-Kamradt A, Wondrack L. Streptococcus

pneu-moniae and Streptococcus pyogenes resistant to macrolides but 24. Kariuki S, Muyodi J, Mirza B, et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility sensitive to clindamycin: a common resistance pattern medi- in community-acquired bacterial pneumonia in adults. East Afr ated by an efflux system. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996 Med J 2003 Apr; 80 (4): 213-7

Aug; 40 (8): 1817-24 25. Valles X, Flannery B, Roca A, et al. Serotype distribution and 8. Canu A, Malbruny B, Coquemont M, et al. Diversity of riboso- antibiotic susceptibility of invasive and nasopharyngeal iso-mal mutations conferring resistance to macrolides, lates of Streptococcus pneumoniae among children in rural clindamycin, streptogramin, and telithromycin in Streptococ- Mozambique. Trop Med Int Health 2006 Mar; 11 (3): 358-66

This material is

Treatment Options for Multidrug-Resistant Pneumococci 2377

26. Liebowitz LD, Slabbert M, Huisamen A. National surveillance pneumonia among adults in Japan. Respirology 2006 Jul; 11 programme on susceptibility patterns of respiratory pathogens (4): 429-36

in South Africa: moxifloxacin compared with eight other anti- 42. Chiba N, Kobayashi R, Hasegawa K, et al. Antibiotic suscepti-microbial agents. J Clin Pathol 2003 May; 56 (5): 344-7 bility according to genotype of penicillin-binding protein and macrolide resistance genes, and serotype of Streptococcus 27. Schito GC, Felmingham D. Susceptibility of Streptococcus

pneumoniae isolates from community-acquired pneumonia in pneumoniae to penicillin, azithromycin and telithromycin

children. J Antimicrob Chemother 2005 Oct; 56 (4): 756-60 (PROTEKT 1999-2003). Int J Antimicrob Agents 2005 Dec;

43. Stratchounski LS, Kozlov RS, Appelbaum PC, et al. Antimicro-26 (6): 479-85

bial resistance of nasopharyngeal pneumococci from children 28. Mendes C, Marin ME, Quinones F, et al. Antibacterial

resis-from day-care centres and orphanages in Russia: results of a tance of community-acquired respiratory tract pathogens

re-unique prospective multicentre study. Clin Microbiol Infect covered from patients in Latin America: results from the

2006 Sep; 12 (9): 853-66 PROTEKT surveillance study (1999-2000). Braz J Infect Dis

44. Lin WJ, Lo WT, Chou CY, et al. Antimicrobial resistance 2003 Feb; 7 (1): 44-61

patterns and serotype distribution of invasive Streptococcus 29. Canton R, Morosini M, Enright MC, et al. Worldwide

inci-pneumoniae isolates from children in Taiwan from 1999 to dence, molecular epidemiology and mutations implicated in

2004. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2006 Oct; 56 (2): 189-96 fluoroquinolone-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae: data

45. Greenberg D, Dagan R, Muallem M, et al. Antibiotic-resistant from the global PROTEKT surveillance programme. J

An-invasive pediatric Streptococcus pneumoniae clones in Israel.

timicrob Chemother 2003 Dec; 52 (6): 944-52

J Clin Microbiol 2003 Dec; 41 (12): 5541-5 30. Bonofiglio L, Ojeda MI, de Mier C, et al. Phenotypic and

46. Memish ZA, Balkhy HH, Shibl AM, et al. Streptococcus genotypic characterization of macrolide resistant

Streptococ-pneumoniae in Saudi Arabia: antibiotic resistance and ser-cus pneumoniae recovered from adult patients with

communi-otypes of recent clinical isolates. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2004 ty-acquired pneumonia in an Argentinian teaching hospital. Int

Jan; 23 (1): 32-8 J Antimicrob Agents 2005 Mar; 25 (3): 260-3

47. Buxbaum A, Forsthuber S, Sauermann R, et al. Development of 31. Koeth LM, Felmingham D, Jacobs MR, et al. Antimicrobial

macrolide-resistance and comparative activity of telithromycin resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus

in-in streptococci in-in Austria, 1996-2002. Int J Antimicrob Agents fluenzae in Sao Paulo, Brazil from 1996 to 2000. Int J

An-2004 Oct; 24 (4): 397-400 timicrob Agents 2004 Apr; 23 (4): 356-61

48. Rendi-Wagner P, Georgopoulos A, Kundi M, et al. Prospective 32. Ochoa TJ, Rupa R, Guerra H, et al. Penicillin resistance and

surveillance of incidence, serotypes and antimicrobial suscep-serotypes/serogroups of Streptococcus pneumoniae in

naso-tibility of invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae among hospital-pharyngeal carrier children younger than 2 years in Lima,

ized children in Austria. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004 May;

Peru. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2005 May; 52 (1): 59-64

53 (5): 826-31 33. Zhanel GG, Palatnick L, Nichol KA, et al. Antimicrobial

resis-49. Reinert RR, Reinert S, van der LM, et al. Antimicrobial suscep-tance in respiratory tract Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates:

tibility of Streptococcus pneumoniae in eight European coun-results of the Canadian Respiratory Organism Susceptibility

tries from 2001 to 2003. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005 Study, 1997 to 2002. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003 Jun;

Jul; 49 (7): 2903-13 47 (6): 1867-74

50. Van Eldere J, Meekers E, Lagrou K, et al. Macrolide-resistance 34. Powis J, McGeer A, Green K, et al. In vitro antimicrobial mechanisms in Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates from

Belgi-susceptibilities of Streptococcus pneumoniae clinical isolates um. Clin Microbiol Infect 2005 Apr; 11 (4): 332-4 obtained in Canada in 2002. Antimicrob Agents Chemother

51. Vanhoof R, Carpentier M, Cartuyvels R, et al. Surveillance of 2004 Sep; 48 (9): 3305-11

antibiotic resistance in non invasive clinical isolates of Strepto-35. Jenkins SG, Farrell DJ, Patel M, et al. Trends in anti-bacterial coccus pneumoniae collected in Belgium during winters 2003

resistance among Streptococcus pneumoniae isolated in the and 2004. Acta Clin Belg 2006 Mar; 61 (2): 49-57 USA, 2000-2003: PROTEKT US years 1-3. J Infect 2005 Dec;

52. Altraja A, Naaber P, Tamm E, et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility 51 (5): 355-63

of common pathogens from community-acquired lower respir-36. Doern GV, Richter SS, Miller A, et al. Antimicrobial resistance atory tract infections in Estonia. J Chemother 2006 Dec; 18

among Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States: have (6): 603-9

we begun to turn the corner on resistance to certain antimicro- 53. Pihlajamaki M, Jalava J, Huovinen P, et al. Antimicrobial bial classes? Clin Infect Dis 2005 Jul 15; 41 (2): 139-48 resistance of invasive pneumococci in Finland in 1999-2000.

37. Draghi DC, Jones ME, Sahm DF, et al. Geographically-based Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003 Jun; 47 (6): 1832-5 evaluation of multidrug resistance trends among Streptococcus 54. Bergman M, Huikko S, Huovinen P, et al. Macrolide and pneumoniae in the USA: findings of the FAST surveillance azithromycin use are linked to increased macrolide resistance initiative (2003-2004). Int J Antimicrob Agents 2006 Dec; 28 in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother

(6): 525-31 2006 Nov; 50 (11): 3646-50

38. Ho PL, Que TL, Chiu SS, et al. Fluoroquinolone and other 55. Rantala M, Huikko S, Huovinen P, et al. Prevalence and molec-antimicrobial resistance in invasive pneumococci, Hong Kong, ular genetics of macrolide resistance among Streptococcus 1995-2001. Emerg Infect Dis 2004 Jul; 10 (7): 1250-7 pneumoniae isolates collected in Finland in 2002. Antimicrob 39. Yamaguchi K, Ohno A. Investigation of the susceptibility trends Agents Chemother 2005 Oct; 49 (10): 4180-4

in Japan to fluoroquinolones and other antimicrobial agents in 56. Decousser JW, Pina P, Viguier F, et al. Invasive Streptococcus a nationwide collection of clinical isolates: a longitudinal pneumoniae in France: antimicrobial resistance, serotype, and analysis from 1994 to 2002. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2005 molecular epidemiology findings from a monthly national

Jun; 52 (2): 135-43 study in 2000 to 2002. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004

40. Inoue M, Kaneko K, Akizawa K, et al. Antimicrobial suscepti- Sep; 48 (9): 3636-9

bility of respiratory tract pathogens in Japan during PROTEKT 57. Reinert RR, Simic S, Al Lahham A, et al. Antimicrobial resis-years 1-3 (1999-2002). J Infect Chemother 2006 Feb; 12 (1): 9- tance of Streptococcus pneumoniae recovered from outpatients

21 with respiratory tract infections in Germany from 1998 to

41. Oishi K, Yoshimine H, Watanabe H, et al. Drug-resistant genes 1999: results of a national surveillance study. J Clin Microbiol and serotypes of pneumococcal strains of community-acquired 2001 Mar; 39 (3): 1187-9

This material is

58. Reinert RR, van der Linden M, Al-Lahham A, et al. Molecular oxazolidinone and ketolide [in Turkish]. Mikrobiyol Bul 2002 epidemiology of penicillin-resistant Streptococcus Apr; 36 (2): 125-31

pneumoniae isolated from children with invasive pneumococ- 74. Sener B, Koseoglu O, Gur D, et al. Mechanisms of macrolide cal disease in Germany. Clin Microbiol Infect 2007 Apr; 13 resistance in clinical pneumococcal isolates in a university

(4): 363-8 hospital, Ankara, Turkey. J Chemother 2005 Feb; 17 (1): 31-5

59. Ioannidou S, Tassios PT, ZachariadouL, et al. In vitro activity of 75. Gazi H, Kurutepe S, Surucuoglu S, et al. Antimicrobial suscepti-telithromycin (HMR 3647) against Greek Streptococcus py- bility of bacterial pathogens in the oropharynx of healthy ogenes and Streptococcus pneumoniae clinical isolates with school children in Turkey. Indian J Med Res 2004 Nov; 120 different macrolide susceptibilities. Clin Microbiol Infect 2003 (5): 489-94

Jul; 9 (7): 704-7 76. Shackcloth J, Williams L, Farrell DJ. Streptococcus pneumoni-60. Dobay O, Rozgonyi F, Hajdu E, et al. Antibiotic susceptibility ae and Streptococcus pyogenes isolated from a paediatric and serotypes of Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates from population in Great Britain and Ireland: the in vitro activity of Hungary. J Antimicrob Chemother 2003 Apr; 51 (4): 887-93 telithromcycin versus comparators. J Infect 2004 Apr; 48 (3):

61. Busetti M, Longo B, Campello C. Low rates of antimicrobial 229-35

resistance in respiratory pathogens from a pediatric population 77. Gosbell IB, Fernandes LA, Fernandes CJ. In vitro antibacterial in north-eastern Italy. Pediatr Med Chir 2003 Mar; 25 (2): 131- activity of beta-lactams and non-beta-lactams against

Strepto-4 coccus pneumoniae isolates from Sydney, Australia.

Patholo-62. Boccia D, D’Ancona F, Salmaso S, et al. Antibiotic-resistance gy 2006 Aug; 38 (4): 343-8

in Italy: activity of the first year of the surveillance project AR- 78. Felmingham D, Reinert RR, Hirakata Y, et al. Increasing preva-ISS [in Italian]. Ann Ig 2005 Mar; 17 (2): 95-110 lence of antimicrobial resistance among isolates of Streptococ-63. Marchese A, Gualco L, Cochetti I, et al. Antibiotic susceptibility cus pneumoniae from the PROTEKT surveillance study, and and serotype distribution in Streptococcus pneumoniae circu- compatative in vitro activity of the ketolide, telithromycin.

lating in Italy: results of the SEMPRE surveillance study J Antimicrob Chemother 2002 Sep; 50 Suppl. S1: 25-37 (2000-2002). Int J Antimicrob Agents 2005 Aug; 26 (2): 138- 79. Jacobs MR, Felmingham D, Appelbaum PC, et al. The

Alexan-45 der Project 1998-2000: susceptibility of pathogens isolated

64. Deshpande LM, Sader HS, Debbia E, et al. Emergence and from community-acquired respiratory tract infection to com-epidemiology of fluoroquinolone-resistant Streptococcus monly used antimicrobial agents. J Antimicrob Chemother pneumoniae strains from Italy: report from the SENTRY Anti- 2003 Aug; 52 (2): 229-46

microbial Surveillance Program (2001-2004). Diagn

Microbi-80. Schito GC, Debbia EA, Marchese A. The evolving threat of ol Infect Dis 2006 Mar; 54 (3): 157-64

antibiotic resistance in Europe: new data from the Alexander 65. Littauer P, Sangvik M, Caugant DA, et al. Molecular epidemiol- Project. J Antimicrob Chemother 2000 Jul; 46 Suppl. T1: 3-9

ogy of macrolide-resistant isolates of Streptococcus

pneumoni-81. Fluit AC, Jones ME, Schmitz FJ, et al. Antimicrobial suscepti-ae collected from blood and respiratory specimens in Norway.

bility and frequency of occurrence of clinical blood isolates in J Clin Microbiol 2005 May; 43 (5): 2125-32

Europe from the SENTRY antimicrobial surveillance pro-66. Sadowy E, Izdebski R, Skoczynska A, et al. Phenotypic and gram, 1997 and 1998. Clin Infect Dis 2000 Mar; 30 (3): 454-60

molecular analysis of penicillin-nonsusceptible Streptococcus

82. Gordon KA, Biedenbach DJ, Jones RN. Comparison of Strepto-pneumoniae isolates in Poland. Antimicrob Agents Chemother

coccus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae susceptibili-2007 Jan; 51 (1): 40-7

ties from community-acquired respiratory tract infections and 67. Melo-Cristino J, Ramirez M, Serrano N, et al. Macrolide

resis-hospitalized patients with pneumonia: five-year results for the tance in Streptococcus pneumoniae isolated from patients with

SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program. Diagn Micro-community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections in

Por-biol Infect Dis 2003 Aug; 46 (4): 285-9 tugal: results of a 3-year (1999-2001) multicenter surveillance

83. Whitney CG, Farley MM, Hadler J, et al. Increasing prevalence study. Microb Drug Resist 2003; 9 (1): 73-80

of multidrug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United 68. Dias R, Louro D, Canica M. Antimicrobial susceptibility of

States. N Engl J Med 2000 Dec 28; 343 (26): 1917-24 invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates in Portugal over

84. Bartlett JG, Breiman RF, Mandell LA, et al. Community-ac-an 11-year period. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006 Jun;

quired pneumonia in adults: guidelines for management. The 50 (6): 2098-105

Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 1998 69. Cizman M, Beovic B, Seme K, et al. Macrolide resistance rates

Apr; 26 (4): 811-38 in respiratory pathogens in Slovenia following reduced

85. Kam KM, Luey KY, Fung SM, et al. Emergence of multiple-macrolide use. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2006 Dec; 28 (6):

537-antibiotic-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in Hong Kong.

42 Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995 Dec; 39 (12): 2667-70

70. Valles X, Marcos A, Pinart M, et al. Hospitalized

community-86. Rahman M, Hossain S, Shoma S, et al. Emergence of a unique acquired pneumonia due to Streptococcus pneumoniae: has

multiply-antibiotic-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae ser-resistance to antibiotics decreased? Chest 2006 Sep; 130 (3):

otype 7B clone in Dhaka, Bangladesh. J Clin Microbiol 2006 800-6

Dec; 44 (12): 4625-7 71. Perez-Trallero E, Garcia-de-la-Fuente C, Garcia-Rey C, et al.

87. Song JH, Yang JW, Jin JH, et al. Molecular characterization of Geographical and ecological analysis of resistance,

coresis-multidrug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates in Ko-tance, and coupled resistance to antimicrobials in respiratory

rea: the Asian Network for Surveillance of Resistant Pathogens pathogenic bacteria in Spain. Antimicrob Agents Chemother

(ANSORP) Study Group. J Clin Microbiol 2000 Apr; 38 (4):

2005 May; 49 (5): 1965-72

1641-4 72. Neeleman C, De Valk JA, Klaassen CH, et al. In-vitro

suscepti-88. Song JH, Yang JW, Peck KR, et al. Spread of multidrug-bility and molecular characterisation of macrolide resistance

resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in South Korea. Clin In-mechanisms among Streptococcus pneumonia isolates in The

fect Dis 1997 Sep; 25 (3): 747-9 Netherlands: the DUEL 2 study. Clin Microbiol Infect 2005

Apr; 11 (4): 312-8 89. Time magazine. Menace from South Africa [online]. Available

73. Sener B, Koseoglu O, Fisenk I, et al. Streptococcus pneumoniae from URL: http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/

strains resistance to macrolide, lincosamide, streptogramin, 0,9171,915505,00.html [Accessed 2007 Mar 8]

This material is

Treatment Options for Multidrug-Resistant Pneumococci 2379

90. Reinert RR. Resistance phenotypes and multi-drug resistance in 107. Garau J. Treatment of drug-resistant pneumococcal pneumonia.

Streptococcus pneumoniae (PROTEKT years 1-3 [1999- Lancet Infect Dis 2002 Jul; 2 (7): 404-15

2001]). J Chemother 2004 Dec; 16 Suppl. 6: 35-48 108. Klugman KP, Low DE, Metlay J, et al. Community-acquired 91. Reinert RR, Jacobs MR, Appelbaum PC, et al. Relationship pneumonia: new management strategies for evolving patho-between the original multiply resistant South African isolates gens and antimicrobial susceptibilities. Int J Antimicrob of Streptococcus pneumoniae from 1977 to 1978 and contem- Agents 2004 Nov; 24 (5): 411-22

porary international resistant clones. J Clin Microbiol 2005 109. Chiou CC, Yu VL. Severe pneumococcal pneumonia: new

Dec; 43 (12): 6035-41 strategies for management. Curr Opin Crit Care 2006 Oct; 12

92. Maiden MC, Bygraves JA, Feil E, et al. Multilocus sequence (5): 470-6

typing: a portable approach to the identification of clones 110. Kosowska K, Hoellman DB, Lin G, et al. Antipneumococcal within populations of pathogenic microorganisms. Proc Natl activity of ceftobiprole, a novel broad-spectrum cephalosporin.

Acad Sci U S A 1998 Mar 17; 95 (6): 3140-5 Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005 May; 49 (5): 1932-42 93. Enright MC, Spratt BG. A multilocus sequence typing scheme 111. Fenoll A, Gimenez MJ, Robledo O, et al. Activity of cefditoren

for Streptococcus pneumoniae: identification of clones associ- against clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae showing ated with serious invasive disease. Microbiology 1998 Nov; non-susceptibility to penicillins, cephalosporins, macrolides,

144 (Pt 11): 3049-60 ketolides or quinolones. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2007 Feb; 29

94. Reinert RR. Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines: a European (2): 224-6

perspective. Int J Med Microbiol 2004 Oct; 294 (5): 277-94 112. Hoffman-Roberts HL, Babcock C, Mitropoulos IF. Investiga-95. Kyaw MH, Lynfield R, Schaffner W, et al. Effect of introduc- tional new drugs for the treatment of resistant pneumococcal tion of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on drug-resistant infections. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2005 Aug; 14 (8): 973-Streptococcus pneumoniae. N Engl J Med 2006 Apr 6; 354 95

(14): 1455-63 113. Tsuji M, Ishii Y, Ohno A, et al. In vitro and in vivo antibacterial 96. Pai R, Moore MR, Pilishvili T, et al. Postvaccine genetic struc- activities of S-1090, a new oral cephalosporin. Antimicrob

ture of Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 19A from children Agents Chemother 1995 Nov; 39 (11): 2544-51 in the United States. J Infect Dis 2005 Dec 1; 192 (11):

1988-114. Sader HS, Deshpande LM, Jones RN. Antimicrobial activity

95 and spectrum of PPI-0903 (TAK-599) a novel cephalosporin,

97. Singleton RJ, Hennessy TW, Bulkow LR, et al. Invasive pneu- tested against a worldwide collection of clinical strains [ab-mococcal disease caused by nonvaccine serotypes among alas- stract no. F-325]. 44th Interscience Conference on

Dans le document the copyright of the original publisher. (Page 22-29)