DEVELOPMENT INDEX MOZAMBIQUE REPORT
Received on
18 April 2005
Maputo Mozambique I'
The African Gender and Development Index
********
Mozambique 2004
Produced for the African Economic Commission and for the African Centre for Gender and Development
General Coordination:
SARDC MAPUTO
1st Group
Destina Uinge - Coordinator Filomena J. Malalane
Georgina Zoguene Maria Jose Arthur
2nd Group
Rosita Alberto - Coordinator Joao Paulo de Azevedo Emilia Machaieie Terezinha da Silva
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all those that, directly and indirectly,
contributed to the production of this report.
"; Introduction
5 i Part I - The Gender Statute Index
1. GENDER POLICIES AND NATIONAL STATISTICS SYSTEM 1.1. The National Statistic System (SEN)
1.2. Gaps in the information on Gender Statistics
2. STATISTIC INFORMATION TO MEASURE THE GENDER STATUTE 2.1. Situation of statistic information: accessibility and gender dissagregation 2.2. The main sources
2.3. Precautions in the analysis of information
3. COMPONENTS OF THE GENDER STATUTE INDEX 3.1. Social Power: "capacities"
3.1.1. Education 3.1.2. Health
3.2. Economic Power: "opportunities"
3.2.1. Incomes
3.2.2. Employment and use of time 3.2.3. Access to resources
3.3. Political Power: "agency"
3.3.1. Public sector 3.3.2. Civil society
PART II - The Human Rights of Women in their legal, social, economic and political dimensions
1. THE HUMAN RIGHTS OF WOMEN
1.1. CEDAW - Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Violence Against Women 1.1.1 .Optional Protocol
1.1.2. Article 2 1.1.3. Articled
1.2. African Charter of Human Rights and the Peoples - protocol on Women's Rights - Harmful practices
2. SOCIAL POWER
2.1. Beijing Platform of Action 2.2. Violence Against Women
2.2.1. Domestic Violence 2.2.2. Rape
*< 2.2.3. Sexual Harassment
1 2.2.4. Traffic of Women
j- 2.3. African Charter on the Rights of the Child - Article XXVII
2.4. Health - International Conference on Population and Development, Action Programme (Cairo, 1994) plus five
2.4.1. Sexually Transmited Infections 2.4.2. HIV/AIDS
2.5. Abuja Declaration on Women and HIV/AIDS r 2.6. Education
2.6.1. Policy on girls quitting school 4'
2.6.2. Education in human/women rights
*
3. ECONOMIC POWER
3.1. International Labour Organization
3.1.1. Convention 100 - on equality of remuneration, 1951 3.1.2. Convention 111 - on discrimination, 1958
3.1.3. Convention 183-on the protection of maternity in the workplace, 2000
3.1.4. (Action Code) Policy on HIV/AIDS3.2. National Strategy for Poverty Reduction, PARPA 3.3. Access to Agricultural Extension Services
3.4. Access to Technology 3.5. Access to Land
4. POLITICAL POWER
4.1. United Nations Resolution of Conflicts N.° 1325
4.2. National Mechanism Accessible for the application of the Beijing Platform of Action 4.3. Policies
4.3.1. Support for the establishment of quotas for the power of women 4.3.2. Access to decision levels in Parliament and in Ministries
4.3.3. Affirmative Action
4.3.4. Gender mainstreaming in all Government Institutions
References
Annex 1 - Summary Table of Statistics and Indicators
Annex 2 - Summary of Progress Evaluation of African Women
List of Tables
Table 1: Gross Rates of Schooling in Primary Education, by year, by gender, Mozambique, 1997-2001
Table 2: Rates of Schooling in Primary Education, by gender and by residential area, Mozambique, 1997
Table 3: Gross Rates of Schooling in Secondary Education, by year, by gender, Mozambique, 1997-2001
Table 4: Rates of Schooling in Secondary Education, by gender and by residential area, *
Mozambique, 1997 '
Table 5: Number of enrolments in Higher Education in public and private institutions, by year, by gender, Mozambique, 1997-2001
Mozambique, 1997
Table 7: Rates of School dropouts in Primary Education, by year, by gender, Mozambique,
I i 1997-2001
Table 8: Rates of School dropouts in Primary Education (EP1 and EP2), by year, by gender and by province, Mozambique, 2000-2001
Table 9: Rates of School dropouts in Secondary Education, by year, by gender, Mozambique, 1997-2001
Table 10: Literate population, by year, by gender, Mozambique, 1997 and 2000-2001
Table 11: Population 15 years of age or older who completed Primary Education, by year, by gender, Mozambique, 1997 and 2000-2001
Table 12: Number of children less than 3 years of age whose height is 2 standard deviations of average, by gender, Mozambique, 2000/2001
Table 13: Number of children less than 3 years of age, whose weight for the age is 2 standard deviations of the average, by gender, Mozambique, 2000/2001
Table 14: Infant Mortality Rate, by gender, Mozambique, 1997
Table 15: Infant Mortality Rate, by residential area, Mozambique, 1997
Table 16: Life expectancy at birth, by year, by gender, Mozambique, 1997, 1999, 2000/2001
Table 17: Number of new HIV infections, by year, by gender, Mozambique, 1998-2001
Table 18: Global effective workers in public service, by gender, according to salary scale, Mozambique, 2001
Table 19: Proportion of revenue from contributions and/or transfers between households, by gender of household head, Mozambique, 1997
Table 20: Number of hours spent per day on domestic and voluntary chores and care of relatives, by gender, Mozambique, 1997
Table 21: Number of people with remunerated occupation, working for themselves or is a cooperative member, by gender, Mozambique, 2000/2001
-i
' Table 22: Number of employers, by gender, Mozambique, 2001
V
Table 23: Property registration of housing in urban areas, by gender, Maputo City, Mozambique, 2001Table 25: Number of small and medium agricultural plots, by gender of household head, f
by province, Mozambique, 1999-2000 * *
Table 26: Number of non-paid relatives workers, according to gender of household head,
Mozambique, 2000/2001Table 27: Number of informal sector enterpreneurs who accessed formal credit, by year,
according to gender, Maputo City, Mozambique, 1999-2003Table 28: Members of Parliament, by year, according to gender Mozambique, 1994- 1999/2000
Table 29: Advisory Judges of the High Court, by gender, Mozambique, 2001 Table 30: Judiciary Magistrates in service, by gender, Mozambique, 2001
Table 31: Members of Government, by year, according to gender, Mozambique, 1994- 1999/2000
Table 32: Leadership positions in the Public Service, by gender, according to the function, Mozambique, 2001
Table 33: Workers in Ministries, by gender, Mozambique 2001
Table 34: Number of workers in public higher education institutions, by gender, Mozambique, 2001
Table 35: Presidency of political parties, by gender, Mozambique, 2001
Table 36: Trade union leadership at national level, by gender, Mozambique, 2001
Table 37: Participation of women in trade union leadership, OTM-CS, 2003
Table 38: Number of trade union workers and members, by gender, OTM-CS, 2002
Table 39: Number of trade union workers and members, by gender, in CONSILMO, 2003
Table 40: Directors of NGO's, by gender, Mozambique, 2001
AMODEFA - Mozambican Association for Family Development
. f ACTION AID - British NGO working in Mozambique in the field of community development
i
AMME - Assoiation of Mozambican Women for Education
AWEPA - Association of European Parliamentarians for Southern Africa ADEMO - Association of Disabled Persons of Mozambique
CEDAW - Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women.
CPLP - Community of Portuguese Speaking Countries
CNESCCT - National Council for Higher education and Technology COMUTRA - Committee of Working Women
CIUEM - Computer Centre of University Eduardo Mondlane COCAMO - Consortium Canada and Mozambique
CEP-UEM - Centre for Population Studies of the University Eduardo Mondlane
DNE - National Directorate of Statistics DTS - Sexual Transmitted Diseases
EP1/ EP2 - primary Education of first and second levels ECA - Economic Comission for Africa.
FDC - Foundation for Community Development FNUAP - United Nationas Population Fund.
HIV - Human Immuno Deficiency Virus
IAGD - African Index for Gender and Development INE - National Institute of Statistics
ISPU - Higher Institute Polytechnic and University
ISCTM - Higher Institute for Science and Technology of Mozambique
f * IAF - Questionnaire to Households
ISRI - Higher Institute of International Relations ICT'S - Information Comunication Technology
ISUTC - Higher Institute of Transports and Communications
Kindlimuka - Association for support to seropositive and AIDS infected patients, with headquarters in the city of Maputo
KULIMA - Assoction working in the area of rural development, with headquarters in Maputo and offices in the centre of the country
KULAYA - Group of professionals working in the clinical and psychology area at the HCM, developing actions in the area of counselling to victims of violence
MINED - Ministry of Education.
MISAU - Ministry of Health
MESCT - Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology MULEIDE - Women, Law and Development
MPF - Ministry of Planning and Finances
MINEC - Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation
MONASO - Network of organizations working in the area of AIDS MMCAS - Ministry of Women and Coordination of Social Action MAE - Ministry of State Administration
NGO's - Non-governmental organizations
OMM - Organization of Mozambican Women OMS - World Health Organization .
ONJ/SNJ - National Trade Union of Journalists
ONP - National Organization of Teachers ORAM - Organization of Mozambican Farmers OUA - Organization of African Unity
OIT - International Labour Organization
OTM-CS - Organization of Mozambican Workers - central Trade Union OP - Poverty Observatory
PALOP - African Countries of Official Portuguese Language
PARPA - Programme for Aleviation and Reduction of Absolute Poverty PNI - National Integrated Programme
PNUD - United Nations Programme for Development PMA - World Food Programme
PROGRESSO - Association for community development, operating in te provinces of Cabo Delgado and Niassa
QU1BB - Questionnaire of Well-Being Basic Indicators SABC - South Africa Broadcasting Corporation SADC - Southern African Development Community
SALAMA- NGO developing activities in the area of health, with headquarters in Nampula SEN - National Statistic System
CONSILMO - National Confederation of Independent and Free Trade Unions of Mozambique TVM- Television of Mozambique
TCHUMA - Project with headquarters in Maputo, generating funds for women' empowerment UEM - University Eduardo Mondlane.
UCM - Catholic University of Mozambique UN - United Nations
UNAC - National Union of Cooperatives UP - Pedagogic University
Introduction
This report was produced under a project drafted and managed by the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), introducing an African Gender and Development Index (IAGD)1.
Through the development of this Index, ECA has the following objectives:
• Supply an adequate instrument to measure the extent of gender inequalities in
each country;• Evaluate the effects of national gender policies to reduce the exclusion of
women;
• Monitor the application of CEDAW and other legal international instruments
ratified by African governments;• Involve society to participate in this process, increasing the sensitivity for gender asymetries, important for the empowerment of women.
The IAGD proposes the analysis of the situation, both in qualitative and quantitative terms, in order to better characterize the complexity and the dynamics of African women' lives.
The biggest challenge is to find the most adequate indicators to capture not only the
already registered changes at development level for gender equality, but also the current
ones, as well as the existing legal and political environment. This way, the developmentobjectives established in the main international conventions and instruments subscribed by
African governments will become reality. By creating common indicators for African countries, the IAGD allows a comparison between their respective situations, thus can serve as an instrument for the conception of regional policies.The IAGD in Mozambique was produced by a multidisciplinary team, who collected and
analysed the pertinent information, both quantitative and qualitative, according to the following dimensions: legal situation, social, ecconomic and political power.The results presented in this report may only be completely analysed if the country's social, political and economic contexts, the speeches on the situation of women and the intitutional pratices are taken into consideration.
In Mozambique, as in some Southern African countries, as a result of their recent history,
the citizenship of women is perceived mainly as a "citizenship by merit": by participating
in liberation wars and showing perseverance in the anti-colonial fight, they deserve some rights. This concept is the basis of all future revindication of rights: it is necessary not just to prove that we deserve it as well as how to make "good use" of these rights, becauseaccording to the dominant ideology, the women's liberation process should be done at the
rythm of their conscience.This is the central focus of the revolucionary speech, after independence, on the emancipation of women. The system of social, economic and political ideas of Frelimo emphasizes the need for equality between men and women, but proclaims that this will only be completely achieved in the context of the broad fight1 This project and the terms of reference of the work are presented in the document prepared by the African Centre for Gender and Development, "The African Gender and Development index" (March 2003).
against the capitalist system and exploitation, and as women free themselves of their own allienation.
From the legal point of view, this policy was translated in the principle of gender equality established in the 1975 Constitution, reaffirmed in its 1990 review and in the first Labour Law, which eliminated salary discriminations, improved professional integration by eliminating promotion based on gender.
Despite the limitations during this period, the need to guarantee more equality between men and women was brought to the public agenda and allowed to gain legitimacy to intervene in the public sphere, mainly at the level of mass organizations, such as OMM.
The introduction of structural re-adjustment policies in the late 1980's and the economic dependency of the country in relation to a neo-liberal globalization model, has had negative effects on the well-being of the population and its access to social and economic goods. The economic crisis got deeper and , at the same time, the process of privatization had the perverse effect of reducing the number of industrial areas/activities, with the consequent increase of unemployment, which affected mainly workers from the formal sector, causing an accelarated degradation of living conditions.
The reduction of investments in the areas of health and education has limited the access to primary health care and to schools, affecting men and women differently. Under these conditions a great majority has difficulty in accessing the joy of their rights, mainly social and economic rights. The spread of the AIDS epidemic has reduced life expectancy and increased the workloads of households (and consequently of women) with the need to care for an increasing number of infected relatives.
During the 1990 decade, the environment within the government to reactivatelegal changes in favour of gender equality and for the erradication of discriminatory practices, was, maybe, the most favourable since independence. An aspect that without a doubt influenced the government, was the emergence of an international public space around conferences and summits called by the United Nations in these past years. Through these meetings, the feminist movement gained international public visibility and due to this, the governments have been compelled to change their institutions, in terms of content, operation and legislation, in order to integrate the agenda of the feminist movement and women.
The 1990s in Mozambique, with the end of civil war and the new Constitution which instituted a multiparty system, was also a period of democratization of institutions and the claiming of various freedoms, such as that of association (Law 8/91). There is the emergence of various Non Governmental Organizations, some of them directed at the promotion of equality of rights between men and women, from different perspectives and domains of intervention.
It was in this context that the mozambican participation to the Social Conferences on Women, Beijing (1995) and Beijing + 5 (2000) was prepared, in which the government and the civil society produced reports evaluating the situation of women, taking into account multiple dimensions.
The Beijing Conference and the commitments resulting from it, expressed in the "Beijing Platform", subscribed to by the mozambican Government, made 1995 to be considered a
mark in government policies in relation to the fight against gender inequalities. Also influencing this situation was the fact that the new government was created after the first
multiparty elections in the country, in 1994, and the concern for the reduction of gender I inequalities emerged as a fundamental indicator of the democratic spirit and of
participatory democracy. \
In agreement with this spirit, still in 1995 a document called "Government Platform of
Action Document for the Progress of Women up to the year 2000: strategies and
objectives" (August 1995) was produced . In this document the priority areas are education, health and employment, which were also included in the "Great Lines of Govemative Action", in point III, on the improvement of the quality of life of the population .Looking at the rest of the continent, it is important to mention the impact of the Beijing Conference in the government policies of the African countries (Binka, 2000), and the women movements took advantage of elections and transitions to claim a feminine agenda.
There is also need to emphasize some commitments assumed at the Southern Africa sub- regional level, through SADC, which reinforced the commitment of government in relation to gender policies, namely, the Declaration on Gender and Development signed by the heads of State in 1997, during the Conference of the Southern Africa Development Community. In this declaration, the following commitments were made:
• "To reach, at least the average of 30 per cent of women in political and decision making structures by 2005;
• Promote the total access of women to production resources and their control in order to reduce the level of poverty among women;
• Revoke and reformulate all laws, amend the Constitutions and change the social practices that still subject women to discrimination;
• Take urgent measures to prevent and combat the increasing levels of violence
against women and children".3
In 1999, with the constitution of the new Governmant after the second multiparty elections, the Ministry of Women and Coordination of Social Action was created. The ministry has the objectives of elevating the statute of women and their participation in the political, social and economic life of the country, through the introduction of the gender perspective in the conception, analysis and definition of national deveopment policies, as well as the reinforcement of the capacity building of professionals in their areas of competency.
Despite this favourable emvironment and the fact that the Government determined that the gender perspective should be included in all of its programmes, the situation is far from being satisfactory. The integration in government programmes, of a perspective taking into consideration the rights, interests and needs of women is not always taken seriously, it is often formal, and it is not conducive to the current situation of inequality. In other cases,
even with a will for change, the available resources are not enough for the execution of the , programmes. There is also lack of evaluation and monitoring mechanisms and indicators to
2 Conselho de Ministros, Linhas gerais do PES/97..., 1996.
3 SADC. Monitor de Genero(1999).- Monitorandoa implementa?ao dos compromissos assumidosem
Beijing pelos Estados membros da SADC- Harare: SADC, SARDC.
evaluate the quality and degree of success of programme implementation, in order to
intervene and eliminate the constraints.Thus, despite all efforts, there is not yet complete gender equality in legal terms. However, with the approval of the Family Law in August 2004, the main legal aspects discriminating
against women were eliminated. The legislation related to the Penal Code, with focus on violence against women and girls, has, however, yet to be reviewed. The elimination of
discrimination between men and women in the access to resources is still not guaranteed.In education, health, access to employment in the formal sector, credit and decision levels, women continue to be discriminated against and enjoy less opportunities than men.
For the collection of information, interviews were conducted with heads and technicians of governmental institutions working in the areas covered by the report and official current documents were consulted. The enterviews had the objective of checking the proceedings related to the approval, registration and regularisation of the main international legal instruments on gender equality. They were also intended to get to know the programmes conceived under these conventions and their degree of implementation.
The main constraint during the work was the time available, since the collection of information (in form of magazines or official documents) depended on the availability of heads or technicians of the contacted sectors. The delayed publication of the project (in official terms) to the state institutions and others, may have influenced the way our requests were perceived, at least in certain sectors, where some suspicion was shown. On the other hand, the team faced the problem of several delays and postponments on the part of the enterviewees, due to reasons beyond their control, mainly due to their busy agendas.
It is also important to mention that in some instances we faced a spirit of secretism in the supply of information, which, we thought, was justified since we required data of public interest. This aspect delayed the production of the work and resulted in the lack of crucial information in some areas.
Reflecting the IAGD objectives, the report is organized in two main parts: the first presents quantitative data (The Gender Statute Index) and the second, the qualitative data related to the laws, policies and programmes (The Human Rights of Women in their legal, social, economic and political dimensions).
Parti
The Gender Statute Index
This part of the report presents the The Gender Statute Index which intends to evaluate the situation of gender equality through aspects related to the empowerment of women that may be measured quantitatively, during the period from 1990 to 2001. This part is organized in three sections namely, Social Power with indicators such as Education and Health; Economic Power including indicators such as incomes, use of time, employment
and access to resources; and Political Power which includes indicators on formal and
informal power.The Gender Statute Index was produced based on the quantitative data obtained from official statistic sources of the country and other sources indicated in each Table. Not all the indicators foreseen in this project are available due to the lack of reliable, comparable and gender disagregated statistical information. In the same vein, during the period set for
the study, 1990-2001, there are gaps in almost all sectors. However, the years 1997 and2000-2001, which coincide with the General Population Census (1997) and the Basic
Indicators of Weil-Being Questionnaire (QUIBB, 2001), are the ones with more information.The national gender disagregated statistical information is more systematic from 1996 onwards. As a matter of fact, foreseeing the need to have gender disagregated statistical
data back in 1995, the Ministry of Planning and Finances created a sector integrated in the
Population and Planning Unit of the National Directorate of Statistics (SEN), to deal with women and children's issues and produce Statistics with a Gender Dimension.1. Gender Policies and the National Statistics System
1.1. Background
Until the creation of the National Statistic Institute (INE), in 1996, the entity responsible for the official production of statistical information was the National Statistics Directorate (DNE), initially integrated in the National Planning Commission and then in the Ministry of Planning and Finance (from 1994/5).
During the 1990s a concern to produce statistics which characterize both the situation of men and women, started to be registerd, and it was recognized that they were an important basis for the conception of national and sectoral policies and plans. A report from the
National Planning Commission, in 19944, noted that the statistical information is not
gender disagregated and that it was necessary to integrate this demand in the routine practices of data collection. The report also considered that there was need to develop the capacity of the technicians to treat the information according to a gender perspective.
Effectively, in order to develop capacities and competences in this area, since the
beginning of the 1990s, the DNE participates in a programme of regional cooperation for the production of gender statistics, bringing together countries from West, East and Southern Africa. However, this requirement gained a more important character with the increased search for gender disagregated data, in 1994, by the users, as a sequence of preparation for the International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, and by the need from the users, to produce a national report for the IV World Conference on the Sitaution of Women (Beijing), planned for the following year.Thus, during this period, the challenges consisted of the identification of gaps in the development of concepts, indicators and adequate methods for the integration of gender
4 COM1SSAO NACIONAL DO PLANO. Direc^o Nacional de Estattstica. Unidade de Popu!a?ao e Planificacao (1994).- Programa de actividades para o desenvolvimento da estatistica de genero em Mo9ambique (com a coopera^o da SIDA/SAREC, Maputo).- Maputo.
statistics in the general system of statistical information5. It was recommended that this
process should not be isolated, but should integrate the information producers and users.
In 1994, the first sistematization of available, gender disagregated information was
published6, based on the 1980 census and in projections. The Inter-Sectoral Working
Group, responsible for this publication was headed by the DNE, Population and Planning Unit, but integrated representatives of some institutions such as the Ministries of Education, Health, Labour, Agriculture, and the University Eduardo Mondlane, with the materialization of the principle of collaboration between producers and users. Among other aspects, the identification of areas of concern in terms of equality between men and women and in the production of more important indicators to reflect those same concerns, went ahead.1.2. The National Statistic System and the Policies on the Production of Gender Statistics
In 1996, the Law of Bases of the National Statistic System (Law n° 7/96, of July 5), which is a response to the need to produce "official statistical information of national interest", was approved.
The National Statistic System (SEN) is defined as being "the integrated organic set of institutions and entities which carry out the official statistical activity" (Article n° 2, line a) and has the objective of coordinating the production of "statistical information needed by the country", optimizing resources, promoting the interest of all in the collection of statistical data, promoting the analysis and utilization of official statistics, satisfying the needs of different users (Article n° 4). SEN is headed by a Statistics Superior Council, which includes the most relevant sectors in the production of statistical information and responds directly to the Council of Ministers. The National Statistic Institute (INE) is the central executive organ of SEN.
The creation of INE was important to guarantee the production of national statistics, creating conditions to institutionalize a system of information collection in the various sectors of activity. It also had an equal impact of guaranteeing the integration of gender statistics in the statistic system as a whole. The plans of the new institution reflected the main lines of direction of the Beijing Platform, mainly the ones that recommends:
"Generate and disseminate gender disagregated data in a gender perspective and information for planning and evaluation" (H.3) .
The second publication, in 1999s, which seeks to sistematize the existing gender
disagregated information, is the initiative of INE, and fills in, even with deficiencies, the already identified gaps. The plans of activities in various sectors show the need for more statistical data and more specific indicators needed to monitor the gender situation in the country. The gaps may be characterized by:
5 See: Pehr Sundstrom, 1994; MINISTERIO DO PLANO E FINAN^AS. Direccao Nacional de Estatistica.
(1994).- Mozambique; report on existing gaps in gender stastitic information.- Maputo.
6 MINISTERIO DO PLANO E FlNANp\S. Direccao Nacional de Estatistica. Unidade de Populacao e Planiflcacao (1994).- A mulher e o homem nas estatisticas basicas.- Maputo.
7 Plataforma de Beijing, 1995.
8 INE (1999), Women and Men in Mozambique.- Maputo.
• Information necessary but not collected;
• Information collected but not presented, information exists but is not gender disagregated;
• And information collected is based on concepts that do not reflect the gender situation.
This last aspect was considered of great importance, since the analysis of the existing statistical information emphasized that the concepts, definitions and methodologies used in the collection of information. As well as the way in which the concepts were measured (indicators) can influence the quality of information from a gender perspective, leading to
errors.
The production of this document allowed for a reflection on the main reasons to produce gender statistics: gender disagregated information which reflects the situation in areas considered a priority in terms of gender, and analysed and presented according to a gender analysis. This implied also a review of concepts, definitions, measurements and collection (Uinge et al., 2002).
This process also allowed the identification of the need to sensitize INE's staff, as well as the main users and producers of gender statistics (Sundstrom, 1999 e 1999a).
For the development of gender statistics in the country, an approach was drafted to include:
• Gender sensitization of the National Statistics System;
• The integration of a gender perspective in the traditional statistics field, using an interdisciplinary approach;
• Gender sensitization of producers and users of statistics.
This approach means supplying information in order to emphasize and evaluate all gender aspects relevant in the country.
The declaration of intentions presented above was materialized through the "Action Plan for 2001-2005", with the perspective of conciliation with the Beijing Platform (1995) and Beijing + 5 (2000). It is a strategic long term plan, with the objective of introducing the gender perspective in the National Statistics System. The annual production of a report on the progress of gender statistics was also recommended (Uinge et al., 2002).
At this moment it may be concluded that the first step has been done, in the sense that all the information collected by SEN is gender disagregated and can be worked on through the computerized databases. However, there is lack of analysis capacity for this information, and few specialized publications are available to the public.
2. Statistic information to measure the gender statute
The great challenge of this IAGD project was to identify quantitative indicators which reflect difficult situations to measure, but fundamental to evaluate the degree of participation and opportunities of the citizens from a gender perspective. Despite the equality of rights guaranteed in the National Constitution, and in most of the legislation in
force in the country9, the real and concrete possibilities for men and women to enjoy their
citizenship rights are unequal. These are the desired assymetries to be characterized, using the existing statistical information.
2.1. Situation of statistical information: accessibility and gender disagregation
A great portion of the data presented in this report was produced by INE and comes from three main sources, the Second General Population Census in 1997 (abrev. Censo 97), Annual projections of the population by province and residencial area, 1997-2010 (1999) and the Questionaire of Basic Indicators of Well-Being (QUIBB, 2001), which will be characterized further in the report.
The rest of the information had to be collected in various institutions and the balance of this process may be useful to measure the degree of data accessibility to the potential users.
The sectors already integrated in the SEN, such as Education and Health, have consistent information that is accessible to the public. Others, whose respective Statistics Departments do not have human, technical and material means, present inadequate information on the respective sectors. In these, the current situation may be briefly characterized by the following:
• OR there is no information;
• QR the information exists but contain inaccuracies related to the scope of application of the inquiry (date of collection, methods, etc);
• QR the information exists, but the institution does not make it available, or resists in supplying it, probably because it does not have experience in responding to this type of request by the public.
Since the report is based mainly on official statistical information, we found gaps in the following themes:
• Informal sector - no inquiry has been done in the scope of SEN, due to motives that have to do with the characteristics of enterprises and agents operating in this sector. The difficulties are linked to the conceptual framework (definitions and concepts of informal economy and informal economic activity), to the statistical approach (measures and estimations of the informal sector) and to the informal economy framework in Mozambique in the macro-economic context (Ardeni, 1997; Inroga, 1997).
• Civil society organizations - despite the existence of LINK, a forum organization for all NGO's operating in Mozambique, there is no assessment of its operation conditions (staff and resources) and its impact (resources/results).
This type of assessment has only been done for small projects.
• Access to resources (land and property in rural, urban zone, credit) - the registration of rural and urban properties (land and housing) is under the National Directorate of Geography and Cadaster (DINAGECA), which does not have compiled records, not even at provincila level. With regard to credit in the
informal sector it is given by small dimension institutions, operating all over the
country, and there is no national assessment.See further ahead (2n part of this report) the evaluation of the national situation in legal terms.
Finally, we would like to recommend that the aspects linked to accessibility of existing information are subject to discussion in adequate fora, establishing the basis of a public policy of dissemination of statistics.
2.2. The main sources of statistics of the report
As refered earlier, the main sources where information relevant to the report was collected from were census and inquiries conducted by INE, which gives credibility to the data, both due to the tradition of quality in the performance of the institution and because each publication has detailed explanations on the methodology used. An inquiry done by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MADER), related to the agricultural
campaingn 2001-2002, was also used.The sources used are presented as follows:
INE, 1999, 2" General Population and Housing Census, 1997. Definitive results.
The Census was done from 1-15 August, 1997 and according to the Law n° 12/97 of May 31, it had the objective of "establishing the statistical, quantitative and qualitative
knowledge, as exactly as possible, of the Mozambican population and of all the other residents present in national territory, and of their housing".The process of preparation of the Census consisted of the evaluation of the 1980 Census and the 1991 National Demographic Inquiry, in a process that brought together users and producers, who, jointly analysed concepts, definitions, context, themes, bulletins and results.
The Bulletin produced the following criteria of historic comparability (taking into account
previous census and demographic inquiries) and international comparability. The following
themes were included:
• Demographic characteristics (gender and age)
• Households
• Civil status
• Nationality
• Religion
• Somatic type
• Physical deficiencies
• Education
• Language
• Economic activity
INE, 1999, National Inquiry ofHouseholds Living Conditions (IAF) -1996-1997.
GENERAL TABLES.
This inquiry took place between February 1996 and April 1997 and aimed to contribute to the improvement of the standard of living of the population in the country through the availibility of information on the main demographic and socio-economic characteristics of Mozambican households. It covered 8.289 households residing in 182 blocks of provincial capitals, including the City of Maputo, and in 671 villages of the rest of the country.
The inquiry was conducted based on a auto-weighed, probabilistic, multi-staged sample, usually utilised in this type of inquiries.
INE, 1999, National Inquiry into Households Family Income (IAF) - 2002-2003. Final Report
IAF 2002-03 is a research conducted by sampling of households, which was designed to measure the level and structure of incomes, expenses and other socio-economic and demographic characteristics, aiming at obtaining various indicators of the living conditions of the population. To reach this objective, the inquiry collected data on demographics, education, health, employment, housing characteristics, poverty and victimization indicators.
The inquiry took place from July 2002 to June 2003. The size of the sample was of 8.727 households from all over the country, of whom 4.020 were from urban areas and 4.707 from rural areas.
INE, 1999, Annual Projections of the Population by Province and Residence Area, 1997-2010.
These projections were produced based on the 2nd general Population census done in 1997.
The proceedings utilised for the projection were: determination of a basis population for the total country by gender and age groups, and then estimating the demographic components, namely mortality, fecundity, internal (provincial and urban-rural) and external migration.
INE, 2001, Questionnaire ofBasic Indicators of Well-Being (QU1BB).
This inquiry was carried out between October 2000 and May 2001, after a pilot study with
a sample of 1.000 households, in the year 2000.The sample size, which served as basis for the inquiry, was of 14.500 households,
representing the national, provincial levels and the urban-rural residence areas. The selection of the sample was done based in the probabilistic method, using a stratified multi phase by conglomerates.Data was collected on:
• Demographic characteristics of the population;
• Health, Education, Employment, Economic Situation of the households;
• Access to basic Services, Housing, Impact of Floods and Mother-Infant Health.
INE/MADER, 2002, Agro-Cattle Rearing Census 1999-2000.- Maputo.
The collection of data of the Agro-Cattle Rearing Census 1999-2000 (CAP), was done from September 2000 to March 2001, by the National Statistics Institute (INE) in partnership with the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MADER). The
operation was drafted to cover all the large agro-cattle rearing operations, as well as 0.7%of small and 7.5% of medium operations, and the rate of coverage of planned households
was 94%.
The sample of small and medium operations was drafted to be representative at national and provincial levels. The data now presented were extrapolated, representing the provincial and national spheres, corrected for non responses, errors and ommissions. The
national data exclude the Cities of Maputo, Matola, Beira and Nampula.With regards to the large operations, the inquiry planned to cover all of the ones existing in the country. In total, 21 146 small, 1 885 medium and 429 large operations were surveyed in the whole country.
The data on agriculture are related to the agricultural campaingn 2000/2001 and the cattle rearing data to the 2000 calendar year.
2.3. Precautions in the analysis of information
All the information not produced under the scope of SEN should deserve a more careful treatment. The reasons for this procedure are linked to concepts, methodologies used in the collection and processing of information, which may not have a representative character.
A second precaution, mainly for the users who work based on national averages, is the need to consider the great differences between the rural and urban, on one side, and the
regional differences at national level, on the other side. The south zone (provinces of
Maputo City, Maputo province, Gaza and Inhambane), just to mention a few examples, presents higher indices of literacy, of access to school and health services. The results in these provinces influence positively the national averages, falsifying somehow the living reality in the center and north of the country. The same way, the inequalities between men and women are less evident in the cities and in the southern provinces. The following are two examples:Table A: Illiteracy rates, according to gender, by residencial area, Mozambique, 1997
Residencial area
Urban Rural Total
Illiteracy rates Women
46.2 85.1 74.1
Men 19.4 56.4 44.6
Total 33.0 72.2 60.5
Source: Census 97
Table B: Life expectancy at birth, by province, Mozambique, 1980 and 1997 Province
Niassa
Cabo Delgado Nampula Zambezia Tete Manica Sofala Inhambane Gaza Maputo Maputo City Total
1980 35.3 36.0 36.7 34.4 35.1 37.5 35.6 44.1 45.2 49.2 52.4 38.7
1997
42.2 39.4 39.9 37.0 43.8 44.0 42.2 47.3 46.8 51.5 58.3 42.3 Source: Census 97
Although these examples are for two concrete examples in the area of education and health, they reveal the differences and inequalities present in the country: North/Centre, Rural/Urban, Men/Women. This situation demands development strategies based on the real situation of the target-group/region to be covered.
3. Components of the Gender Statute Index
The statistical information, in this report, is organized in three blocks which seek to reflect the different capacities, possibilities and opportunities of men and women, considering the
social, political and economic domains. It is intended to emphasize the gender differences,
which are shapped, among others, by factors such as education, health, access to resourcesand levels of decision. It is more than just providing evidence of the degree of
"integration" of women, to show how their participation is done in conditions of
subordination to a patriarchal system. In other words, the gender relations are treated as power relations, power that is constantly negotiated, which limits the possibilities of each one to participate in the society, make decisions on their own lifes and guarantees the
reproduction of subordination.3.1. Social Power: "Capacities"
3.1.1. EDUCATION
In 1995, the Ministry of Education (MINED) produced the National Education Policy and Implementation Strategies (Government Programme for 1995/1999), where it defined as
priority "the promotion of greater feminine participation in the various types and levels of
education through mechanisms of curriculum and material incentives" (General SecondaryEducation, Technical and Professional Education and Higher Education). This policy had as objectives:
• Reduction of gender differences in the access to school;
• Creation of a healthy gender environment;
• Sensitization of society for the reduction of the domestic work load which weighs on the girls, creation of alternative systems to care for the education of girls and increase in the number of female teachers.
The balance in school participation by boys and girls is also present in the objectives of the General Secondary Education, Technical and Professional Education and in Higher Education plans. Non-Formal Education has as targets the youth, adults, women and girls.
The first Strategic Plan of Education (PEE) was produced in 1998 for the period 1999- 2003. PEE seeks to assume and integrate a gender approach, in the previous policies of the sector. In 1998 MINED created the Gender Unit which monitors the implementation process of strategic actions which aim to promote the access, retention and improvement of the school performance of girls in particular, in the different areas of education.
Meanwhile, since 1994 the Project for the Education of Girls was operated, financed by UNICEF, with the objective of increasing the access, equality and retention of girls in the first level of primary school and improving the quality of Basic Education of girls from grades 1 to 7 (see ahead "Policy on Quitting of School by Girls").
Indicators of the situation in education chosen were gross rates of schooling, dropout rates, the literate population and the population who completed primary education. The information was collected mainly through the results of the 1997 Census and the National Education System (Department of Statistic Planning). However, significant differences can be noted in the year 1997, when data from two sources were observed. This situation can be explained by the coverage in data collection.
The information of the 1997 census presents gross and net rates of schooling. The first is calculated by dividing the total number of students of a determined level of education (independently of the age) by the population of the age group corresponding to the official age for the refered level. To calculate the second rate, divide the total number of students whose age coincides with the official age for the level, by the population of the age group corresponding to that level. The data are disagregated into urban and rural zones, which is useful to identify the regional differences.
The data collected through the National Education System, used the same criteria, although favouring the utilization of gross rates of schooling. It was however intended to obtain absolute data which allow the visualization of the situation as a whole (See Annex A - Table Al: Synthesis of the Information in Absolute Numbers).
It is important to note that in Mozambique, primary education comprises grades 1 to 5, i.e., one more year than the model in use in other African countries. Thus, the age groups considered are:
• 6 to 12 years for primary education;
• 13 to 17 years for secondary education;
• 18 and more years for higher education.
Because of the different age groups, this classification creates difficulties for comparison with other countries.
Enrollment in Primary Education
We tried to first present a Table which shows the temporal evolution of gross rates of schooling, followed by more detailed information refering to 1997.
Table 1: Gross Rates of Schooling in Primary Education, by year, by
Population Female Male
gender, Mozambique, 1997-2001 1997
51.7 72.6
1998 54.5 75.1
1999 58.7 79.3
2000 64.1 85.0
2001 71.0 92.2 Source: MINED, 2002
The Gross rate of Schooling of a determined level of education, is the ratio between the total number of students of that level and the population with the age officially defined to attend it. In this case, the gross rate of schooling of Primary Education was calculated from the population 6-12 years old.
The results show the growth of gross rates of schooling during the observed years, with very regular growing indices. However, significant reductions in the gender differences are not observed.
Table 2: Rates of Schooling in primary Education, by gender and by residential area, Mozambique, 1997 Level of
Education and Residential Area Total - Primary Education Urban - Primary Education Rural - Primary Education
Rates of Schooling (per 100 people) Gross
Total 66.8
105.4 50.5
Men 75.7 113.4 60.3
Women 57.7 97.5 40.2
Net Total
39.9 62.8 30.2
Men 42.9 64.7 33.9
Women 36.8 60.9 26.3 Source: Census 97
With regard to the situation in urban and rural zones, the numbers show more enrollments in the cities, compared to the country side, which reveals the existence of a larger number of schools and teachers in the former. At the same time, the differences in enrollment between boys and girls, although present in the cities, is more evident in the rural zones.
Analysing the data by gender, the rate of schooling is higher for men (75.7 against 57,7 in the case of gross rate for primary education and 42.9 against 36.8 in the case of the net rate).
Enrollment in Secondary Education
As we presented for primary education, we start by showing the temporal evolution of the gross rates of schooling and greater detail for the year 1997.
Table 3: Gross Rates of Schooling in Secondary Education, by year, by gender, Mozambique, 1997-2001
Population Female Male
1997 2.6 3.7
1998 3.4 4.7
1999 3.7 5.2
2000 4.4 6.3
2001 5.0 7.2 Source: MINED, 2002
For Secondary Education, in Table 3, we find the same situation already identified for Primary Education, which is the regular growth of gross rates of schooling. Again, we
found the persisting inequalty between the number of boys and girls enrolled.Table 4: Rates of Schooling in secondary education, by gender and by residential area, Mozambique, 1997 Level of
Education and
Residential
area
Total - Secondary Education Urban - Secondary Education Rural - Secondary Education
Rates of schooling (per 100 people) Gross
Total
6.9
17.2
1.3
Men
8.2
19.5
2.0
Women
5.6
14.9
0.6
Net
Total
2.2
5.4
0.4
Men
2.4
5.7
0.6
Women
2.0
5.2
0.2
Source: Census 97
In Secondary Education, there is a substantial reduction of the rate of schooling. In the case of the gross rate, this falls from 66.8% to 6.9% and in the case of the liquid rate, from
39.9% to 2.2%. This means that the majority of the individuals remain in the Primary Education, and do not continue with their studies. With regard to the residential area, in
urban zones, the rates of schooling are higher than the ones in the rural zones. The rates of schooling corrsponding to secondary education are extremely low in the rural areas: 1.3%the gross rate and 0.4% the liquid rate.
Enrollment in Higher Education
The information available on higher education since 1998 was collected through the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology (MESCT). The system of information collection was based on reports sent by the respective public and private institutions which, up to the year 2000, when MESCT was created, were very irregular.
Table 5: Number of enrollments in Higher Education in public and private institutions, by year, by gender, Mozambique, 1997-2001 Population
Female Male
1998/1999 Public (*)
2 023 6 067
1999/2000 Public(*)
1 343 7 230
2000/01 Public(*)
2 482 7 050
2001/2002 Public (*)
2 601 6 618
Private(**) 2 006 2 247 Source: MESCT, 2003
(*) Considers only the two major public universities, UEM and UP.
(**) Considers 5 higher education private institutions, namely, ISCTEM, ISPU, UCM, ISUTC, UMBB
UEM (University Eduardo Mondlane) and UP (Pedagogic University) are public institutions, operating in the cities of Maputo and Beira. UEM also has a course on tourism and hotels in the City oHnhambane. The private institutions of higher education mentioned above, namely, ISCTEM (Higher Institute of Sciences and Technology of Mozambique), ISPU (Higher Institute Politechnic Universitary), UCM (Catholic University of Mozambique) and ISUTC (Higher Institute of Transports and Communications), operate in the cities of Maputo, Beira, Quelimane and Nampula. These institutions do not just offer technical trainning, but also have courses in the areas of Medicine, Psycology, sociology, Management, Law and Engeneering.
Table 5 shows that proportionaly women are in lower numbers than men and this difference was maintained during the period 1998-2001. In the private institutions of higher education there is more balance.
The following table, refering to 1997, shows the ratio of students who attend higher education in relation to the population as a whole:
Table 6: Rates of schooling in higher education, by gender and by residential area, Mozambique, 1997
Level of education and residential
area
Total- Higher education Urban - higher education Rural - Higher education
Rates of schooling (per 100 people) Gross
Total
0.3
1.0
0.0
Men
0.5
1.5
0.0
Women
0.2
0.6
0.0
Net
Total
0.1
0.4
0.0
Men
0.2
0.5
0.0
Women
0.1
0.2
0.0
Source: Census 97
The gross and liquid rates of schooling reveal that only a small percentage of the population enrols in higher education, and it is concentrated in urban areas. In rural areas, up to 2003, there were no public or private university institutions.
Dropout rates in primary and secondary education
Besides the gross rates of enrollment, the dropout rates are an important indicator to evaluate the interference of social, cultural and economic factors on presence in school, namely, the importance given to the school, depending on if it is a girl or a boy. Work done with families and people responsible for children's education (Palmer, 1992; Zucula, 1994;
Walker, 1996), showed how the school is the first priority for boys, the situation of poverty, the distance between school and home and the lack of confidence/trust in the school's
operation, affect the decision of enrolling and maintain girls in school.Despite the priorities defined by the sector and of the "Project for the Girls Education",
mentioned above, MINED has responsibilities in the failure to increase the number of girls in
school, namely related to:
• Systematic impunity of teachers and other staff who rape and sexually abuse female students, some of them younger than 12 years old - this situation has been denounced , but no internal measures have been taken, and the most used procedure is to transfer the attacker to another school. Even when a girl younger than 12 years old is raped, which the penal law in force considers as public crime, no criminal procedure is applied.
• Penalization of pregnant adolescents, even when proved that the pregnancy is
the result of rape by a teacher - often it is denounced the practice of compulsive transfer of primary and secondary education girls who get pregnant, to the night school. However, up to the end of 2003, there was no legal support for this measure, which could be contested. This situation was normalized, through theResolution n° 39/GM/2003, of the Minister of Education, which justifies the
decision for the need to guarantee "a high moral, civic and patriotic education, which constitutes the support for the objectives followed by the National Education System".Tables 7 e 8 show the dropout rates in primary education, at national level and by province:
Table 7: Rates of school dropouts in primary education, gender, Mozambique, 1997-2001 Population
Female Male Total
1997 8.2 9.2 8.8
1998 8.1 8.5 8.3
1999
7.7 8.1 7.92000 6.8 7.1 6.9
by year, by
2001 6.9 7.3 7.1 Source: MINED, 2002
See the bulletin Outras Vozes, n°s 5 (2003) and 7 (2004).
The following table considers the two levels of primary education (EPl and EP2), which in previous tables in this section are presented jointly. The EP2 corresponds to the most advanced phase of primary education, where the age of the students is also higher.
Table 8:
Province Country Miassa Cabo Delgado Nampula Zambezia Tete Manica Sofala [nhambane Gaza Maputo Province Maputo City
Rates of school dropouts in primary education (EPl and EP2), by year, gender and by province, Mozambique, 2000-2001
2000 EPl
Women 6.7 10.9
10.5 4.1 11.1 10.1 6.2 5.1 4.3 5.4
3.5 1.1
Men 7.2 10.3
9.6 5.3 11.3 9.5 6.4 6.2 5.0 6.0
3.5 1.7
Total 7.0 10.5
10.0 4.8 11.2
9.7 6.3 5.8 4.7 5.7
3.5 1.4
EP2 Women
7.5 7.8
12.2 7.6 13.6 9.5 9.2 9.7 5.4 3.4
7.8 6.0
Men 5.4 6.9
5.5 4.6 9.7 10.1 4.9 3.9 3.7 4.4
7.9 0.5
Total 6.2 7.2
7.6 5.5 10.8 9.9 6.4 6.1 4.4 3.9
7.8 3.3
by
2001 EPl
Women 6.7 9.0
9.1 5.7 11.0 8.3 6.5 6.4 4.8 4.9
2.9 1.8
Men 7.3 9.4
9.4 6.2 10.9
8.3 6.8 7.1 5.3 5.2
3.8 7.3
Total 7.1 9.2
9.3 6.0 11.0
8.3 6.7 6.8 5.1 5.1
3.3 1.9
EP2 Women
6.2 17.5
7.0 7.0 7.4 9.0 8.1 5.7 6.1
6.1 3.5
Men 5.1 4.9
4.2 5.3 6.7 6.1 5.6 5.9 5.0 5.4
4.8 2.6
Total 5.5 8.7
2.6 5.7 6.8 6.5 6.7 6.7 5.3 5.8
5.5 3.0 Source: INE, 2003, Mulheres e homens em Mozambique
It is interesting to note that the national averages of the dropout rates in primary education (EPl + EP2) do not show significant differences between boys and girls (Table 7), whereas by province (Table 8) there are great differences, mainly at EP2 level. Except for the provinces of Niassa, Gaza and Maputo, the other provinces reveal that the older the students, the higher the quitting rates of the girls.
It is also important to note that in the provinces of Zambezia, Cabo Delgado and Tete, the quitting rates are much higher in relation to the national average.
In relation to secondary education the situation is as follows:
Table 9: Rates of school dropouts in secondary education, by year, by gender, Mozambique, 1997-2001
Population Female Male Total
1997 4.5
1.0 2.4
1998 3.5 3.1 3.2
1999
4.4 2.7 3.4
2000 3.3 0.9 1.9
2001
8.9 5.3 6.8
Source: MINED, 2002
Table 9 shows relevant differences in the quitting rates of girls and boys at national level.
Unfortunately there are no data available to evaluate the situation by province.
Literate population who has completed the primary education
During the 1990s, literacy was a priority of the Government, the biggest investment in education was concentrated at formal education level, prioritizing the primary levels (EP1 and EP2) and the technical education. Literacy was an activity mainly developed by NGO's, so it did not have a systematic character and did not cover the whole country. In 2002, however, the National Literacy Directorate was created, it centralized all activities and resulted in stimulation of this area, leading to a consequent decrease of the iliterate population.
Table 10: Literate population, by year, by gender, Mozambique, 1997 and 2000-2001
Population
Female
Total of female population 15 years old and older
Male
Total of male population 15 years old and older
1997 N°s
1 085 910 4 788 785
2 055 659 4 091 056
% 22.7
50.2
2000/2001r'
% 28.7
59.7
Source: Censo 97; QUIBB, 2000-2001
n The data from 2001 were taken from QUIBB 2000-2001, which presents results only in
percentages.
Both in the Census 1997 and in the QUIBB 2000-2001, "all people with age equal or higher than 15 years old without the ability to read and write, not only in Portuguese but in any language were considered iliterate".
The results show, for the two years observed (1997 and 2000/2001), a great difference between men and women, in the population older than 15 years old, as a whole. This difference is much higher than previously observed in relation to gross rates of enrollment in primary and secondary education.
With regards to the population older than 15 years old who completed the primary education, data indicate that the percentage is very low for both men and women:
Table 11: Population 15 years of age and older who completed primary education, by year, by gender, Mozambique, 1997 and 2000-2001 Population
Female
Total of female population 15 years and older
Male
Total of male population 15 years and older
1997 N°s
162 230 4 788 785
315 171 4 091 056
% 3.4
7.7
200072001(*>
% 5.4
10.8
Source: Census 97; QUIBB, 2000- 2001
(*3 The data from 2001 were taken from QUIBB 2000-2001, which presents results only in
percentages.
The percentage of male population who completed primary education is higher than the female population, and this ratio is observed both in 1997 and in 2000/2001.
The results of various studies carried out for the Project on Girl's Education (Mapinguissa, 1998; Ministerio da Educacao, 1999), on the constraints which are the origins of this situation, justify this difference, among other aspects, by the following:
• Low value placed on girl's education,
• The girl's domestic work load,
• The expectations of local societies in relation to the school,
• The lack of teachers as "role models",
• The distance between school and residence and the lack of places in EP2 schools.
• The situation of family poverty,
• The practices of sexual and physical abuse by teachers in relation to female students.
3.1.2. HEALTH
In the Government's Platform of Action Project (1995), the responsibility of the health sector was defined as the intervention in the domain of poverty alleviation and in the specific field of health. In relation to the protection of family health, especially of women and children, the following were prioritized: Programmes of Maternal-Infant Health and Vaccination, Nutrition (including distribution of micronutrients), School health, education, information and communication for health, medical assistance to women with risk of abortion or abortion and the sexual education for the prevention of pregnancy and its consequences. In the health policy, the attention given to women is justified by the acceptance that their role in the family highly contributes to the state of the health of family members.
In the Government Programme for 2000/2004 there is mention of combating HIV/AIDS, which is integrated in a strategy for the reduction of absolute poverty levels and "to combat transmissible and endemic diseases". Recommendations are made to the social public sectors, for the introduction of "strategies of prevention and combat against STD/HIV/AIDS, in the Framework of the national Strategic Plan to combat these diseases".
The health sector is the only area of the Government Programme for this period, which identifies specific measures to adopt on HIV/AIDS. The community education, the improvement of public health care in the prevention of the disease, building for the
"education on STD/AIDS in the working place" and the need to "defend the rights of women affected by the AIDS pandemic" are the main actions to be developed by the health sector.
In this report were considered the nutritional situation, the life expectancy at birth and the number of new HIV infections.
The information on health is available in the main inquiries produced at national level, such as the 1997 Censo or the QUIBB 2000-2001, but the most important is the Demographic and Health Inquiry (IDS), done also in 1997 by INE. A second IDS was done last year, in 2003, and the data are currently being processed. For the indicators considered in this report, however, the sources used were the 1997 Censo and the QUIBB 2000-2001, for three reasons: the 1997 censo was done in the same year as the IDS, has a higher a coverage rate and the data are more trustworthy/accurate; the QUIBB, because it covers the years 2000-2001, not covered by the IDS; and finally because the IDS indicators
are different from the ones requested in this report.Besides the inquiries, the information is currently collected through the Health Information System (SIS) which, similarly to the system operating at the Ministry of Education,
collects base data which are processed at locality, district and province level. In this case, the health centers must periodically fill in forms which are sent to a superior level. Despite the great investment in this area, the data produced by SIS still has many gaps and are not consistent. This situation is due, firstly, the model of the form which sometimes does not request for gender disagregated information and does not cover all the indicators, forexample, it does not consider the causes of death by disease. Secondly, the collection of forms in the health centres is not systematic, leading to doubts in relation to the size of the
sample.
For this reason, it was opted to use only the data from the inquiries, and that is why there is no available information for the whole of the foreseen period (1990-2003).
Nutritional situation
The following two tables deal with children's nutritional situation, considered an important indicator of the health state of the population and to evaluate poverty. Two indexes are taken into consideration, according to the QUIBB 2000-2001:
• Height by Age (A/I) - "indicator that reflects a past malnutrition situation.
Indicates that the child has a small height for its age and, thus, is cronically undernourished. So, the index A/I measures the effects of prolongued undernourishment".
• Weight by Age (P/I) - "gives indications of weight in relation to age, showing if the child has insufficient weight or not. It is an useful indicator to monitor clinical interventions in cases of malnutrition and in the nutritional rehabilitation".
Table 12: Number of children less than 3 years of age whose beight for the age is 2 standard deviations of the average, by gender,
Mozambique, 2000/2001 Gender
Female Male Total
Number 434 284 455 861 890 145
Percentage 48.8 51.2 100.0
