Iran
M a p 1: The Aral Sea Basin
/ ^ § / India i
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Several transboundary rivers cross the Aral Sea Basin. The main transboundary rivers are the A m u Darya and the Syr Darya, and they play a fundamental role in international relations regarding water resources in Central Asia. These rivers flow into the Aral Sea, but most of their tributaries - the Zeravshan, Kashkadarya, Murgab, Tedjen (Gerirud) rivers (the A m u Darya river), the Sanzar, Kattasay, Aris, Akhangaran and other rivers (the Syr Darya river) -have lost their connection with major rivers. The active tributaries of these rivers are n o w the Vakhsh, Pyandzh, Surhandarya, Sairam (the A m u Darya river basin), and the Naryn, Karadarya, Soch Chirchik and some other rivers (the Syr Darya river basin).
' SIC ICWC
^ Ph.D. GEF Agency IFAS
T h e region, located between the two major rivers, k n o w n as the O x u s and the Jaxsartes in ancient times, has been inhabited since 5500 B . C . This region is the most remote from oceans on the Earth. Archaeological research has shown that extensive irrigation systems were developed as early as 3000 B . C . nearby Khiva, Samarcand and the Fergana Valey in Uzbekistan. These cities became a part of the famous Silk Road between Asia and Europe and were discovered by Chinese General Chang Chen in 138 B C and re-discovered by Marco Polo in the 14"* Century.
Demography
T h e total population of the Aral Sea Basin was about 38.5 million people in 1998, almost 61.8% of which is living in rural areas. About 3.5 million of them live in the disaster Aral Sea coastal area and directly suffer from the lack of potable water, inadequate health facilities, a depressed economy, lack of employment opportunities, and adverse effects of sand and salt storms. During 1993-1997, average annual population growth w a s 1.5% in the countries of the Aral Sea Basin, ranging from 2.2% in Uzbekistan to 0.4% in Kazakhstan. T h e previous population growth (1980-1990) reached 2.5-3.2% per year. This decline is caused mainly by the lowered birth rates due to the deteriorating socio-economic conditions prevailing in the countries since their independence from the former Soviet Union. T h e average population density in the Aral Sea Basin is 24.2 inhabitants per k m ^ .
Economy
Traditionally, Central Asian economy w a s based on stock-breeding, agriculture (particularly cotton production) and fishing in the Aral Sea. Agriculture production has a leading role and provides about 3 5 % of G N P . T h e water sector therefore plays a significant role in national economies and makes the largest contribution to G N P of the Central Asian States. During the last 30 years (1960-1990), irrigated agriculture and the sectors of economy connected with water management (hydropower production, hydrotechnical construction) contributed more than 5 0 % of G N P .
During the ongoing process of gradual transition to a market-oriented economy, the region is experiencing a decline in production. Macro-economic situation in Central Asian countries is diffferent. During 1990-1994, the G N P decreased by 44.1% in Kazakhstan, 46.2% in the Kyrgyz Republic, 55.6% in Tajikistan, 11.9% in Turkmenistan and 11.4 % in Uzbekistan. The decrease of G N P per capita was even more impressive. Differences a m o n g states are primarily due to the various degrees of transition to the market economy. Political instability is a key factor influencing Tajik economy. In Kazakhstan and Kyrgyz Republic, shock therapy has led to complications. Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan manifested a m u c h smaller decline, due to a gradual transition to the free market and the tapping of large petrol-chemical reserves.
A s a result of the collapse of the regional economy and the disintegration of national markets and suppliers of fertilizers, seeds and spare parts, m a n y agricultural enterprises have been forced to scale d o w n their production. A s a result, an increasing amount of domestically consumed food is n o w grown in private gardens and small plots.
However, the entire Aral Sea Basin is rich in minerals, both ferrous and non-ferrous, as well as oil and gas. It also has significant resources of copper, lead, tin, tungsten, molybdenum, antimony, lithium, gold, silver and iron ore.
Despite of the mineral resources of the region, investments are needed to rehabilitate factories and processing plants. For this purpose extensive infrastructure improvements are required. Meanwhile, all the five Aral Sea Basin States are placing increasing emphasis on agricultural diversification.
M o r e than 80 storage reservoirs were constructed in the Aral Sea Basin, with a capacity of over 10 million m ^ each. In order to modify natural river flow patterns to those needed for water
supply, water storage reservoirs were constructed either on rivers (off-stream and river-channel reservoirs) or on main canals (compensation reservoirs). T h e total capacity of these storage reservoirs exceeds 6 0 k m ^ , about 4 4 k m ^ of which is useable (17 k m ^ in the A m u Darya river basin and 27 k m ^ in the Syr Darya river basin).
There are 45 hydropower plants in the Aral Sea Basin with a total capacity of about 34.5 G W , ranging from 50 to 2,700 M W . The biggest hydropower plants are the Nurek plant (in Tajikistan on the Vakhsh river), with a capacity 2,700 M W , and the Toktogul plant (in Kyrgyz Republic on the Narun river), with a capacity 1,200 M W . Hydropower constitutes 27.3% of the average energy consumption in the Aral Sea Basin. T h e contribution of hydropower to general energy consumption is the biggest in Tajikistan (about 98%) and in the Kyrgyz Repubhc (about 75%), and lowest in Turkmenistan (about 1%). In the region as a whole hydropower can contribute 71%, which economic feasible potential is estimated as 150 G w h .
2 River Basin M a n a g e m e n t : Institutional, Information and Legal issues Introduction
Water resources have always been limited in the region. Water has therefore b e c o m e the principal factor for the development of this region and is called " T h e Liquid Gold". In the past water management w a s the responsibility of each village and w a s administrated by village committees that set strict laws governing water use and controlling access according to the Muslim traditions.
These traditional extensive ways of water management were lost once the Soviet Union took over in the beginning of the 20th century and replaced regional, largely small-scale, sustainable irrigation systems with larger ones, designed to put far more arid land under irrigation. T h e irrigation systems were expanded considerably.
The fate of the region was sealed in the late 1950s w h e n Soviet central planners decided to turn vast areas of Central Asia into cotton fields. B y the late 1970s, the Aral Sea Basin w a s producing 9 0 percent of the cotton in the Soviet Union. Expansion of irrigation and cotton production gave major economic benefits but with huge unfavorable social and environmental impacts.
In 1960, the Aral Sea was the fourth largest inland lake in the world. But since then, it has shrunk because of the total cutoff of inflow from the A m u Darya and Syr Darya rivers as a result of extensive water diversion for irrigation. Desiccation of the Aral Sea resulted in the loss of its fishing industry, degradation of the ecosystem of the Sea and its deltas, transportation of salts from the exposed seabed toxic for h u m a n s and deleterious for crops -and a depressed economy of the areas close to the Sea. Inefficient irrigation practices, excessive use of chemicals for growing cotton and rice crops and lack of adequate drainage caused salinity of soils, pollution, and reduced drainage inflows into the rivers and the Sea.
M a n y international organizations and experts have been working on the Aral Sea crisis for some time and there is n o doubt that the Aral Sea is dying. B y 1995, the Sea had lost nearly three-quarters of its water volume, its surface area had shrunk from 64,500 k m ^ to 30,000 k m ^ , and its surface level had fallen by 19 meters.
Institutional issues
In Soviet times the institutional structure and water management system were strictly centralized and based on the general administration. Water management w a s headed by the Ministry of Land Reclamation and Water Resources of the U S S R ( M W R ) . In direct subordination there were the following institutions: All-Union, inter-republic construction, design, research and specialized organizations, and respective ministries in each republic, which carried out management at the national level and had double subordination - sectoral
and republican. A t the inter-provincial level, Administrations for Large Structures were responsible for water management; they reported directly to the M W R in each republic. At the oblast (provincial) level Oblast water administrations (Oblvodkhoz) were responsible for water management; they provided water allocation and water sector development in the province and reported to the M W R of each republic. At the inter-district level management was carried out by bodies, which reported to the Oblvodkhozes. Moreover, there was the Administration of the Inter-District Canals (AIC), Provincial Administration of P u m p Stations (APS), and Provincial Reservoir Administration ( P R A ) . Reclamation services were provided by the Collector-Drainage System Administration ( C D S A ) and Hydrogeological and Reclamation Expeditions ( H G E S ) , which interacted at oblast and district levels with agricultural producers and reported to Oblvodkhozes.
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the national governments of the five Central Asian States immediately organized joint management (figure 2). T h e Interstate Commission for Water Coordination (ICWC} was established as an executive body b y the Central Asian States, responsible for transboundary water resources management. T h e board of the I C W C consists of the first leaders of water management organizations. T h e main goal of the I C W C is the approval of principles of collective decision making on water related questions as well as measures to implement jointly approved programs on the basis of mutually respected interests. The main functions of the I C W C are as follows:
- Definition of the c o m m o n water management policy, development of its main directions with respect to the interests of population and economies of C A States.
- Efficient use of water resources, water conservation, and programs on increasing water availability in the basin.
- Development and observation of annual water consumption limits for each C A state, large storage reservoirs operation regime, water allocation management based on the actual water availability and water-economic situation.
- Working out and executing ecological programs related to the Aral Sea desiccation and water sources depletion, establishing the annual water supply volume in the river deltas and Aral Sea as well as sanitary releases to rivers and canals.
- Development of recommendations for governments on c o m m o n price policy and compensations for possible losses connected with joint water resources use, as well as the legal base of water use.
- Coordination of implementation of large projects and joint use of existing water potential.
- Creation of a c o m m o n database on water use, irrigated lands monitoring and c o m m o n environmental monitoring.
- Coordination of joint research of regional water related issues and master-plans preparation.
For development of ecological programs and improvement of water use within the Syr Darya and A m u Darya basins, I C W C attracts relevant organizations:
- Facilitating development of cooperative links o n the introduction of water saving technologies, as well as irrigation methods and techniques providing improvement of the irrigation systems and water use.
- Development of joint programs for awareness of and combating emergency situations and natural disasters.
I C W C Founders
Within the structure of I C W C there are the following executive and supervision organizations: the Scientific-Information Center (SIC I C W C ) , two River Basin Authorities ( B W O A m u Darya and B W O Syr Darya), and I C W C Secretariat. T h e Secretariat is a permanently acting working entity of the I C W C . Its tasks are to:
- organize meetings of the I C W C ;
- prepare, together with the two B W O s , program measures and projects according to the decisions m a d e at I C W C meetings;
- prepare cost estimates for the B W O s of operation and capital investments;
- accounting and reporting on operation and capital construction; and
- control of B W O s funds for operation, capital construction and other works.
The Basin River Authorities (BWO's) Syr Darya and A m u Darya are executive inter-branch and control bodies of the I C W C and function on the basis of interstate agreements on the A m u Darya and Syr Darya basin. B W O s function in accordance with the relevant laws of the States/ I C W C members, agreements, protocols, and I C W C decisions. T h e B W O s ' main functions are the following:
- Observance of timely guaranteed water supply to water users in accordance with the limits established by the I C W C , for water intake from interstate water sources. Supervision of releases to the deltas and the Aral Sea according to established volumes, as well as operational control of limits observance, interstate reservoirs operation, and water quality.
- Development of plans for water diversion by the main water intakes, reservoirs and cascade operation regime; preparation and coordination with the I C W C of water resources limits for all water consumers in the A m u Darya and Syr Darya basin.
- Creation of an automatic water management system in the A m u Darya and Syr Darya basin, water accounting and measurement organization on the main water intakes, their equipment by means of the necessary devices.
- Performance, together with Hydromel services, of control measurements on border sites using balanced methods of river flow control.
- Reconstruction, operation and maintenance of hydrostructures, head water intakes, inter-republican canals and automatic systems of water resources management.
- Providing water services to consumers by means of scientific researches, design, n e w water structures construction and reconstruction of existing structures that are under the B W O s ' administration.
The Interstate Scientific-Information Center (SIC ICWC), as I C W C executive entity, is in charge of preparing the I C W C s draft decisions on prospective developments, water policy, the perfection of water management and utilization, and the improvement of the ecological situation in the Aral Sea Basin, including the preparation of:
- A water and economic policy, development of its main provisions with respect to the interests of the population and industries of Central Asian States.
- A program for water saving in the region and water consumption increases in the A m u Darya and Syr Darya basin and measures for its implementation.
- Improvements in the ecological situation in the region and mitigation of the consequences of the Aral Sea desiccation.
- A set of measures for improving water measurements and control, and the creation of n e w effective mechanisms.
- Economic assessment of the water-economic and water protection measures.
- Creation of a c o m m o n information system on water resources use and water and irrigated lands monitoring.
Besides, SIC ICWC is in charge of the following:
- Preparation of publications and providing the States with information about scientific-technical innovations, k n o w - h o w , production in CIS countries, etc.
- Organization of a reference library with respect to peculiarities of the economic situation in Central Asia and its development on the basis of a c o m m o n plan; accumulation of foreign technical literature, etc., including reference-information service and literature exchange.
- Coordination and expertise on all international projects on water related problems and the development of the "Specific Action Program for Improvement of Environmental Stabilization in the Aral Sea Basin".
- Establishment of joint ventures of regional importance.
- Organization of regional training courses for water sector experts.
The International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea (IFAS) w a s established by interstate agreements with the purpose of program coordination, accumulation and management of funds, and involving international organizations, donors, ecological and other funds to develop activities in addressing environmental problems. T h e main principles of IFAS are agreed by the Central Asian Heads of State and are development and implementation of regional and national programs in the Aral Sea Basin. I F A S is financed by the World Bank, U N D P , international organizations, donor countries, grants and charity donations.
Institutional Management
In Soviet times the most powerful asset management w a s created, operated by the federal government with the participation of regional organizations and the general operational, financial, legal and technical framework. This framework includes the most complex engineering buildings with unique dams, hydropower stations, channels, pumping stations, water reservoirs and m o d e m drainage systems. After the collapse of the U S S R and creation of the five independent river basin states, the earlier developed principles of water sharing and water management framework were saved, but accompanied with weakening economic basis and financial possibilities, a sharp reduction in efficiency of irrigated husbandry (more than 5 0 % per hectare) and increasing centrifugal efforts, especially by the upstream countries, transforming water into a market product (economic good) like oil, gas and other mineral resources.
Political independence of the countries and economic difficulties result, besides in n e w governments, in other priorities, and the water factor has suffered from reassessment by the politicians. This has caused a revision of the structure of water management at the national
level - Ministries of Water Resources and its local bodies were liquidated everywhere, except Tajikistan; they were merged with Ministries of Agriculture. Independence of financing of all these elements and financial support of the water sector as a whole were lost. In Soviet time annual capital investments and field-performance costs were subsidized by the government, at least $ U S 2 2 0 per hectare, but n o w these subsidies do not exceed U S $ 1 5 - 2 0 per ha, including O & M of interstate and interbranch organizations. T h e result is degradation of the main structures and funds and absence of reconstruction, repair and O & M of drainage systems.
Another problem is that the staff is becoming older and younger specialists do not c o m e to the sector.
Water Users Associations ( W U A ) and privatized farms have no facilities for sufficient financial support and efficient o w n funds. This w a s also caused by reduction of the world prices for cotton - a main export product in Central Asia - by 4 0 % in the last 7 years since independence.
L o w living standards of rural population can have far-reaching political consequences and can lead to social tension.
Riparian and institutional issues
After the collapse of the former Soviet Union, most state institutions found themselves with no budget, no clear mandates and - most importantly - with no strategies for reorganization and rebirth. C o m m a n d management, including transboundary water resources management, was simply replaced with centralized control by the newly independent states.
Unprepared for the consequences of independence. Central Asian States encountered m a n y difficulties in trying to create effective management bodies in the v a c u u m left behind by seven decades of the soviet regime, but it should be mentioned that there were n o
"misunderstandings" between Central Asian water decision-makers and professionals. They k n o w about future w a y of cooperation because they have worked all this time very closely.
Legal issues
Water relations needed a n e w legal basis because the rivers in the region became transboundary. This required a n e w approach to inter-state negotiations in the sphere of water allocation and water use. Appropriate inter-state agreements and procedures should be developed in accordance with the international law and taking into account local traditions and experience.
Central Asian States responded quickly to the need for a n e w legal basis for water allocation and management. O n September 12, 1991, the water ministries of these countries jointly declared that joint water resources management would be established on the basis of equity and mutual benefit. O n February 18, 1992, the five Central Asian countries signed the interstate "Agreement on Water Resources M a n a g e m e n t in the Aral Sea Basin" to overcome inherited inter-regional water problems and minimize ethnic tensions,. According to this agreement, water allocation should be based on existing uses of water resources and the two river basin authorities should continue to perform basin management under the control of the I C W C . All water resources of the region (surface, underground, drainage) are divided into transboundary (interstate) ones, situated on the territories of two or more states, and national ones, situated on the territory of one country and not bound up with transboundary waters.
Each state has the right to manage on its territory its o w n national resources and part of the transboundary water within the limits agreed with other countries and without causing damage to them. T h e Aral Sea and its deltas have been defined as an independent water consumer and have its o w n water limit. Transboundary water is the object of c o m m o n ownership of the states and their development, protection and usage should be carried out on
the basis of interstate agreements by the inter-regional bodies according to the national requests and regional interests.
T h e Heads of Central Asian States deiced that the 1992 agreement should remain in force
T h e Heads of Central Asian States deiced that the 1992 agreement should remain in force