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Building evacuation and other fire-safety measures: some research
results and their application to building design, operation, and
regulation
Pauls, J. L.
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BUILDING EVACUATION AND OTHER FIRE-SAFETY MEASURES: SOME RESEARCH KESULTS AND THEIR APPLICATION T O
BUILDING DESIGN, OPERATION, AND REGULATION
J. L. P a u l s
Building Use Section Division of Building R e s e a r c h National Re s e a r c h Council of C a n a d a
The h a z a r d t o life safety f r o m f i r e in h i g h - r i s e buildings h a s been widely publicized. In Canada, s e v e r a l a s p e c t s of t h e p r o b l e m have been studied and r e s u l t s applied t o building d e s i g n , operation, and regulations. One a s p e c t , that of human behavior i n f i r e e m e r g e n c i e s , i s u n d e r study a t t h e Division of Building R e s e a r c h w h e r e d e t a i l e d o b s e r v a t i o n s of 40 evacuation e x e r c i s e s in h i g h - r i s e office buildings have been m a d e . Observation techniques have been d e v e l o p - e d and the u s e f u l n e s s of q u e s t i o n n a i r e s h a s been tested. P r e - l i m i n a r y information d e s c r i b e s t h e n a t u r e of evacuation
m o v e m e n t on exit s t a i r w a y s , behavior in f i r e e m e r g e n c i e s , and t h e u s e of e x i t s t a i r w a y s i n t h e n o r m a l building occu- pancy. Some r e s u l t s suggest the need f o r specific c h a n g e s in building code r e q u i r e m e n t s and other d e s i g n and o p e r a - t i o n a l conside r a t i o n s .
During t h e l a s t five y e a r s the p r o b l e m of life s a f e t y f o r occupants of h i g h - r i s e buildings u n d e r f i r e conditions h a s r e c e i v e d a g r e a t deal of attention, both in new safety regulations and in t h e popular a n d techni- c a l l i t e r a t u r e . Key e l e m e n t s include the difficulties of controlling smoke m o v e m e n t and of moving endangered occupants t o a r e a s of safety (Hutcheon and S h o r t e r , 1968; Wilson and S h o r t e r , 1970; National F i r e P r o t e c t i o n Association, 1972).
Contr 01 of smoke m o v e m e n t in h i g h - r i s e buildings i s r e l a t i v e l y manage
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able b e c a u s e t h e r e e x i s t s a f a i r l y good t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s f o r devising c o n t r o l s y s t e m s , and b e c a u s e the p r a c t i c a l implementation of such smoke s y s t e m s i s within the a r e a of competence of engineering consultants ( T a m u r a and M c G u i r e , 1971; ASHRAE, 1973; A s s o c i a t e C o m m i t t e e on the National Building Code, 1973). G r e a t e r difficulties a r e posed148 field applications
by occupant movement t o a r e a s of s a f e t y o r by g e n e r a l behavior in a f i r e situation. Neither the t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s f o r predicting human b e h a v i o r n o r the m e a n s of controlling i t i s available t o any g r e a t extent. This p a p e r will d e s c r i b e c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h focused on evacuation movement f r o m h i g h - r i s e office buildings but touching other a s p e c t s of the life s a f e t y p r o b l e m in buildings. P r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s a r e r e p o r t e d and a
d e s c r i p t i o n given of t h e i r potential a s w e l l a s a c t u a l application t o building design, m a n a g e m e n t , and r e g u l a t i o n s in Canada.
The Canadian context f o r r e s e a r c h and application of r e s u l t s r e l a t i n g t o building f i r e safety i s somewhat unusual and w a r r a n t s a brief de-
scription. T h e r e e x i s t s a fortunate r e l a t i o n between t h e Division of Building R e s e a r c h of the National R e s e a r c h Council and the c o m m i t t e e s t h a t p r e p a r e the model codes known a s t h e National Building Code of Canada and t h e National F i r e Code of Canada. The National Building Code has a l r e a d y been widely adopted throughout Canada and i t s u s e is: i n c r e a s i n g on a provincial b a s i s s o t h a t uniformity a c r o s s the country i s p r o g r e s s i n g rapidly. One a s p e c t of t h i s c l o s e relation b e - tween r e s e a r c h and codes p r e p a r a t i o n i s t h a t r e s e a r c h o f f i c e r s f r o m t h e Division of Building R e s e a r c h a r e t e c h n i c a l a d v i s e r s t o code c o m - m i t t e e s composed of individuals drawn f r o m a l l s e c t o r s of the building industry. This f a c i l i t a t e s a two-way exchange s o that up-to-date information i s m a d e available t o c o m m i t t e e s and new a r e a s f o r r e - s e a r c h a r e identified. T h i s exchange h a s been p a r t i c u l a r l y significant f o r the Division" Building Use Section, which h a s a m a j o r goal of developing information on t h e human r e q u i r e m e n t s in buildings, p a r
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t i c u l a r l y r e q u i r e m e n t s r e l a t i n g t o safety. The r e s e a r c h staff of the Building Use Section a r e i n c l o s e contact with o t h e r r e s e a r c h s e c t i o n s of t h e Division responsible f o r much of t h e p r e s e n t technology r e g a r d - ing smoke c o n t r o l in h i g h - r i s e buildings. T h i s h a s had a m a j o r i n - fluence in r e c e n t r e v i s i o n s of the National Building Code of Canada (Associate C o m m i t t e e on the National Building Code, 1970, 1973; Hebert, 1973). Such close contact i s m o s t d e s i r a b l e i n view of t h e growing opinion that' implementation of solutions t o the h i g h - r i s e f i r e p r o b l e m will involve manipulation of physical f o r m and f o r c e s and will r e q u i r e , m o r e o v e r , judicious human behavior before and during f i r e e m e r g e n c i e s (Schaffner, 197 3).It should be noted that t h i s Canadian r e s e a r c h i s not d e t e r m i n e d by o r applied t o building and f i r e regulations alone. The Division often a s s i s t s d e s i g n e r s and o t h e r s with p a r t i c u l a r problems not covered by existing p r o f e s s i o n a l d e s i g n e x p e r t i s e . The m o s t favoured m e c h - a n i s m f o r applying r e s e a r c h i s through education r i t h e r than i m p o s i - tion of regulations. G r e a t e r e x p e r t i s e on t h e p a r t of building o w n e r s ,
fie1 d applications 149
d e s i g n e r s , consultants and o t h e r s concerned with building is actively promoted by t h e Division of Building R e s e a r c h through an extensive publications p r o g r a m a s well a s through m o r e d i r e c t contact with the public in s e m i n a r / w o r k s h o p s and m e e t i n g s . T h e study, which i s d e s c r i b e d below in p r e l i m i n a r y f o r m , i s taking place within t h i s con- t e x t of r e s e a r c h and application.
STUDY DESCRIPTION
The author's study began in 1968 with a s u r v e y of potentially relevant l i t e r a t u r e . The amount of potentially r e l e v a n t l i t e r a t u r e has grown not only a s new knowledge h a s been published but a l s o a s the problem of human r e s p o n s e t o f i r e a t both t h e individual and the s o c i a l level h a s been redefined in a m o r e comprehensive m a n n e r . P e r t i n e n t lit- e r a t u r e m a y be considered t o f a l l into s e v e r a l broad a r e a s . ,
The m o s t obvious, t h a t of r e p o r t s of human behavior i n f i r e incidents, i s e x t r e m e l y limited if the m a n y j o u r n a l i s t i c accounts and p o o r l y - r e s e a r c h e d r e p o r t s of p a r t i c u l a r f i r e s a r e not included. S u c h r e p o r t s of f i r e incidents too often d e s c r i b e human behavior in a stereotyped rrianner based m o r e on preconception than f a c t . On the o t h e r hand,
one r e c e n t study b a s e d on q u e s t i o n n a i r e s a d m i n i s t e r e d by f i r e d e p a r t - m e n t p e r s o n n e l a t the scene of n e a r l y 1000 f i r e s in G r e a t B r i t a i n a p p e a r s t o be v e r y useful (Wood, 1972).
D i s a s t e r r e s e a r c h i s relatively w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d and many publica- t i o n s date back n e a r l y 20 y e a r s . Studies of human behavior in l a r g e -
s c a l e d i s a s t e r s , u s u a l l y n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s , have not advanced f a r beyond t h e d e s c r i p t i v e stage. Hypotheses r e g a r d i n g behavior during v a r i o u s s t a g e s of l a r g e s c a l e d i s a s t e r have been proposed a n d some might be applicable t o the s m a l l e r - s c a l e and s h o r t e r - d u r a t i o n e m e r - gencie s in building f i r e s . Resulting f r o m the m u l t i - d i s c i p l i n a r y w o r k of sociologists, psychologists, anthropologists, g e o g r a p h e r s , and o t h e r s , t h e s e hypotheses d e a l with such f a c t o r s a s effect of warning, p r i o r e x p o s u r e t o h a z a r d , comm\rrnication, decision-making, l e a d e r ship, and s o c i a l organization. The t e s t i n g of t h e s e hypotheses, even in l a r g e - s c a l e d i s a s t e r s , h a s not advanced v e r y f a r . Similar hypothesis f o r m a t i o n , hypothesis testing, and t h e o r y building in r e
-
lation t o building f i r e s i s needed if technology i s t o r e p l a c e unorganized e x p e r i e n c e a s the m a i n b a s i s f o r building and f i r e regulations. Nu- m e r o u s r e p o r t s of t h e National Academy of S c i e n c e s-
National Re-s e a r c h Council (U. S.), D i s a s t e r R e s e a r c h Group, of s o m e two decades ago, have been published and t h e r e i s a v e r y u s e f u l book b a s e d l a r g e i y on t h e C o m m i t t e e ' s work ( D i s a s t e r R e s e a r c h Group, 1961, Baker aid
150 field applications
Chapman, 1962). Recently, d i s a s t e r s t u d i e s have been coordinated by the N a t u r a l H a a a r d s R e s e a r c h Group b a s e d a t the University of Colorado.
S m a l l e r s c a l e stu3.ies of human behavior under simulated e m e r - gency conditions, examining phenomena s u c h a s panic and d e c i s i o n - making under conditions of s t r e s s and u n c e r t a i n t y , a r e r e p o r t e d in
sociological and psychological journals. No attempt h a s been m a d e by DBR/NRC t o s u r v e y t h i s a r e a , p a r t l y b e c a u s e of the questionable v a l i - dity of applying r e s u l t s f rorn l a b o r a t o r y conditions a n d student s u b j e c t s t o a c t u a l f i r e behavior (Wood, 1972).
Although not yet r e p r e s e n t e d t o any g r e a t extent in t h e l i t e r a t u r e , t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r of f i r e s a f e t y s t u d i e s a p p a r e n t l y being conducted a t U.S. u n i v e r s i t i e s . T h e s e include the C e n t e r f o r A r c h i t e c t u r a l R e s e a r c h a t R e n s s e l a e r Polytechnic Institute, the School of A r c h i t e c t u r e a t the State University of New York, Buffalo, t h e C e n t e r f o r Urban E n v i r o n - m e n t a l Studies a t the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, the F i r e P r o
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tection C u r r i c u l u m a t t h e University of M a r y l a n d , and the Graduate School a t the University of C a l i f o r n i a . In addition, a widely -publicized s y s t e m s a p p r o a c h t o f i r e safety i n buildings i s under way in theG e n e r a l S e r v i c e s Administration, Washington ( G e n e r a l S e r v i c e s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , 197 1).
The l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t i n g specifically t o h u m a n movement in and a r o u n d buildings s t e m s l a r g e l y f r o m studies with a t r a f f i c engineering o r i e n t a - tion. A d e t a i l e d examination of the available l i t e r a t u r e suggests t h a t m a n y building codes have e x i t s t a i r w a y r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a t a r e p a r t l y bas-.d on p o o r l y - i n t e r p r e t e d t e s t s i t u a t i o n s , inadequate o b s e r v a t i o n s , and i n a p p r o p r i a t e extrapolations.
The l i t e r a t u r e about m o v e m e n t on s t a i r w a y s , which h a s had the g r e a t e s t influence on building code r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r m e a n s of e g r e s s , i s t o o heavily dependent on o b s e r v a t i o n of m o v e m e n t in non-evacuation c o n - t e x t s s u c h a s i n subway and railway s t a t i o n s (National Bureau of S t a n d a r d s , 1935; London T r a n s p o r t B o a r d , 1958; G a l b r e a t h , 1969; Stevens, 1969).
Evacuation O b s e r v a t i o n s
Some five y e a r s ago t h e r e a p p e a r e d t o be a definite need of
s t u d i e s of what actually happens when building occupants a r e s u b j e c t e d t o a c t u a l f i r e e m e r g e n c i e s , o r even to s i m u l a t e d e m e r g e n c i e s in which
s o m e of t h e i r behavior will be s i m i l a r t o t h e i r e x p e c t e d behavior i n r e a l f i r e e m e r g e n c i e s .
field applications 151
In 1969 o b s e r v a t i o n s w e r e conducted i n the t e s t evacuation of Vancouver's 2 2 - s t o r e y B.C. Hydro Office building. A r e p o r t describing observations by a t e a m of o b s e r v e r s , including a n a n a l y s i s of evacuation movement down e x i t s t a i r w a y s , w a s subsequently p r e p a r e d ( P a u l s , 1971). T h i s r e p o r t d e s c r i b e s o b s e r v a t i o n techniques and r e s u l t s not p r e v i o u s l y r e - ported i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e . It led t o a n invitation by C a n a d a ' s Dominion F i r e C o m m i s s i o n e r t o conduct o b s e r v a t i o n s of a v a r i e t y of evacuation e x e r c i s e s i n F e d e r a l Government-occupied buildings i n Ottawa. Between 1970 and 1972, n e a r l y 40 t e s t evacuations involving about
20,000 e v a c u e e s w e r e o b s e r v e d i n office buildings ranging between 8 and 29 s t o r e y s i n height. The chief goal i n t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s w a s t o c o l l e c t d a t a d e s c r i b i n g the n a t u r e of evacuation m o v e m e n t , a n y i n - f l u e n c e s on s u c h m o v e m e n t and o t h e r r e l e v a n t behavior of individuals and g r o u p s , including t h o s e having s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . L a r g e - s c a l e d a t a collection w a s often n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e v a r i a b l e s w e r e n u m e r o u s and could not be c o n t r o l l e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y .
O b s e r v a t i o n techniques included equipping between 2 and 15 o b s e r v e r s with p o r t a b l e c a s s e t t e r e c o r d e r s t o r e g i s t e r a l l o b s e r v a t i o n s and background sounds. T h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s plus t a p e r e c o r d i n g s of any c o m m u n i c a t i o n s s y s t e m s u s e d i n t h e e v a c u a t i o n s , supplemented by v i s u a l r e c o r d s p r o v i d e d by slide photography and video t a p e r e c o r d - ing, could a l l be played back i n t h e c o r r e c t t i m e - s c a l e . In e f f e c t , t h e evacuation could be r e - r u n f o r p u r p o s e s of d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s . F o r e x a m p l e , i n one 2 1 - s t o r e y office building n e a r l y 20 c h a n n e l s of audio r e c o r d i n g s w e r e m a d e a t both fixed and moving o b s e r v a t i o n positions throughout t h e 30-minute p e r i o d of a p h a s e d t o t a l evacuation e x e r c i s e involving o v e r 2000 people. O b s e r v e r s moving with evacuees f r o m f l o o r a r e a s t o t h e building e x t e r i o r w e r e a b l e t o r e c o r d d a t a f o r a wide v a r i e t y of b e h a v i o r a l v a r i a b l e s , often without the knowledge of e v a c u e e s only a few f e e t away.
Ln t e r m s of the m e t h o d s u s e d and t h e quantity a n d quality of d a t a , t h e s e evacuation o b s e r v a t i o n s a p p e a r t o have no p r e c e d e n t in the l i t e r a t u r e .
Lf
f u r t h e r w o r k of t h i s n a t u r e i s t o be c a r r i e d o u t , some of t h e tech-niques being developed i n o t h e r s t u d i e s of the m a n - e n v i r o n m e n t i n t e r - a c t i o n should p r o v e v e r y u s e f u l ( D a v i s and A y e r s , 1973).
immediately following two evacuation e x e r c i s e s i n office buildings q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w e r e given t o about 10 p e r c e n t of e a c h building's pop- ulation. T h e r e w a s n e a r l y a 90 p e r cent m a i l r e t u r n r a t e . R e s u l t s
s u g g e s t e d t h a t s o m e e v a c u e e s i n t e r p r e t e d t h e s e s u r p r i s e t e s t evacua- t i o n s a s genuine e m e r g e n c i e s . O t h e r r e s u l t s , r e p o r t e d below,
152 f i e 1 d a p p l i c a t i o n s
suggest that s u c h q u e s t i o n n a i r e s provide useful data.
It i s noteworthy that s o m e of the observation techniques developed f o r studying building evacuation can be u s e d by n o n - r e s e a r c h p e r s o n n e l . F o r example, building management and f i r e safety p e r s o n n e l in Ottawa began t o u s e t h e recording techniques t o help in a s s e s s i n g evacuations f o r t h e i r own p u r p o s e s . T h i s type of evaluation effort by people d i r e c t l y responsible f o r f i r e safety p r a c t i c e s should be encouraged, p a r t i c u l a r l y in view of t h e c o s t of evacuation e x e r c i s e s .
PRELIMINARY RESULTS
P r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s a l r e a d y r a i s e questions r e g a r d i n g the validity of existing d a t a and f o r m u l a e f o r evacuation m o v e m e n t and the d e s i g n of exit s t a i r w a y s . They m u s t , however, be applied with caution. Analyses of observation d a t a a r e s t i l l incomplete, but t h e r e a r e c e r - t a i n indications r e g a r d i n g t h e influence of s t a i r w a y g e o m e t r y and pop- ulation s i z e on density, speed, flow and evacuation t i m e f o r h i g h - r i s e evacuation using both conventional r a p i d t o t a l e g r e s s p r o c e d u r e s a n d n e w e r , m o r e sophisticated, phased evacuation p r o c e d u r e s . T h e s e findings a r e r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o i n t e r p r e t and apply in revising exit
s t a i r w a y r e q u i r e m e n t s in building codes.
In t h e c o u r s e of analysing r e s u l t s , an a t t e m p t i s a l s o being m a d e t o l e a r n m o r e about o t h e r , l e s s quantifiable v a r i a b l e s . These come under such headings a s t h e t o t a l p h y s i c a l setting f o r evacuation, c o m - m u n i c a t i o n s , s o c i a l organizations, l e a r n i n g and p r i o r p r a c t i c e , f i r e
safety a t t i t u d e s , n a t u r e of perceived h a z a r d s (if any), urgency f a c t o r s , population d e s c r i p t i o n s
,
p e r s o n a l s p a c e , and decision -making u n d e r conditions of s t r e s s and uncertainty. M a n y of t h e s e v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e t o operational a s p e c t s of building safety and, a s information g r o w s ,m a y influence f i r e codes and building management p r o c e d u r e s . In
addition, s o m e of t h e a s s u m p t i o n s i m p l i c i t in building design and regulation m a y be checked f o r validity. At p r e s e n t , v e r y little i s known about t h e m a n - e n v i r o k e n t a s p e c t s of building f i r e safety and it i s hoped t h a t other r e s e a r c h e r s will become m o r e involved i n s t u d i e ~ t h a t c a n have application t o building d e s i g n and operation.
Reaction and Attitude t o Evacuation
Before d e s c r i b i n g evacuee movement down s t a i r w a y s m o r e g e n e r a l c o m m e n t s a r e in o r d e r . T o some people involved with buildings and f i r e s a f e t y t h e m o s t noteworthy f e a t u r e of t h e o b s e r v e d h i g h - r i s e
f i e l d
applications
153evacuation e x e r c i s e s a r e that they a r e conducted at a l l and t h a t they have been well received by building occupants. Contrary to popu- l a r opinion, panic o r non-rational, non-adaptive
,
non- social behavior i s r a r e , even where people perceive a situation a s actually o r po- tentially hazardous. In a recently published study of the behavior of over 2000 people in n e a r l y 1000 f i r e s , it was considered that only about 5 p e r cent did something that was judged "to i n c r e a s e t h e r i s k , and t h i s was r a r e l y panic (Wood, 1972). It is unfortunate t h a t accounts of building f i r e s o r , in some c a s e s , evacuations of buildings where t h e r e a r e no f i r e s often u s e the t e r m "panic" t o d e s c r i b e rational, adaptive behavior t h a t might m o r e aptly be d e s c r i b e d by t e r m s such a s "reflective f e a r , " "anxiety, " o r "discomfort."
Following one s u r p r i s e evacuation d r i l l in a 21
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s t o r e y Ottawa office building in 197 1, the building occupants answering a questionnaire responded four t.o one in favour of such e x e r c i s e s . This attitude i s p a r t i c u l a r l y noteworthy because t h e questionnaire r e s u l t s predate m a n y s e r i o u s h i g h - r i s e f i r e s in the U.S. and o t h e r countries that w e r e widely publicized. During the l a s t few y e a r s public attitudes towards high-rise f i r e safety a p p e a r t o have changed, although t h i s h a s not been documented.Movement Down Exit Stairways
Movement down s t a i r w a y s h a s traditionally been, and continues t o be, the chief physical activity in f i r e emergency p r o c e d u r e s in buildings. The collection of d a t a f o r v a r i a b l e s such a s spacing, d e n s i t y , speed, flow, queuing, and evacuation t i m e was the m o s t important aspect of the 40 high-rise evacuations observed in Ottawa office buildings. The r e s u l t s of t h i s study s e e m t o confirm that some long standing m i s - conceptions have g r e a t l y influenced building code exit stairway r e q u i r e - m e n t s . The misconceptions r e l a t e to the 22-inch unit exit width used t o d e t e r m i n e exit widths and t o the flow that can be accommodated on v a r i o u s s t a i r widths. The Ottawa observations indicate t h a t the 2 2 -
inch unit exit width concept cannot be justified on the b a s i s of f a i r l y d i s c r e t e lanes of movement, a s previously believed. In addition, the conventionally-accepted flow of 45 p e r s o n s p e r minute p e r 2 2 inches of stairway width a p p e a r s t o be over-optimistic by 50
t o 100 p e r cent o r m o r e , expecially for mid-winter t o t a l evacuations in cold climates.
P e r s o n a l Space. I n describing evacuation movement c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s one might consider f i r s t the p e r s o n a l space t h a t each evacuee t r i e s t o maintain while evacuating. Although based on a v e r y incomplete
F i g u r e 1
Frequency Distribution of Unit A r e a ( s t a i r w a y a r e a p e r person) in 17 Stairways during Evacuations of High Office Buildings.
U N I T A R E A . S Q . F T .
a n a l y s i s of e a r l y data, F i g u r e 1 shows a f r e q u e n c y distribution of unit a r e a ( o r s t a i r w a y a r e a p e r evacuee actually moving on the s t a i r s and landings in t o t a l evacuations) peaking a t a mode of about 6. 5 square f e e t and having a m e d i a n of about 7 . 4 s q u a r e feet. The distribution would p r o b a f ~ l y have a m o r e pronounced peak if the population waiting t o e n t e r the s t a i r w a y and o t h e r f a c t o r s w e r e s i m i l a r i n e a c h evacuation.
T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t each evacuee r e g a r d s a c e r t a i n space a s comfort- able under the c i r c u m s t a n c e s . This space i s influenced by f a c t o r s s u c h a s the evacuee's clothing, c u l t u r a l background, sex, r e l a t i o n to people c l o s e by, and emotional s t a t e (Horowitz, e t a l , 1970; E v a n s , 1973). The limited information available about t h e p e r s o n a l s p a c e r e g a r d e d a s comfortable s u g g e s t s that in r e a l e m e r g e n c i e s a l a r g e r p e r s o n a l s p a c e would be d e s i r e d . T h i s could lead t o lower densities on stairways. Unit Exit Width. Observations of evacuation flow down various widths of exit s t a i r w a y indicate that evacuees u s u a l l y locate t h e m s e l v e s on the s t a i r s s o a s to m a x i m i z e t h e i r spacing o r "body buffer zone. I '
Shoulder t o shoulder movement i s r a r e u n l e s s s t a i r w a y s a r e a t l e a s t 48 inches wide, and even then i t o c c u r s m a i n l y with people who a r e t r y i n g to t a l k with one another while evacuating. T h u s , the t r a d i t i o n a l assumption about 22-inch-wide lanes of movement, o r units of exit width, s e e m s i n c o r r e c t . An a r e a p e r p e r s o n o r p e r s o n a l space m o d e l f o r sizing exit widths thus a p p e a r s m o r e r e a l i s t i c than t h e a r t i f i c i a l a n t h r o p o m e t r i c m o d e l now implicitly accepted in building code exit width r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h i s w a s p r e s u m a b l y based on shoulder widths f o r some l a r g e p e r c e n t i l e of typical building populations. F u r t h e r evidence undermining the 22 -inch unit exit width concept i s d e s c r i b e d below where i t i s pointed out that flows down many widths of exit s t a i r - way a r e g e n e r a l l y in proportion to width. T h u s , flow plotted against
s t a i r width i s a r a m p function, not a s t e p function a s a s s u m e d in building codes
.
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155
F i g u r e 2
Effect of Density on Speed Down E x i t S t a i r w a y s i n E v a c u a t i o n s of High Office Buildings. I I I I I I ' I
-
I I --
- C O M F O R T R A N G E --
D E N S I T Y I N S T A I R W A Y , P E R S O N / S Q . F T .Evacuation S p e e d s . F o r m u c h of the following d i s c u s s i o n t h e v a r i a b l e , d e n s i t y , o r i n v e r s e of unit a r e a will be used. F i g u r e 2, for example, shows t h a t m e a n s p e e d s of d e s c e n t down e x i t s t a i r w a y s i n evacuation e x e r c i s e s d e c r e a s e a s d e n s i t y i n c r e a s e s . T h i s o c c u r s a s a r e s u l t of i n c r e a s i n g psychological i n t e r f e r e n c e and g r e a t e r chance of physical contact. T h e r e a p p e a r s t o be a c o m f o r t r a n g e f o r evacuation move
-
m e n t of 4 t o 6 s t o r e y s p e r minute a t a d e n s i t y of 0 . 1 t o 0.2 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e foot. F o r the typical office building s t a i r w a y 44 i n c h e s wide, t h i s condition p e r m i t s e a c h evacuee t o occupy an a v e r a g e of about two s t a i r t r e a d s of a r e a . When d e n s i t i e s on t h e s t a i r s i n c r e a s e t oabout 0 . 4 5 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e foot, c o m f o r t a b l e m o v e m e n t d o w n s t a i r w a y s b e c o m e s a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e .
Evacuation F l o w s . T h e m e a n flow of evacuees down s t a i r w a y s i s d e - s c r i b e d a s a function of d e n s i t y i n F i g u r e 3 . F l o w , o r p e r s o n s p e r m i n u t e descending s t a i r s , i s obtained by multiplying the s p e e d by the
density. The g r a p h f o r flow a s a function of d e n s i t y p e a k s a t a d e n s i t y of about 0 . 2 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e foot, a d e n s i t y slightly g r e a t e r than t h a t a p p a r e n t l y r e g a r d e d a s c o m f o r t a b l e . T h e p e a k o r optimum m e a n flow i s d e s c r i b e d in t e r m s of the 22-inch unit width s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h i s width i s f a m i l i a r t o d e s i g n e r s and o t h e r s who m u s t work w i t h existing building c o d e s . T h e optimum m e a n flow o b s e r v e d in evacuation e x e r - c i s e s w a s 30 p e r s o n s p e r m i n u t e p e r 22 i n c h e s of s t a i r w a y width. In m o s t t o t a l e v a c u a t i o n s o b s e r v e d , m e a n flows w e r e l e s s t h a n t h i s f i g u r e ,
and f o r a m i d - w i n t e r evacuation w h e r e e v a c u e e s wore h e a v y winter c o a t s the m e a n flow w a s about 20 p e r s o n s p e r minute.
156 field applications
F i g u r e 3
Effect of Density on Flow Down Exit S t a i r w a y s in Evacuations of High Office Buildings.
M E A N D E N S I T Y I N S T A I R W A Y . P E R S O N I S Q . F T
Existing l i t e r a t u r e on evacuation flow down exit s t a i r w a y s s u g g e s t s m e a n design flows of up to 4 5 p e r s o n s p e r minute p e r 22 inches of
s t a i r w a y width (National B u r e a u of S t a n d a r d s , 1935; J o i n t C o m m i t t e e on F i r e Grading of Buildings, 1952; G a l b r e a t h 1969). Careful exarnina- tion of the s t u d i e s that originally suggested this flow indicates that
s u c h high flows o c c u r r e d only in e x p e r i m e n t a l situations involving people who w e r e specially i n s t r u c t e d , motivated, and perhaps e x p e r i - enced in regimented m o v e m e n t a t high d e n s i t i e s . An experiment b y the author with a s m a l l group of s e l e c t e d individuals produced s i m i l a r l y high flow r a t e s . The conventional flow assumption of 45 p e r s o n s p e r minute should not be used f o r estimating r e a l i s t i c evacuation flows f o r typical building populations.
Another f a c t o r to be recognized i s the p e r i o d o v e r which flow down s t a i r w a y s i s a v e r a g e d ( F i g u r e 4). T h i s figure a l s o shows that flow i s proportional t o s t a i r width o v e r the range of widths studied in Ottawa evacuation e x e r c i s e s (36 t o 60 inches). It should be pointed out t h a t v e r y localized c o n s t r i c t i o n s in the width of s t a i r w a y s o r passageways a p p a r e n t l y do not reduce flow. F o r e x a m p l e , a 36-inch wide doorway d o e s not r e d u c e the flow f r o m wider s t a i r w a y s . Although F i g u r e 4 i s based on a p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s of d a t a , i t a p p e a r s t o be a b e t t e r b a s i s f o r s t a i r w a y sizing than that now recommended in t h e l i t e r a t u r e , w h e r e the unit width concept and an a r t i f i c i a l l y high flow of 45 p e r s o n s p e r minute p e r 22 i n c h e s of s t a i r w a y width a r e promoted.
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157
E v a c u a t i o n T i m e . P r e d i c t i o n s of e v a c u a t i o n t i m e f o r t o t a l evacuation of l a r g e office buildings d u r i n g n o n - w i n t e r conditions c a n be m a d e by
2
200 3 'x - 4 ,- m u 150 Y + F i g u r e 4 - I X .z w - 4 E f f e c t of E x i t S t a i r w a y Width ong z l o o
F l o w s i n E v a c u a t i o n s of High 3 z o Office Buildings. o m 2 ". 'x Y s a 50 3 s - X 4 I 0dividing t h e a c t u a l building population by t h e f l o w s u g g e s t e d i n
F i g u r e 3. An e x t r a m i n u t e o r s o ( d u r i n g w h i c h t i m e flow i s e s t a b l i s h e d ) should be added t o g i v e a r e a s o n a b l e t o t a l e v a c u a t i o n t i m e f o r un-
t r a i n e d , a b l e - b o d i e d a d u l t s who u s e s t a i r s t o f u l l advantage. The t e r m "able-bodied" h e r e i n c l u d e s about 97 p e r c e n t of t y p i c a l office popula- t i o n s . F i g u r e 5 s h o w s t h a t e v a c u a t i o n t i m e s a r e dependent o n the a c t u a l r
,
I I I I I a S U S l A l N t D F O R P E R I O D O F L E S S T H A N 1 5 S E C O N D S-
- b S U S T A I N E D F O R P E R I O D OF A T L E A S T 3 M I N U T E S-
/ a 0 0-
Yb
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I m 30 -..--...
30 S T O R E Y S F i g u r e 5 LY + 3-
20 S T O R E Y S Z-
-
P r e d i c t e d T o t a l E v a c u a t i o n I---
1 0 S T O R E Y S T i m e s o f T a l l 0 f f i c e B u . i l d i n g s d z o - I U s i n g E x i t S t a i r w a y s . - ,- Z --
-
-
r 0 0 2 4 6 E X I T S T A I R W A Y W I D T H , FEET o l l l l l l l l l l l 0 500 1000 P O P U L A T I O N PER 2 2 " S T A I R W A Y W I D T H e v a c u a t i o n population and t h a t building height a f f e c t s t i m e o n l y i n build- ing s w i t h v e r y s m a l l populations p e r f l o o r .T h e e v a c u a t i o n t i m e s p r e d i c t e d b y F i g u r e 5 m a y be m o d i f i e d by about 2 0 p e r c e n t e i t h e r w a y f o r c a s e s of b e t t e r o r p o o r e r e v a c u a t i o n o r g a n i - z a t i o n , depending on f a c t o r s s u c h a s e v a c u e e t r a i n i n g and s u p e r v i s i o n .
158
field applications
T h e s e p r e d i c t i o n s of evacuation t i m e a r e about 50 t o 100 p e r c e n t h i g h e r t h a n p r e d i c t i o n s r e p o r t e d i n the l i t e r a t u r e ( G a l b r e a t h , 1969). I t should a l s o be recognized, however, t h a t a c t u a l populations of o f f i c e buildings tend t o be only about half a s g r e a t a s i s often a s s u m e d , s o t h a t t h i s t e n d s t o offset p r e v i o u s e r r o r s in predicting t o t a l evacuation t i m e s of l a r g e office buildings. F o r e x a m p l e , the National Building Code u s u a l l y a s s u m e s that e a c h occupant of a n office building will have a m i n i m u m of about 100 s q u a r e f e e t of g r o s s r e n t a b l e floor a r e a , but s t u d i e s by the a u t h o r of a c t u a l office building populations suggest t h a t t y p i c a l office occupants m a y often a v e r a g e over 200 s q u a r e f e e t of g r o s s r e n t a b l e a r e a .
T h e s e d e s c r i p t i o n s of evacuation m o v e m e n t down exit s t a i r w a y s a p p l y m a i n l y t o conventional t o t a l evacuations i n which a l l occupants begin t h e i r e g r e s s simultaneously. S t a i r w a y s a r e thus u s e d t o capacity a n d
s o m e c o n t r o l in addition t o the d e n s i t y - c o n t r o l l i n g influence of p e r - s o n a l s p a c e m a y have t o be e x e r c i s e d i n o r d e r t o m a k e s u r e t h a t s t a i r w a y s a r e not occupied by too m a n y people. A s shown in F i g u r e 3 , t h e flow by t y p i c a l e v a c u e e s down s t a i r s will be r e d u c e d if d e n s i t i e s r i s e above about 0.2 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e f o o t . On t h e o t h e r hand, v e r y low d e n s i t i e s and t h u s low flows often o c c u r in d r i l l s w h e r e
I e n t r y of e v a c u e e s t o the exit s t a i r w a y i s c o n t r o l l e d , a s in phased o r
I
sequential evacuations. In t h e s e e v a c u a t i o n s , people f r o m the f i r e f l o o r , t h e f l o o r above, and a f t e r w a r d s t h e f l o o r below a r e evacuated I in sequence to l o w e r f l o o r s o r t o the building e x t e r i o r . Other f l o o r s
m a y then be evacuated, depending on t h e s e v e r i t y of t h e f i r e and smoke p r o b l e m , t h e r u l e being that e g r e s s r o u t e s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y r e s e r v e d f o r t h e m o s t e n d a n g e r e d occupants. (The s a f e t y of people on upper f l o o r s would be of p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e r n f o r f i r e s o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g cold w e a t h e r , s i n c e s t a c k effect p r o m o t e s smoke m o v e m e n t f r o m l o w e r t o upper f l o o r s , l a r g e l y by w a y of s t a i r s , e l e v a t o r , and s e r v i c e
s h a f t s . ) F o r t h e s e t y p e s of p h a s e d evacuation, flows down exit s t a i r
-
ways m a y be s o m e f r a c t i o n of those n o r m a l l y o b s e r v e d i n t o t a l e v a c u a - t i o n s ; u s e of exit s t a i r w a y s , however, m i g h t s t i l l be c o n s i d e r e d e f f i - c i e n t in t e r m s of actually achieving s a f e t y i n buildings t o o l a r g e and too populated f o r unorganized total evacuation t o w o r k .C o m m u n i c a t i o n s During Evacuations
P u b l i c a d d r e s s o r two-way communication s y s t e m s w e r e u s e d d u r i n g o b s e r vations of p h a s e d o r s e q u e n t i a l p r o c e d u r e s a d o p t e d f o r evacuating h i g h - r i s e office buildings in Ottawa. T h e y w e r e o p e r a t e d by building s a f e t y
p e r s o n n e l a t an e n t r a n c e lobby c o n t r o l c o n s o l e and at v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s throughout the building. R e c o r d i n g s of t h e s e s y s t e m s i n u s e d u r i n g evacuation d r i l l s have p r o v e d t o be v e r y u s e f u l , e s p e c i a l l y when
f i e l d
applications
159 $o b s e r v e r s w e r e simultaneously collecting d a t a about evacuation move- m e n t . F o r example, t h e t i m e taken f o r s a f e t y staff t o r e a c h t h e i r communications s t a t i o n s , m a k e d e c i s i o n s r e g a r d i n g evacuation p r o c e d u r e s , wait f o r feedback about t h e completion of evacuation of p a r t i c u l a r a r e a s , e t c . , was often the biggest s i n g l e f a c t o r in t h e total t i m e taken t o s e l e c t a n d evacuate a r e a s c o n s i d e r e d t o be in d a n g e r .
S e l e c t i v e , highly-controlled'approaches t o h i g h - r i s e evacuation a r e
heavily dependent on skilled use of communications s y s t e m s by
t r a i n e d and e x p e r i e n c e d personnel. T h e r e was considerable evidence
of t h i s in a m a j o r , s u r p r i s e evacuation e x e r c i s e during 1971 of a 21- s t o r e y office building i n which the t h i r d floor w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o be the f i r e f l o o r . The evacuation sequence was t o be t h i r d f l o o r , f o u r t h f l o o r , second f l o o r , 21st f l o o r , 20th f l o o r and s o on down t o the f i f t h floor u ~ l t i l t h e building w a s completely c l e a r e d of occupants. The e x e r - c i s e s t a r t e d with a g e n e r a l sounding of f i r e a l a r m bells throughout the building t o a l e r t the building's 2100 occupa.nts t o move t o c o r e a r e a s on e a c h f l o o r and await i n s t r u c t i o n s t o be given over the building's
public a d d r e s s s y s t e m . . After about 2 m i n u t e s a somewhat excited
voice w a s h e a r d over t h e l o u d s p e a k e r s with the following m e s s a g e :
" L a d i e s and gentlemen. We have t o evacuate t h e building. T h e a l a r m
h a s been s e t on the t h i r d d o o r . P l e a s e evacuate. Other f l o o k s stand by. "
Use of the public a d d r e s s s y s t e m i n t h i s excited and ambiguous fashion r e s u l t e d in a g r e a t d e a l of confusion in what should have b e e n a highly- controlled evacuation. It w a s w e l l documented, with o b s e r v a t i o n s collected by a t e a m of 15 o b s e r v e r s located throughout the building. I n addition, a d e t a i l e d questionnaire d i s t r i b u t e d t o 200 e v a c u e e s i m m e - d i a t e l y following evacuation provided background information about
176 of the 2100 e v a c u e e s a s well a s information about t h e i r behavior during t h e e x e r c i s e . F o r e x a m p l e , 17 p e r c e n t r e p o r t e d i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e situation a s a genuine f i r e e m e r g e n c y when t h e y f i r s t h e a r d the f i r e a l a r m ; but a f t e r the ambiguous public a d d r e s s announcement 42 p e r c e n t of the r e s p o n d e n t s r e p o r t e d i n t e r p r e t i n g i t a s a r e a l f i r e e m e r g e n c y . M a n y respondents even r e p o r t e d t h a t in the announcement t h e y thought they h e a r d "a f i r e h a s been r e p o r t e d on the t h i r d floor." T h i s example u n d e r l i n e s the i m p o r t a n c e of judicious u s e of public a d d r e s s s y s t e m s , which i n c r e a s i n g l y a r e being installed in h i g h - r i s e buildings f o r u s e i n f i r e e m e r g e n c i e s .
On t h e subject of communication s y s t e m s in h i g h - r i s e buildings, it
a p p e a r s highly d e s i r a b l e f o r audio r e c o r d i n g equipment t o be p e r m a n e n t l y i n s t a l l e d in c o n t r o l consoles. If such r e c o r d e r s w e r e t o be p r o g r a m m e d
1 6 0 field applications
f o r continuous r e c o r d i n g of a l l u s e s of public a d d r e s s and two-way communications s y s t e m s whenever a f i r e a l a r m i s a c t i v a t e d , t h e y could s e r v e a useful function s i m i l a r t o t h a t of a i r c r a f t flight r e - c o r d e r s in providing o t h e r w i s e unavailable information about
e m e r g e n c y situations. V e r y u s e f u l d a t a about occupant behavior, f i r e development, and smoke movement could be m a d e available to r e - s e a r c h e r s in t h i s way.
USEFULNESS O F QUESTIONNAIRES
Useful information about evacuee r e s p o n s e t o f i r e a l a r m s and o t h e r communcations w a s developed f r o m the q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s u l t s r e p o r t e d above. R e t u r n e d by a f a i r l y random s a m p l e of 176 people who had just taken p a r t i n a l a r g e - s c a l e evacuation e x e r c i s e , t h e questionnaire a l s o provided information r e l a t i n g t o n o r m a l and e m e r g e n c y u s e of exit s t a i r w a y s i n h i g h - r i s e office buildings. F o r e x a m p l e , some of t h e 4 0 i t e m s in the q u e s t i o n n a i r e w e r e intended t o check the d e g r e e of c o r r e s p o n d e n c e between o b s e r v a t i o n a l d a t a and occupantss i n t e r
-
p r e t a t i o n of t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s during the evacuation. T h e r e was good c o r r e s p o n d e n c e between objective m e a s u r e m e n t s and r e p o r t e d subjective r e s p o n s e s f o r s u c h things a s d e s c e n t s p e e d s . On the o t h e r hand, t h e r e w a s l e s s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e between objective m e a s u r e s of d e n s i t y and p e r c e i v e d e x p e r i e n c e s of crowding d i s c o m f o r t , where individual p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s in the e x p e r i e n c e of crowding m a y be m o r e i m p o r t a n t than a c t u a l d e n s i t y conditions.In addition t o r e a c t i o n s t o t h e evacuation, t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e checked a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s f i r e s a f e t y p r a c t i c e s in h i g h - r i s e office buildings and asked r e s p o n d e n t s t o d e s c r i b e the n a t u r e , extent, r e a s o n s f o r , and capability of n o r m a l exit s t a i r w a y u s e . The r e s u l t s have po- t e n t i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r setting up f i r e s a f e t y m e a s u r e s and f o r d e s i g n of e x i t s t a i r w a y s a s a building amenity.
The questionnaire r e s u l t s suggested that 3 p e r cent of t h e building's
population could not o r should not a t t e m p t t o evacuate by s t a i r w a y while the s t a i r s a r e occupiedby evacuees. T h i s f i g u r e was t r u e of o t h e r ebacuation d r i l l s o b s e r v e d in Canadian office buildings a s well ( P a u l s , 1971). Of the 176 respondents t o t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e , 97 p e r c e n t felt capable of descending a t l e a s t t h r e e s t o r e y s of s t a i r s and 64 p e r cent f e l t capable of descending a t l e a s t 20 s t o r e y s "without stopping, a t a n o r m a l s p e e d , and without a s s i s t a n c e f r o m o t h e r s . I'
It should be noted that t y p i c a l descent s p e e d s during t o t a l evacuation d r i l l s w e r e u s u a l l y about half the s i x to eight s t o r e y s p e r minute
that physically-fit adults can comfortably achieve f o r n o n - e m e r g e n c y move- m e n t down uncrowded s t a i r w a y s . The g r o u p of q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e -
f i e l d
applications
161s p o n d e n t s f r o m t h i s p a r t i c u l a r 21 - s t o r e y office building who f e l t c a p a b l e of d e s c e n d i n g a t l e a s t 20 s t o r e y s c o m p r i s e d 76 p e r c e n t of the m e n and 4 5 p e r cent of t h e women in the s a m p l e 176 r e s p o n d e n t s ,
79 p e r c e n t of t h o s e a g e d u n d e r 40 a n d 52 p e r c e n t of t h o s e a g e d 40 o r o l d e r . By way of c o n t r a s t , 90 p e r cent of t h e m e n u n d e r 4 0 and 2 8 p e r c e n t of t h e w o m e n o v e r 40 f e l t capable of a t l e a s t 20 s t o r e y s . Only 27 p e r c e n t of t h e r e s p o n d e n t s r e p o r t e d e v e r having d e s c e n d e d a t l e a s t 20 s t o r e y s a t one t i m e b e f o r e the evacuation e x e r c i s e . In t e r m s of n o r m a l u s e of exit s t a i r w a y s , about half t h e r e s p o n d e n t s (72 p e r c e n t of t h o s e f r o m t h e l o w e r half of t h e 2 1 - s t o r e y building and 30 p e r cent f r o m t h e u p p e r half) r e p o r t e d u s i n g t h e s t a i r w a y s at l e a s t once a day. The building had only t h r e e g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t s on t h e 20 office f l o o r s , which w e r e s e p a r a t e d i n t o two zones f o r high- r i s e and l o w - r i s e e l e v a t o r s , and i n t e r f l o o r s t a i r t r a v e l w a s heavy. N e a r l y 60 p e r c e n t of t h e m e n and 40 p e r cent of t h e women r e p o r t e d s u c h n o r m a l u s a g e . N e a r l y 20 p e r c e n t r e p o r t e d using t h e s t a i r s in t h e m o r n i n g s t o r e a c h t h e i r w o r k f l o o r , and 31 p e r cent r e p o r t e d u s i n g s t a i r s at t h e end of t h e w o r k d a y t o l e a v e t h e building. This l e v e l of u s e w a s not checked by o b s e r v a t i o n s of n o r m a l s t a i r w a y use. R e s u l t s s u c h a s t h e s e a r e u s e f u l in indicating t h e value of e x i t s t a i r - w a y s a s a building a m e n i t y . Ln addition, e v a c u e e s have b e e n o b s e r v e d t o adapt w e l l t o exit s t a i r w a y s t h a t a p p e a r e d somewhat d a n g e r o u s f r o m a d e s i g n point of view, and t h i s w a s m o s t pronounced i n buildings in which n o r m a l u s e of exit s t a i r w a y s w a s v e r y g r e a t . In g e n e r a l , it a p p e a r s t h a t n o n - e m e r g e n c y u s e of s t a i r s n o t only p r e p a r e s
e v a c u e e s f o r o v e r c o m i n g d e f i c i e n c i e s in s t a i r s that have r e c e i ~ e d in- a d e q u a t e attention i n d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e but a l s o
e n c o u r a g e s g r e a t e r c a r e in d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n , and m a i n t e n a n c e . The s o m e t i m e s conflicting a m e n i t y , s a f e t y , a n d s e c u r i t y d e m a n d s o n e x i t s t a i r w a y s m u s t be r e s o l v e d t h r o u g h m o r e judicious building d e s i g n and o p e r a t i o n .
GENERAL APPLICATIONS O F RESEARCH RESULTS
T h r o ~ g h o u t , t h i s p a p e r h a s s u g g e s t e d the application of r e s e a r c h t o building and f i r e r e g u l a t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , r u l e s f o r e x i t s t a i r w a y s i z i n g a p p e a r t o be i n need of change a s a r e s u l t of r e c e n t o b s e r v a t i o n s of e v a c u a t i o n flow. P o t e n t i a l r e v i s i o n s i n c l u d e wider s t a i r w a y s in buildings w h e r e r a p i d t o t a l evacuation i s r e g a r d e d a s a n e c e s s a r y l i f e - s a f e t y p r o c e d u r e . In o t h e r buildings s p e c i a l l y d e s i g n e d to r e d u c e f i r e and s m o k e h a z a r d s a m o r e f l e x i b l e a p p r o a c h t o exit width s e e m s t o be a p p r o p r i a t e .
162 f i e 1 d appl i c a t i o n s
Although not d i s c u s s e d in t h i s p a p e r , a l a r g e n u m b e r of s t a i r w a y d e t a i l - r e l a t e d f a c t o ~ s a r e yzt t o be a n a l y s e d , using the l a r g e body of d a t a a m a s s e d in s e v e r a l y e a r s of evacuation o b s e r v a t i o n s . Keeping in m i n d the d e g r e e of adaptability that people tend t o show t o s t a i r w a y d e f i c i e n c i e s , one can s p e c u l a t e on the i m p o r t a n c e of s t a i r landing s i z e s and door swings, the p r o v i s i o n of windows in s t a i r e n t r a n c e d o o r s , different s t a i r configurations (including s c i s s o r s s t a i r s ) , the d i r e c t i o n of s t a i r t u r n , h a n d r a i l s e c t i o n s and locations, t r e a d f i n i s h e s , s t a i r w e l l w a l l t e x t u r e s and c o l o r s , and s o forth. Such f e a t u r e s have been noted in the wide v a r i e t y of s t a i r s o b s e r v e d i n u s e , and d e s i g n r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s m a y be forthcoming.
In t e r m s of building m a n a g e m e n t o r operation, the n e c e s s i t y f o r judicious u s e of communications s y s t e m s i n evacuations h a s been i l l u s t r a t e d . Building m a n a g e m e n t p e r s o n n e l m u s t a l s o devote m o r e c a r e t o the p r o b l e m s posed by s e l e c t i v e and sophisticated evacuation p r o c e d u r e s and refuge options in l a r g e buildings i n c r e a s i n g l y equipped with complex s e c u r i t y , e n e r g y c o n t r o l , and f i r e p r o t e c t i o n s y s t e m s .
With g r e a t e r technological sophistication i n building d e s i g n , t h e r e is
g r e a t e r need f o r m o r e highly t r a i n e d s u p e r v i s o r y p e r s o n n e l . Not only m u s t t h e y keep the building o p e r a t i n g , they m a y a l s o have t o undertake the t r a i n i n g of building occupants s o that t h e i r behavior during f i r e e m e r g e n c i e s w i l l enable t h e m t o take f u l l advantage of t h e building's bult-in safety f e a t u r e s .
The application of the d a t a and techniques developed a s a r e s u l t of evacuation r e s e a r c h i s i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t f o r n o r m a l , non- e m e r g e n c y occupancy conditions in buildings. F o r e x a m p l e , when analysed in g r e a t e r d e t a i l the d a t a concerning crowd m o v e m e n t s i n e x i t s t a i r w a y s m a y be r e l e v a n t t o the n o r m a l a c c e s s and e g r e s s m o v e - m e n t in a s s e m b l y occupancies such a s t h e a t r e s , a r e n a s , and s t a d i a . P i l o t o b s e r v a t i o n s w e r e begun during 1973 of crowd m o v e m e n t s i n s u c h a s s e m b l y occupancy contexts and w i l l probably be extended i n
1974. A i s l e - s e a t i n g layouts and d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r s t a i r s , r a m p s , and v o m i t o r i e s m a y eventually be widely influenced by such work.
SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS O F THE EVACUATION RESEARCH A s p r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s of evacuation o b s e r v a t i o n s have become
available in the l a s t few y e a r s , t h e r e h a s been i n c r e a s i n g contact with building d e s i g n e r s , building m a n a g e m e n t p e r s o n n e l , and cornrnitte e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r life safety r e q u i r e m e n t s i n the National Building Code of Canada and the National F i r e Code of Canada. F o r example, m e e t i n g s between r e s e a r c h staff of DBR/NRC and d e s i g n e r s f r o m p r i v a t e p r a c t i c e have often d e a l t with l a r g e unusual building p r o j e c t s
f i e l d applications
163 in w h i c h t h e p r o b l e m s of f i r e p r o t e c t i o n and o c c u p a n t e v a c u a t i o n p r o - c e d u r e s w e r e b e t t e r s o l v e d by r e t u r n t o f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e s r a t h e r t h a n u s e of e x i s t i n g c o d e r e q u i r e m e n t s . In one c a s e t h e m e a n s of e g r e s s f o r a l a r g e g r a n d s t a n d w a s a p p r o a c h e d f r o m a p r i n c i p l e s o r p e r f o r m a n c e point of v i e w w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t s a v i n g s have b e e n a c h i e v e d . W o r k on e v a c u a t i o n m o v e m e n t in b u i l d i n g s i s a l s o being p r e s e n t e d e x t e n s i v e l y d u r i n g 1974 i n s e m i n a r / w o r k s h o p s f o r C a n a d i a n d e s i g n e r s , c o n s u l t a n t s , f i r e o f f i c i a l s , and building m a n a g e r s and i n s m a l l e rm e e t i n g s with C a n a d i a n a n d
U.
S. f i r e r e g u l a t i o n a n d r e s e a r c h p e r s o n n e l . D i s c u s s i o n s d u r i n g t h e s e m e e t i n g s d e a l e x t e n s i v e l y with r e - d e f i n i t i o n of t h e f i r e s a f e t y p r o b l e m i n buildings. Ln h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g s , f o r e x a m p l e , f i r e a n d s m o k e c o n t r o l s y s t e m s a r e u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t w i l l p e r m i t g r e a t e r d e s i g n f r e e d o m but a t t h e s a m e t i m e r e q u i r e g r e a t e r d e s i g n a n d o p e r a t i o n a l e x p e r t i s e ( A s s o c i a t e C o m m i t t e e on t h e N a t i o n a l Building C o d e , 1973). T h e s y s t e m s a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l e v a c u a t i o n a n d r e f u g e o p t i o n s f o r o c c u p a n t s who d o not w i s h t o be d i s t u r b e d by m i n o r f i r e o c c u r r e n c e s in i n c r e a s i n g l y l a r g e and c o m p l e x buildings. SUMMARY Although m a n y of t h e f i n d i n g s of a p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s of e v a c u a t i o n o b s e r v a t i o n s of h i g h - r i s e buildings a p p l y t o i n c r e a s i n g l y o b s o l e t e t o t a l e v a c u a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s , s u c h s t u d i e s h a v e r e c e n t l y b r o a d e n e d t h e i r e m p h a s i s t o i n c l u d e t h e t o t a l p r o b l e m of l i f e s a f e t y f r o m f i r e i n b u i l d i n g s of m a n y o c c u p a n c y t y p e s . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s w o r k is b e c o m i n g w i d e r , e n c o m p a s s i n g n o t o n l y building c o d e s but a l s o o t h e r r e g u l a t i o n s a n d s t a n d a r d s a f f e c t i n g life s a f e t y . T h e w o r k h a s b e e n , t o a l a r g e e x t e n t , j u s t i f i e d on t h e b a s i s of i m p r o v i n g s a f e t y r e g u l a t i o n s , t u t i t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t knowledge of s a f e t y - r e l a t e d m a t t e r s can often b e m o r e s u i t a b l y a p p l i e d w h e n s a f e t y i s p a r t of d e s i g n c o r n p e t a n c e r a t h e r t h a n c o n t r o l l e d by r e g u l a t i o n s t o o often a p p l i e d a s c o m p l e t e s o l u - t i o n s t o p a r t i c u l a r d e s i g n p r o b l e m s . A s t h i s p a p e r h a s s u g g e s t e d , s a f e t y f e a t u r e s i n b u i l d i n g s m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d i n t e r m s of o t h e r f a c t o r s s u c h a s a m e n i t y a n d s e c u r i t y . H o p e f u l l y , a s r e s e a r c h c o n t i n u e s i n o r g a n i z a t i o n s s u c h a s C a n a d a t s D i v i s o n of Building R e s e a r c h a n d i n c o n s u l t i n g f i r m s and u n i v e r s i t i e s,
m a n y t r a d i t i o n a l r u l e s a n d a p p r o a c h e s will be r e - e x a m i n e d , i n s o m e c a s e s b y o b s e r v a t i o n of p e o p l e B s a c t u a l b e h a v i o r i n b u i l d i n g s . T h i s p a p e r h a s t r i e d t o s h o w t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l r u l e s a n d a p p r o a c h e s r e l a t i n g164
f i e l d applications
to building evacuation d u r i n g f i r e a r e in need of r e -examination and that s o m e r a t h e r s i m p l e study p r o c e d u r e s can be u s e d to produce readily applicable r e s u l t s . A r e a s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h m a y be
suggested t o those reading t h i s p a p e r . T h e author would p a r t i c u l a r l y like t o h e a r f r o m r e a d e r s who a r e involved in such w o r k o r anticipate work that can be applied t o the p r o b l e m a r e a s suggested in t h i s paper.
f i e l d
applications
165 R E F E R E N C E SASHRAE Handbook and P r o d u c t s D i r e c t o r y : 1973 S y s t e m s Volume, C h a p t e r 41, F i r e and Smoke Control. A m e r i c a n Society of Heating, R e f r i g e r a t i n g and Air-conditioning E n g i n e e r s , I n c . , New York, 1973. A s s o c i a t e C o m m i t t e e on t h e National Building C o d e , National Building Code of C a n a d a 1970. National R e s e a r c h Council of C a n a d a , Ottawa,
1970.
A s s o c i a t e C o m m i t t e e on the National Building C o d e , M e a s u r e s f o r F i r e Safety in High Buildings. National R e s e a r c h Council of C a n a d a , Ottawa, 1973.
B a k e r , G. W. and D. W. Chapman ( e d . ), Man and Societv i n D i s a s t e r . New Y o r k , B a s i c B o o k s , 1962.
D a v i s , G. and V. A y e r s , Photographic Methods of R e s e a r c h on Be- haviour in the Human Milieu: New Developments and C r i t i q u e ,
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E n v i r o n m e n t a l Design R e s e a r c h , F o u r t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l EDRA C o n f e r e n c e , Vol, 2 , ( e d . P r e i s e r , W.) S t r o u d s b u r g , P e n n , Dowden, Hutchinson, and R o s s , I n c . , 1973.D i s a s t e r R e s e a r c h G r o u p , F i e l d S t u d i e s of D i s a s t e r Behavior: An I n -
urznteq, D i s a s t e r R e s e a r c h G r o u p , D i s a s t e r Study No. 14, National A c a d e m y of S c i e n c e s - N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h Council, Washington, 1961. E v a n s , G. W., P e r s o n a l Space: R e s e a r c h Review and Bibliography,
S v s t a Vol. 3 , No. 4 , J u l y 1973, p. 203-215. G a l b r e a t h , M .
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F e b r u a r y 1969.G e n e r a l S e r v i c e s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on F i r e - s a f e t y in H i g h - R i s e Buildinp.s, Wa:.-renton, V a . , 1971. Washington, D. C . : U . S. Government P r i n t i n g Office, 1971.
G e n e r a l S e r v i c e s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , Reconvened I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on F i r e s a f e t v i n H i c h - R i s e B u i l d i n p s , Washington, D . C . , O c t o b e r 1971. Washington, D . C . : U . S. G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g Office, 1972.
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H o r o w i t z , M . J . , e t a l , P e r s o n a i Space and the Body-Buffer Z o n e , in E n v i r o n m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y ( e d i t e d by P r o s h a n s k y , H . M . , e t a l . ),
New Y o r k , Holt, R i n e h a r t , and Winston I n c . , 1970, p. 214-220.
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