Tout ce que vous avez toujours voulu savoir sur le… goût

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Tout ce que vous avez toujours voulu savoir sur le… goût

Sophie Nicklaus

To cite this version:

Sophie Nicklaus. Tout ce que vous avez toujours voulu savoir sur le… goût. 39. congrès du GFHGNP, Mar 2018, Dijon, France. 46 p. �hal-02785826�

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Tout ce que vous avez toujours voulu savoir sur le… goût

Sophie Nicklaus

Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l’Alimentation, Dijon

1

(3)

Plan

• Introduction: qu’est‐ce que « le goût »

• Evolution des préférences gustatives et olfactives au début de la vie

• Effet des expériences gustatives et olfactives précoces sur les préférences alimentaires

• Influence des préférences gustatives et olfactives sur le comportement alimentaire de l’enfant

2

(4)

The functions of eating

Pleasure Nutrition

Socialisation Identity

EATING

OLFACTION TASTE

TOUCH

3

(5)

D’où vient la perception du « goût » d’un aliment?

4 Saveurs + Arômes

+ Sensations trigéminales

(chemesthésiques)

Flaveur

(6)

Réception gustative

From Chaudhari N & Roper SD. The Journal of

5

Cell Biology, 2014

(7)

Réception olfactive

6 • Dans l’épithélium olfactif, ~6‐10 millions de cellules réceptrices

• Chez l’homme, 347 gènes fonctionnels codent pour des

récepteurs olfactifs (Buck & Axel,1991)

Prix Nobel Physiologie / Médecine 2004

• Un récepteur unique peut reconnaître de multiples odorants

• Un odorant est reconnu généralement par plusieurs récepteurs

• Des odorants différents sont reconnus par des combinaisons différentes de récepteurs

• Les récepteurs ne reconnaissent pas directement une molécule

mais certaines fonctions chimiques de cette molécule. C’est la

combinaison des récepteurs recrutés qui est spécifique à

chaque odorant.

(8)

Les voies centrales de projections sensorielles

7

Rolls, Progress in Neurobiology, 2015

(9)

Striatum dorsal (noyau caudé et

putamen) Insula

Cortex Orbitofrontal

Striatum ventral (noyau accumbens) Amygdale Substance

noire Aire Tegmentale

Ventrale

Hypothalamus Latéral

Hippocampe

Cortex cingulaire antérieur

Détection cérébrale des stimulations gustatives

Cortex gustatif primaire

Discrimination – intensité Réponses aux 5 saveurs

sucré, salé, acide, amer, umami

+ Operculum frontal

D’après Kenny et al., Neuron, 2011

(10)

Ventrale

Hippocampe

Cortex gustatif secondaire

Valeur hédonique Valeur de récompense

D’après Kenny et al., Neuron, 2011

Détection cérébrale des stimulations gustatives

(11)

Hippocampus

Anterior cingular cortex

Composante hédonique : « liking »

Opiacés endogènes

Composante motivationnelle : « wanting »

Dopamine (circuit de la récompense)

Apprentissage et mémoire

Berridge et al., Brain Research, 2010

Berridge & Kringelbach, Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2008

Le plaisir alimentaire

Cortex Orbito- frontal

Ventrale

Hippocampe

+ Thalamus

(12)

Ventrale

Hippocampe

Imagerie fonctionnelle et stimulations gustatives

+ Thalamus

Veldhuizen, et al., Hum Brain Mapp, 2011

Activations constatées par des stimulations gustatives en IRMf chez l’homme

Méta‐analyse

(13)

Hippocampus

Anterior cingular cortex

Développement tardif des régions préfrontales

et des connections entre zones de motivation et de contrôle

Bruce et al., Preventive Medicine, 2011 Holsen et al., Neuroimage, 2005

Le plaisir alimentaire

Cortex Orbito- frontal

Ventrale

Hippocampe

+ Thalamus

(14)

Cortex pré-frontal Ventro-médian

Ventrale

Hippocampe

Activations cérébrales et signaux sensoriels

+ Thalamus

Odeurs d’aliments palatables Activation plus élevée chez obèses

Bragulat et al., Obesity (Silver Spring), 2010

(15)

Evolution des préférences gustatives et olfactives au début de la vie

14

(16)

A la naissance

• Appréciation de la saveur sucrée, rejet de la saveur amère

• Evitement des odeurs alimenaires « déplaisantes », comme l’odeur d’acide butyrique

(Soussignan, et al., Physiology & Behavior, 1997)

• Le reste est appris, sous l’effet des expériences 15

Berridge, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 2000

sucré amer

(17)

Au début de la vie

UMAMI

SALTY

BITTER

SOUR SWEET

FAT

16 Sweet

Expressions of pleasure The sweeter, the more

consumed

Bitter

Expressions of disgust Not consumed

Salty

Expressions of indifference/aversion

Little consumed

Umami

Expressions of pleasure Consumed

Sour

Expressions of disgust Little consumed

Fat:

Few/inconsistent observations

(18)

Measuring taste preferences in infants

• Part of a larger programme with a birth cohort N

_max

= 318 infants

• Longitudinal evaluation

• All basic tastes were evaluated with all infants ( bitter, salty, sour, sweet, umami)

• Fat with some infants 17

Schwartz, Issanchou & Nicklaus, British Journal of Nutrition, 2009

Milk feeding

6 mo 12 mo 18 mo 24 mo 36 mo

0 4 mo 10 mo

Complementary feeding Food neophobia

3mo 6mo 12mo 20mo

(19)

Tastants

1.7 1.2 10.8 5.0 71.9

Umami Sour Bitter

Salty Sweet

Taste

Na glutamate Citric acid

Urea NaCl Lactose

Molecule Concentration g.L

^‐1

18 0.35

Fat Sunflower & Rapeseed Oil

(20)

Preference evaluation for each taste

 Strong Rejection

(1)

 Slight rejection

(2)

 Neutral reaction

(3)

 Slight acceptance

(4)

 Strong acceptance

(5)

Salty 45s

20 Vol 1 Vol 2 Vol 3 Vol 4

Ingestion ratio = (Vol2 + Vol3) / (Vol1 + Vol2 + Vol3 + Vol4)

Inclusion criteria: consumption of at least 1g from 2 bottles

Score1 Score2 Score3 Score4

Liking ratio = (Score2 + Score3) / (Score1 + Score2 + Score3 + Score4)

(22)

Ingestion Ratio

Taste preferences in infants

21

• At 3 mo, sweetness is preferred over water

• At 6 mo, sweetness, saltiness and umami are preferred over water

• At 12 mo, saltiness and sweetness are preferred over water, the fat emulsion is rejected over water

• At 20 mo, all tastes except sweetness are rejected over water

• For saltiness, acceptance evolved sharply

• The acceptance trajectories for sweet, sour and umami tastes were parallel

• The acceptance for bitterness was stable

• During the first year, the fat emulsion triggered indifference, and was rejected after 12 mo N max = 248







Mixed models fitted with R

Primary tastes: Quadratic Age effect; Taste effect ; Age Taste

(23)

Ingestion Ratio

22 Liking Ratio (experimenter)

 Same patterns of acceptance trajectories

 More rejections were reported

 Ingestion data better discriminate trajectories across primary tastes

Taste preferences in infants







N max = 248

(24)

23 Taste preferences in infants

Analysis of facial expressions

Adapted from Ekman, Friesen, Hager, 2002;

Oster, 2010

 Few positive expressions

 Sour taste: more negative, less positive expressions

 Bitter taste: more negative expressions

 Sweet taste: less negative expressions

Frequencyof occurence

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Negative*** Positive**

Sour Water Sweet Bitter

Facial expressions at 6 mo (n=44)

A B C A

B A A A

(25)

Ingestion Ratio

Taste preferences in infants: individual variations?

24 





• Acceptance of saltiness and umami taste were lower in girls than boys at 20 mo

• Higher fat acceptance in infants born heavier or taller

N max = 248

Effect of individual characteristics

(26)

Measuring odor preferences in infants

• Longitudinal evaluation

25 Milk feeding

6 mo 12 mo 18 mo 24 mo 36 mo

0 4 mo 10 mo

Complementary feeding Food neophobia

8mo 13mo 22mo

(27)

Odorants

26

(28)

Measuring odor preference

• Videotaped and further analysed

• Measured variables:

• mouthing duration

• no handling duration

Mouthing No handling

for odorized and control objects

27

(29)

Evolution of odor preference with age

28 • Avoidance behaviour, no attraction behaviour

• In line with results of Soussignan et al. (1997)

• Olfacto‐facial systems integrated on negative pole>positive pole of hedonic space (Schaal et al., 2002)

• Avoidance of vanilla odour

(30)

Effect of early taste and flavor experience on taste and food preferences

29

(31)

30 ~6 mo ~2 years Birth

‐9 mo ~8 years 20 years

• The flavors of the foods consumed by the mother are transmitted into:

‐ the amniotic fluid

‐ the maternal milk

Mennella, Journal of Human Lactation, 1995 Schaal, Marlier, Soussignan,Chemical Senses, 2000 Hausner, Bredie, Mølgaard, Petersen, Møller, Physiology & Behavior, 2008

Early learning: the neonatal period

Impact of exposure to flavors

(32)

31 ~6 mo ~2 years Birth

‐9 mo ~8 years 20 years

Early learning: the neonatal period

Impact of exposure to flavors

1: Schaal et al., Chemical Senses, 2000 2: Mennella et al., Pediatrics, 2001

• Exposure to specific flavors in utero is associated to:

‐ Higher attraction for the specific odor, at birth

¹

‐ Higher acceptance of the specific food at complementary feeding

²

‐ Higher acceptance of a similarly flavored food

later in childhood

³

(33)

32 ~6 mo ~2 years Birth

‐9 mo ~8 years 20 years

Early learning: the milk feeding period

Impact of exposure to flavors

1: Mennella et al., Pediatrics, 2001

• Exposure to specific flavors in lacto is associated to higher acceptance of the specific food at

complementary feeding

¹

• A positive effect of breastfeeding on acceptance of a new food was observed even in the absence of

specific flavor exposure

²

• Variety of flavor exposure in breast milk may be key,

not only specific exposure to a given flavor

(34)

33 ~6 mo ~2 years Birth

‐9 mo ~8 years 20 years

Exposure to tastes in the milk context

1: Agostoni et al., J Am Coll Nutr, 2000 2: Schwartz et al., Arch Pediatr, 2010

• Breast milk contains more glutamate (x14) than formula ¹

• Breast milk is sweet ; glutamate may impart a slight umami taste (but it is hard to detect) ²

• A longer breastfeeding duration is associated to a higher preference at 6 months for the umami taste ³

Positive association with breast‐feeding duration (p=0.01)

Ingestion ratio (6mo)

(35)

ème

34 ~6 mo ~2 years Birth

‐9 mo ~8 years 20 years

Dietary exposure of French infants to the 5 basic tastes

1: Schwartz, et al., Arch Pediatr, 2010 2: Martin, et al., Food Qual Pref, 2014 3: Schwartz, PhD Thesis, 2009

• Use of sensory profile to describe the taste intensities of infant foods^1, 2

• « Taste exposure » of French infants: sweetness is dominant over the 1st year! ¹

• No association between exposure to each taste over the first 6 months and taste preference (ingestion ratio) ³

• Determinants of exposure to sweet taste have been explored⁴; consequences are under investigation

Exposure to tastes in complementary foods

(36)

35 ~6 mo ~2 years Birth

‐9 mo ~8 years 20 years

Exposure to tastes in complementary foods

Higher exposure in boys than girls Sweetness:

‐ Higher if CF introduction <6mo

‐ Adult foods>Baby foods>Home made foods Fattiness:

‐ Adult foods>Home made foods>Baby foods

(37)

36 ~6 mo ~2y Birth

‐9 mo ~8y 20y

Sugar water

~4y

Beauchamp & Moran, 1982, 1985

sweetness

Low Cl milk salt Stein & al, 1996

Na exposure salt salt lick Stein & al, 2012

HCMP* bitter/umami/sour sour Mennella & al, 2002, 2009

Early exposure to tastes: other findings

(38)

The influence of taste and odor preferences on infant’s eating behaviour

In infants and toddlers

37

(39)

38 Effect of taste on food acceptance

At the start of complementary feeding (5‐7 months):

• Infants easily accept the foods they are fed

• The acceptance of new foods vary according to their tastes

(40)

39 Effect of taste preference on food acceptance

Ingestion Ratio







N max = 248

Predicts the acceptance of somesweetfoods

Predicts the acceptance ofsomeumamifoods

Predicts the acceptance of somesourfoods

(41)

40 The role of odor preference on food acceptance

• At the age of 12 months, individual reactions to some food odors modulate the acceptance of the corresponding foods, in particular for unpleasant odors

²

:

• Liking of the odor of trimethylamine and acceptance of fish

• Liking of the odor of dimethyl disulphide and acceptance of sulphurous cheeses

Odorants Food category Tau p‐value

2‐isobutyl‐3‐methoxypyrazine Green vegetables <0.01 ns

Butyric acid Butyric cheeses ‐0.06 ns

Trimethylamine Fish 0.11 0.04

Dimethyl disulfide Cruciferous vegetables 0.08 0.09

Dimethyl disulfide Sulphurous cheeses 0.14 0.03

(42)

41 ~6 mo ~2 years Birth

‐9 mo ~8 years 20 years

Effect of « sensitivity » to taste or odor on food neophobia

Reactions to sensory stimuli Tastes

Odors

Food neophobia at 2y

?

Monnery‐Patris, Wagner, Rigal, Schwartz, Chabanet, Issanchou, Nicklaus, Appetite, 2015

+

(43)

42 ~6 mo ~2 years Birth

‐9 mo ~8 years 20 years

Toward an integrated vision of when and how liking develops?

Flavor exposure in utero in lacto

Food acceptance at CF

Reactions to sensory stimuliTastes Odors

Exposure frequency

Variety

Food likes at 2y

(44)

43 ~6 mo ~2 years Birth

‐9 mo ~8 years 20 years

Toward an integrated vision of when and how liking develops?

Flavor exposure in utero in lacto

Food acceptance at CF

Reactions to sensory stimuliTastes Odors

Exposure frequency

Variety

Liking for vegetables

+ +

+ ‐

(45)

Conclusions

• Children are born with the ability to :

• Taste, smell, discriminate foods (including milk)

• Learn to like a new food (and its sensory properties) but

• Marked reactions to olfactory and taste inputs may hinder the learning processes

• Through the effect of eating experience, taste and olfactory cues acquire a biological significance in relation with the nutritional impact of the foods they are associated with

• Learning abilities are high between the onset of complementary feeding and 2 years : it is a window of opportunity to introduce foods from the family diet, e.g.

vegetables

• Parental feeding style and practices may also modulate this learning process

44

(46)

Practical implications

• Breastfeeding until the start of complementary feeding may enhance the acceptance of novel foods

• When tasting/smelling new foods, children are more likely to display negative facial expressions than positive ones; but they might also continue eating!

• Parents should continue offering new foods for learning to take place

• For some children who are very sensitive to taste and odors, parents should be ready to persist in their willingness to offer

new foods, without forcing ₄₅

(47)

46 Acknowledgements

46

Collaborators @ CSGA:

• Camille Schwartz

• Claire Chabanet

• Valérie Feyen

• Emilie Szleper

• Sylvie Issanchou

• Christine Lange

• Sandrine Monnery‐Patris

• Vincent Boggio

• Caroline Laval

• Pascal Schlich Doctoral students:

• Sofia Bouhlal

• Eloïse Remy

• Camille Divert

• Wen‐Lun Yuan

• Sandra Wagner

The children and

their parents

http://www2.dijon.inra.fr/csga/index.php

OPALINE, SOFI, PUNCH