observed even when the search task was not executed, we may rule out that refreshing 806
accounted for the difference. Refreshing was not possible without search display. In 807
addition, refreshing was in principle possible for both the target and the distractor, because 808
both were always present in the search display.
809
Acknowledgments 810
CW was supported by the grant “Cardinal Mechanisms of Perception” No. SFB TRR 811
135 from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. DK was supported by grant No.
812
100019_182146 from the Swiss National Foundation. We wish to thank Greta Mikneviciute 813
for running the experiments.
814
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--39-- Table 1. Differences between the four groups in Experiment 2.
976
group label feedback priority search task
equal priority pooled equal always with/without search pooled equal 50% of trials specific feedback specific equal always priority distractor specific distractor always 977
978 979
--40-- 980
981
Figure 1. Illustration of experimental stimuli (not drawn to scale). Panel A illustrates CIELAB 982
color space. Chroma increases from the center to the periphery of the disk. The azimuth 983
corresponds to the hue. Arrows illustrate hue differences of 120°. Panel B shows the 984
sequence of events in Experiment 1, where observers searched for one or two colors. With 985
--41-- only one target, the central letter indicated the location of the target color (C for central disk 986
and P for peripheral ring). Panel C shows the dual task paradigm in Experiment 2. Observers 987
memorized the two colors shown in the memory display. One was the target color and the 988
other was the distractor color in the upcoming feature search task. For half of the 989
participants, the central disk indicated the target color (as shown in panel C). For the other 990
half, it was the peripheral disk. Panel D shows singleton search in Experiment 3 where the 991
designated color from the memory display had to be retained while participants searched 992
for a color singleton. The color wheel in Experiment 2 (panel C) surrounded a disk and a ring 993
because observers were asked to recall the color of both the disk and the ring 994
(corresponding to target and distractor color in the memory display). In Experiment 3 (panel 995
D), the color wheel surrounded a single disk because only a single color was recalled. Note 996
that placeholders in the experiments were composed of two unfilled circles. The dark gray 997
rings in the figures were used for clarity.
998 999
--42-- 1000
1001 1002
Figure 2. Results from Experiment 1. Mean corrected reaction times (RTs) are shown as a 1003
function of the number of memorized search targets, cue validity, and match between the 1004
cue and memorized target color. Error bars show the standard error of the mean.
1005 1006
--43-- 1007
1008 1009
Figure 3. Results from Experiment 2. The four columns show data from the four 1010
experimental groups. The upper row shows the corrected reaction times (RTs, in ms) as a 1011
function of cue validity and cue color. The cue color matched either the target or the 1012
distractor color. The lower column shows the standard deviation (SD) of the distribution of 1013
the memory error for the target and the distractor color (in °). Error bars represent the 1014
standard error of the mean.
1015 1016
--44-- 1017
1018
Figure 4. Results from Experiment 3. Mean corrected RTs are shown as a function of cue 1019
validity and the match between the memorized color and the cue color.
1020 1021
--45-- Supplementary Table 1. Mean reaction times (RT, in ms) and percentage of errors (PE) in 1022
Experiment 1 as a function of number of memorized search targets, match between cue and 1023
memorized target color, and cue validity. The difference between invalid and valid 1024
conditions is indicated as cueing effect (CE).
1025
# colors
cue
match valid RT CE(RT) PE CE(PE)
1 yes yes 444 73 4.7 3.0
no 516 7.7
no yes 501 -17 7.9 -1.0
no 484 6.9
2 yes yes 498 37 8.4 9.5
no 536 17.9
no yes 532 -9 17.7 -0.2
no 524 17.5
1026 1027
--46-- Supplementary Table 2. Mean reaction times (RT, in ms) and percentage of errors (PE) in 1028
Experiment 2 as a function of feedback group, cue color (target-matching, distractor-1029
matching), and cue validity. The difference between invalid and valid conditions is indicated 1030
as cueing effect (CE).
1031
feedback
cue
match valid RT CE(RT) PE CE(PE) pooled target yes 527 45 7.6 4.1
no 572 11.7
distractor yes 552 -14 8.3 -0.7
no 538 7.6
specific target yes 480 68 5.2 1.1
no 548 6.3
distractor yes 533 -13 5.6 0.3
no 520 5.9
1032 1033
--47-- Supplementary Table 3. Mean reaction times (RT, in ms) and percentage of errors (PE) in 1034
Experiment 3 as a function of match between cue and memorized color, and cue validity.
1035
The difference between invalid and valid conditions is indicated as cueing effect (CE).
1036
cue match valid RT CE(RT) PE CE(PE)
yes yes 479 62 2.0 5.7
no 541 7.7
no yes 475 53 3.1 2.0
no 529 5.1
1037 1038 1039
--48-- Supplementary Analysis
1040
We provide supplementary analysis of the guess rate and swap rate parameters 1041
derived from the model of Bays et al. (2009). The results of these analyses are consistent 1042
with the conclusions from the analysis of standard deviation reported in the main text. Most 1043
importantly, we found both guess rates and swap rates to be higher for the distractor than 1044
for the target in Experiment 2.
1045
Experiment 2 1046
We conducted a 4 (group: “equal priority”, “with/without search”, “specific 1047
feedback”, “priority distractor”) x 2 (recalled stimulus: target, distractor) x 2 (cue color:
1048
target matching, distractor matching) mixed ANOVA on individual guess rates. For the 1049
“with/without search” group, only color settings from trials with search task were included 1050
in the ANOVA. The guess rate was lower for the target than for the distractor color (.033 vs 1051
.078), F(1, 46) = 18.31, p < .001, ηp2 = .29, indicating that observers memorized targets better 1052
than distractors. The effect of cue color approached significance, F(1, 46) = 3.10, p = .085, ηp2
1053
= .06, showing that the guess rated tended to be higher with same than with different cues 1054
(0.063 vs. 0.047). None of the other effects reached significance, ps > .571.
1055
We repeated the same ANOVA on individual swap rates. The probability of swapping 1056
was smaller for targets than for distractors (.018 vs. .068), F(1, 46) = 26.92, p < .001, ηp2 = 1057
.369. The interaction of cue color and experiment, F(3, 46) = 3.71, p = .018, ηp2 = .195, 1058
showed that swap rate decreased when the cue color was the same as the target color in the 1059
"with/without search" and "priority distractor" groups (decrease of .022 and .005, 1060
respectively), but increased in the "equal priority" and "specific feedback" groups (increase 1061
of .012 and .006, respectively). The interaction of recalled stimulus and cue color 1062
approached significance, F(3, 46) = 3.02, p = .089, ηp2 = .06, showing that matching cue 1063
--49-- colors decreased the swap rates for the target (.016 for matching and .021 for non-matching 1064
cue colors), whereas the opposite was the case for the distractor (.072 for matching and .64 1065
for non-matching cue colors).
1066
Further, we evaluated the effect of completing the search task in the group 1067
“with/without search”. We conducted a 2 (recalled stimulus: target, distractor) × 2 (search 1068
task: present, absent) on the guess rate, but no significant main effect or interaction was 1069
observed, ps > .248. We repeated this analysis on swap rates. Swap rates were lower for the 1070
target than for the distractor (.017 vs .076), F(1, 12) = 8.23, p = .014, ηp2 = .41. The 1071
interaction of recalled stimulus and search task, F(1, 12) = 5.44, p = .038, ηp2 = .31, showed 1072
that swap rates increased for the target when the search task was absent (.014 vs .020), 1073
whereas it decreased for the distractor (.091 vs .061).
1074
Experiment 3 1075
We compared the guess and the swap rate in the color adjustment task for memory-1076
matching and non-matching cue colors. The guess rate was smaller when the cues matched 1077
the memorized color than when they were non-matching (.040 vs .068), t(16) = 2.33, p = 1078
.033, Cohen’s d = 0.56, whereas the swap rate did not differ (.002 in both conditions), p = 1079
.676.
1080