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ECAINRO/CRSUl95-8 DISTRlBUTIOl": RESTRICTED ORIGINAL: ENGLISH

DRAfT REPORT

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE STATUS OF THE REMOTE SENSING PROGRAMME IN AFRICA AND ITS CONTRIBUTION TO THE GOALS OF AGENDA 21 AND THE REQUIREMENTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Addis Abebo, [thiopia October 1995

ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA

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· I

ECAlNRD/CRSU/95-8

DRAFT REPORT

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE STATUS OF THE REMOTE SENSING PROGRAMME IN AFRICA AND ITS CONTRIBUTION TO THE GOALS OF AGENDA 21 AND

THE REQUIREMENTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Submitted to the

United Nations Economic Commission for Africa Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Merrill Conitz, Consultant October 1995

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T ahle of Contents

1 REMOTE SENSING FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Historical Perspective 1.3 Sustainable Development 1.4 The Role of Technology

2 THE TECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS

2.1 Technological Scope 2.1.1 Remote Sensing 2.1.2 Aerial Photography

2.1.3 Global Positioning System (GPS) 2.1.4 Geographic Information Systems 2.1.5 Weather Satellites

3 THE REVIEW MISSION

3.1 Need for Study 3.2 Terms of Reference

3.3 htterpretation of the Terms of Reference 3.4 Selection ofIndicators

3.5 Description and Scope of the Study

4 THE PRESENT REMOTE SENSING NETWORK IN AFRICA

4.1 Overview

4.2 The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa 4.3 Regional Development and Food Security Organizations

4.3.1 Centre Permanent InterEtats de Lutte contre in Secheresse dans Ie Sahel (CILSS) 4.3.2 InterGovermnental Authority for Drought and Development (IGADD)

4.3.3 Southern African Development Community (SADC) 4.4 International Development and Lending htstitutions 4.5 Bilateral Donors

4.6 International Specialized Agencies

4.7 Other Regional Organizations and Projects

4.8 The ECA-Sponsored Regional Remote Sensing Centres 4.8.1 RECT AS

4.8.2 CRTO 4.8.3 RCSSMRS

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4.9 Country Profile 4,9.1 Survey Departments

4.9.2 National Remote Sensing Centres 4, 10 Receiving Stations

4, II Other User Organizations

5. CONTRIBUTION OF REMOTE SENSING TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

5.1 Rangeland (Environment) Monitoring 5,1 Rangeland Monitoring

5,2 Woody Biomass Inventory 5,3 Desertification

5.4 Oceanography 5,5 Forest Management 5.6 Agricultural Applications

5.7 Aerial Video Photography for Land Use and Agriculture 5.8 Land Use, Urban and Regional Planning

6 OBSERVATIONS AND ISSUES

6.1 Effective Support of Sustainable Development 6.4.5 Technology Trickle Down

6.5 Women in development

7. RECOMMENDATIONS

7,1 Recommendations for UNECA

7.1.1 Support for Remote Sensing Centres and National Programmes 7.1.2 Collective Bargaining for Satellite Imagery

7.1.4 Set Technology Standards and Implementation Guidelines 7.1.5 Sub-Regional Development and Food Security Organization 7.2 Recommendations for Regional Centres

7.2.1 RCSSMRS Change in Name and Orientation 7.2.2 Staffing and Management of Regional Centres

7.2.3 Staffing of RCSSMRS Having lost some of its technical staff members during the 7.2.4 Equipment Acquisition

7.3 Recommendations for Member States 7.3.1 Coordination

7.3.2 Forest Management

7.3.3 Small Format Photography

8. CONCLUSIONS

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1

REMOTE SENSING FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA

l.1 Introduction

According to Agenda 21 of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, "In order to promote sustainable development, more extensive knowledge is required of the Earth's carrying capacity, including the processes that could either impair or enhance its ability to support life" (UNCED p. 259). Modern science and technology are the keys to acquiring and analysing the basic data needed to achieve the extensive knowledge required to understand the actions and interactions of the awesome forces of nature that shape the world's environment. Within the past two decades, a mere twenty years, scientists have adapted satellites and computers into a system for collecting and analysing data about the Earth and its resources without which man could not hope to acquire the information necessary to make the decisions required to achieve sustainable development.

Other kinds of technology, particularly construction and extractive industrial technology, have given man the ability to harvest and consume resources faster than they can be regenerated. This combined with a population that is both increasing in numbers and increasing its level of consumption of resources has placed a severe strain on the world's resources. In order to achieve a balance between consumption and regeneration, there is a great need for a means of monitoring the effects of both consumption and regeneration on the environment. In the late 19605 and early 1970s advances in satellite technology were at a point where continuous monitoring of the Earth and its environment from space became feasible. At the same time the development of digital imaging and advances in computer technology made processing and analysing the vast amounts of data that could be collected by earth orbiting satellites feasible.

Now there are almost no limits to the kind and quantity of data that can be collected and analysed through the use of a multiplicity of systems. Satellite systems have been designed to image objects as small as a few centimeters in size to covering whole continents or whole hemispheres on a single scene. Furthermore, imaging devices carried on satellites can "see" more than the human eye because

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they can record energy reflected from objects on the earth in wave lengths that are beyond the range of human sensors. For example, recording data in the near infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum (just beyond the visible range) provides more information about the condition of vegetation than can be seen by the human eye. Near infrared is also better for distinguishing between moist and dry soil, an important feature for agricultural applications. Cloud penetrating radar is useful in perpetually cloud covered areas of the tropics. Ground penetrating radar can be used for collecting information about the layers of soil and rock below the earth's surface. These data can then be transmitted directly to ground processing stations or relayed by satellite communication systems to any point on earth for processing and distribution to those who have to make decisions about how the earth's resources shall be utilized.

Computers can tum these billions of bits of data into picture-like images or process them to enhance virtually all natural and man-made features on or near the surface of the earth for ease of interpretation and better understanding. Geographic information systems have been devised to arrange this information into single themes or complex combinations for accurate analyses. Global positioning systems have again combined satellite and computer technology to enable scientists to pinpoint the precise location of geographic positions on the surface of the earth and repeat this georeferencing so that data collected at different times can be registered accurately for temporal analyses.

During the past few decades, when most of the major technological breakthroughs have occurred, we have learned that the keys to utilizing and reaping the benefits of new technologies are not always technical in nature. The limiting factors in implementing a new technology are often organizational and financial. And so it is with the remote sensing programme in Africa. Computer hardware and software, if not always abundant, are available and accessible to most African resource managers.

Technical skills for resource data processing and analysis are also found in virtually all of the organizations dealing with resource and environmental technologies. Through the many training programmes that have been developed in Africa as well as the willingness of donor countries to support the training of Afiicans in their own countries, there has emerged within the past two decades a large pool of persons skilled in all aspects of digital processing technology.

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Recognizing that these technologies may not be fully utilized, or at least that there are furtber benefits tbat can be derived, the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa has launched a Review Mission to ascertain tbe present status of remote sensing in Africa and to detennine tbe extent to which it has served the interests ofECA member states. The Consultant recruited for this Mission has traveUed to thirteen Afiican countries and visited approximately eighty organizations which use the technology for resource and environmental assessments. Based on the findings of these visits, the Consultant has prepared recommendations for ECA, the regional organizations and user organizations in the member states for reorienting and adjusting their programmes in light of the goals of Agenda 21 and the requirements of sustainable development.

This report contains the directives, the observations, the findings and the recommendations of the Review Mission.

1.2 Historical Perspective

Afiica has not been left behind in this world of rapidly changing technology. Even before the first Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS-l) was launched in 1972, Afiican scientists were busy preparing proposals for submission to the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for participation in a programme ofERTS-1 experiments (National Academy of Sciences).

Those chosen to participate were given free images from this first satellite in exchange for an agreement to share the results of their investigations into the suitability of this new technology for resource and environmental monitoring. Participating scientists were also invited to attend international conferences to share their newly acquired knowledge with scientists from around the world. From that time on Aftican scientists, with the support of their governments, have been moving forward to apply this technology toward achieving a better understanding of a condnent rich in resources.

Remote sensing in Aftica became institutionalized in the mid-1970s. As early as 1973 a seminar was held in West Aftica to introduce scientists to the benefits of the technology and in 1974 a Remote Sensing Seminar and Workshop was held in Nairobi to introduce scientists and educators in Eastern and Southern Afiica to the imagery collected by this first Earth Resources Technology Satellite. In

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1975 one of the first African organizations to host a remote sensing activity was founded. Known as the Regional Centre for Services in Surveying and Mapping (RCSSM), this organization was formed to train surveyors and photogrammetrists from throughout the region and to provide services to member states in surveying international boundaries and repairing surveying equipment. In 1977 the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) concluded an agreement with RCSSM to set up a semi-autonomous project at RCSSM headquarters to be known as the Regional Remote S~nsing Facility. This was a fortuitous arrangement for both parties. USAID needed an indigenous African organization to host its Facility and RCSSM needed a high-visibility activity to attract further member state and donor support. The Centre generously provided classroom, laboratory and office space in addition to support staff while the Facility brought in equipment and satellite imagery and began training resource managers from throughout the region.

At about this same time other developments were taking place in various places in Africa. The Regional Centre for Training in Aerospace Surveys (RECT AS) in Nigeria, which was developed in 1972 for aerial survey training, began introducing training in the use of satellite imagery along with its aerial survey training. It also was regional in the sense that it accepted trainees from throughout Africa. Drought conditions in the Sahel at that time had attracted French, Canadian, American and other aid in drought and environmental monitoring. The Permanent Inter-State Committee on Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS) was among the regional organizations formed but it was felt that a regional training centre in remote sensing for Frankaphone Africa was also needed. Through an agreement with the government ofthen Upper Volta, a site near Ouagadougou was selected for the Centre Regional Teledetection (CRTO).

Zaire at that time was also among the countries receiving technical assistance for training and applications in remote sensing and had set up a national centre. The Government of Zaire, wishing to share this technology with other Central African states, expressed interest in having its centre included in an expanding network of regional centres. Egypt similarly had a well developed national centre which it too wished to have utilized for sharing its technology with Northern African countries.

Seeing the need for coordinating and sharing information not only at the sub-regional level but also at the African regional level, the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa fonned the

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African Remote Sensing Council. The objective of the Council was to form a linkage among the five centres to share information and promote standardization of procedures. ECA sponsored regular meetings at various sites on the continent with representatives from the regional centres attending regularly.

In addition to the regular members from the centres, observers from Europe, the Americas and Asia were welcome to attend. This gave centre personnel an opportunity to meet with leaders in the development of the technology and with potential aid donors. As a result strong technical bonds were developed between scientists in the developed and developing countries which exist to this day.

Projects which have benefitted almost every African country were a direct result of linkages and communication developed during these meetings.

As the technology spread and more and more scientists and government officials became aware of its many benefits for monitoring resources and environment, virtually all of the African countries acquired some type of remote sensing activity. Most African universities began offering courses in remote sensing either through their geography or surveying departments or both. Many donor funded projects were set up to address a specific data need. These were hosted by national agencies such as ministries of agriculture, water development, furestry and others. Many countries seeing the need for a national focal point for remote sensing established national centres for training, data analysis and technical assistance.

Now with almost every country having centres and agencies using remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) technology there is once again a need to examine the role of regional centres and to ascertain whether they are continuing to meet the needs of member states.

There is also a need to examine the question of how to maintain coordination and linkages among these many organizations that have begun using these technologies since the centres were developed.

Because of the rapidly changing nature of these technologies there is a continuing need to train scientists in the use of new computers and new software and to familiarize them with new satellite systems and data products that are being developed regularly. The changing technology is continuously opening up new possibilities for new applications which also require new training programmes and the need for infonnation sharing seminars and workshops.

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Once again the Economic Commission for Africa is looking ahead and has financed this study to investigate the need for administrative and organizational changes in light of the great attention being focused on the need for sustainable development. It is hoped that the observations and reconunendations contained in this report will provide workable guidelines for restructuring and reorienting the remote sensing progranune in Africa.

1.3 Sustainable Development

In a business sense, sustainable development occurs when output exceeds input. In other words, the value of a product produced must be greater than the value of the raw materials used to produce the product, the labour required, amortization of equipment required and any other costs related to the conduct of that business.

In agricultural development in Africa, the value of crops produced must likewise be greater than the value of the fertilizer, labour and tools required to grow the crops. Any soil erosion or land degradation that occurs from agriculture must be considered an additional cost. For agriculture to be sustainable, measures must be taken to prevent erosion and degradation and those costs must be included in the cost of production.

In forestry, the rate of harvest of trees for fuelwood, charcoal production, building materials and other uses such as tobacco curing must not exceed the rate of regeneration or the forests are not sustainable. Vigorous reforestation and afforestation programmes are necessary to ensure sustainability.

In the area of mineral extraction, the supply of minerals for building materials such as sand and gravel is generally considered inexhaustible. Therefore the cost of excavation, hauling, treating, placing or utilizing and land reclamation are the main costs to be considered in sustainability calculations. Where privately owned land is concerned, the supply is exhaustible and payment of royalties to the land owner must be considered as an additional expense. Other minerals such as gold, silver, diamonds, iron ore, etc. are also exhaustible and royalties relating to the value of the resource and any land reclamation must be considered.

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Water in Africa is a very valuable resource and its conservation and sensible uti1ization must be carefully considered, Because water is a fluid and therefore a moveable resource, modern technology is the only way it can be monitored effectively, The day to day monitoring of water is particularly important in developing measures to ensure its sustainability,

The sum of all of these resources comprises the total carrying capacity of the Earth, According to UNCED, more extensive knowledge of the Earth's carrying capacity is required to promote sustainable development,

Despite all of the technological advances of the past few decades, we are not yet at the point where the Earth's carrying capacity can be determined, Not only are there too many variables, but mankind has a way of increasing the productivity of land to accommodate increases in population, Still the world has a history of devastating droughts which place millions of persons at risk During the past decade, a number of drought monitoring centres have been developed or expanded in Africa, Using weather satellite data, these centres monitor the vegetation growth in order to provide an early warning fur those responsible for food security, This is one example of how technology can be used to monitor the balance between production and need, With the combination of weather and land oriented satellite data along with modern hardware and software used for processing these data, we are approaching the point of being able to monitor carrying capacity for particular regions and even whole countries on a year to year basis, With further improvements in the technology that ultimate goal of monitoring the earth's carrying capacity begins to come within sight.

1.4 Tbe Role of Tecbnology

Development in Africa is resource oriented--agriculture and mining--and will be for many years to come. In order for this development to be sustainable, intelligent decisions have to be made about how these resources are managed,

These resources, by definition, are spread across the length and breadth of the continent, Managing them requires a good knowledge of the geography of the areas where these management activities are to take place. Because of the vast areas involved and because much of the area is sparsely populated with difficult access, efficient ways of collecting this geographic information need

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to be utilized.

Maps are the first obvious sources of geographic information. But according to the United Nations Global Mapping Census, the topographic mapping coverage of Africa is only 35% completed at the 1 :50,000 scale which is generally the largest scale available on a comprehensive basis. This is also the scale in greatest demand for development planning. For reconnaissance map coverage at the 1:200,000 or 1:250,000 scales the situation is somewhat better with 87% coverage. However, at all of these scales, the accuracy and reliability vary widely and much of the map coverage dates back to the colonial period, Also, these are mostly topographic maps containing contour lines and cultural features such as roads and towns but very little thematic data, While these maps are a good starting point for development planning, they need to be updated because of the many changes that have taken place during the past twenty or thirty years. Also, planners need information about vegetation cover, soil conditions, land use and water distribution. Furthermore, they need to look back to observe trends and need to begin building archives of this information SO that trends can be monitored.

Obviously something more than mapping from conventional black and white aerial photographs is needed given the magnitude and complexity of the problem. Fortunately modem technology has developed some tools which make this feasible. Satellite remote sensing, along with aerial photography, geographic information systems (GIS), global positioning systems (GPS), cartography and related technologies have been integrated into a system which can address both the quantity and diversity of data needs, Details of how these systems can be employed to address the information needs are found in the following section.

2

THE TECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICA nONS

2.1 Technological Scope

The Terms ofRefurence for the Review Mission connnissioned by the United Nations Economic Connnission for Africa call for an assessment of the effectiveness of the remote sensing programme in Africa in the light of the goals of Agenda 21 and the requirements of sustainable development.

While temote sensing is the focal point of the Mission's efforts, the emphasis is on sustainable development and the application of those technologies which provide the information necessary for

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good decision making, Accordingly, this report reviews the utilization not only of remote sensing but also related technologies which are used to collect data and convert those data into information useful to decision makers, The following sections summarize the application of remote sensing as well as these related technologies.

2.1, I Remote Sensjna

As the term implies, remote sensing is the sensing of something by something from a distance, This includes radar, heat sensing by infrared sensors, aerial photography, as well as photographing or imaging the earth from space, The term remote sensing has long been associated with the collection of images by the land oriented satellites such as Landsat and SPOT but other forms of remote sensing are important for particular applications,

At the present time there are six land oriented satellite systems in operation, These along with the countries or groups of countries which operate the satellites are: Landsats 4 and 5 (United States), IRS-IA and IRS-lB (India), SPOT I and SPOT 2 (France), ERS-I (European Space Agency), MOS- 1 and MOS-Ib (Japan) and JERS-I (Japan),

Taken together, these systems carry a variety of instrument packages with several different imaging systems, All except ERS-I carry scanners with broad spectral resolution ranging from .45 microns (visible blue) to 12.4 microns (thermal infrared), Spatial resolution varies from 80 meters for the Landsat MSS imagery to 30 meters for Landsat TM imagery to 10 meters for SPOT panchromatic imagery, Other sensors include a Linear Imaging Self Scanning (LISS) camera carried by the IRS Indian satellites, a Visible and Thermal Infrared Radiometer (VTIR), a Multispectral Electronic Self-Scanning Radiometer (MESSR) and a Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) by the Japanese satellites, ERS-J carries a variety of instruments which include synthetic aperture radar, radar altimeter, microwave and radiometer technology. Annex A contains a comparison of satellites and sensors for the earth resources satellite systems prepared by the EOSA T Company.

The systems which image in the visible and near infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum are those which are most commonly used for resource analysis and environmental monitoring, Satellite based remote sensing systems have several advantages over aircraft based systems and there

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are certain applications which lend themselves to this type of monitoring. The high altitudes of the satellites makes coverage of large areas on a single frame feasible and this kind of imagery is good for monitoring resource and environmental conditions over large areas. Exposure and lighting conditions over the entire frame are constant leading to more accurate interpretation of regional vegetation distribution. Repeat coverage is economically feasible with satellite based systems and this is useful for the kind of change monitoring that is necessary for virtually all resource and environmental studies. These include crops monitoring during the growing season, grazing conditions, floods, fires and weather patterns. Even land use changes need to be monitored more frequently than the five to ten year intervals that are common between air photo coverages for mapping. Because satellites are well above the Earth's atmosphere, they are not subject to the air turbulence that causes distortion in aerial photography. Because of this and the high altitude of the platform relative to terrain elevation differences, a satellite image is very comparable to an orthophotograph. Satellite images are not only useful for mapping, because of their high degree of dimensional accuracy, they are good map substitutes for poorly mapped areas. While aircraft can also carry digital scanners, all satellite imaging systems are digital. This has led to the development of digital processing technology which has become standard in the field of satellite remote sensing.

Digital processing is useful for image rectification, contrast enhancement, preparation of mosaics and the classification of objects according to their reflectance characteristics. Where some of these processes were done in photo labs in the early days of satellite technology, computer processing is now the accepted standard. While digital classification will never completely replace conventional photo interpretation techniques, it is another powerful tool which has accompanied the development of satellite technology.

2.l.2 Aerial Photography

The main advantage of aerial photography over satellite remote sensing is flexibility. Aircraft can be dispatched with a few hours notice to photograph floods, forest fires and other natural phenomenon or man-made disasters. Aircraft can also be equipped with many different types of

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sensors to satisfy specific mission requirements. These include large format cameras, small format cameras, video cameras, multispectral scanners, infrared scanners, etc.

Most resource managers realize that there is no single technology that will satisfy all of their data needs. Accordingly they will adapt and use different combinations. Most commonly aerial photography is used in conjunction with satellite imagery for a close-up look at objects or features which cannot be identified on the lower resolution satellite imagery. Thus the photography provides the identification of a feature whose boundaries can be traced on a satellite image.

Large format black and white aerial photographs are the preferred medium for photogrammetric mapping and extra prints can usually be obtained from survey departments at nominal cost. The scale range is generally from 1: 10,000 to 1:50,000. This scale range is still too small for identifying small cultivated plots such as found in most subsistence farming areas. Also at these scales in black and white it is difficult to distinguish cultivation from fallow and bush land.

For crop and livestock monitoring in these areas it is usually better to consider small format (35 and 70mm) photography in colour or colour infrared taken from light aircraft. When this imagery is collected on a sampling basis the cost is also quite nominal.

2.1.3 Global Positioning System (GPS)

GPS technology is an important supplement to any form of remote sensing. As mentioned earlier, a resource manager needs to be able to identify an object or feature and determine its geographic position.

A geo-positioning satellite system which was designed for military applications is now available for civilian use. A constellation of orbiting satellites, known as Navstar, continuously transmits locational signals to earth. These signals can be picked up by with small hand held receivers to determine positions to within a few hundred meters. Larger receiving units are available for more precise positioning and when combined with a base station, geographic positions (latitude and longitude or coordinates) may be determined to within a few centimeters.

With either system, positions can be determined in a few minutes with receivers held on or near a point of unknown position. Boundaries can thus be determined by visiting all comers or angle

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points with a receiver. Or, if the boundary is irregular, a receiver can be walked or driven along the boundary line as long as obstacles, such as trees, do not interrupt the continuous signal from satellite to receiver. Positions of individual objects may be determined or the system can be used to establish control points for photos or satellite images.

Because these receivers may be carried in moving vehicles, including aircraft, they are becoming increasingly popular as a means of controlling aerial photography. GPS is used both to guide the pilot along pre-determined flight lines and to position the principal points of individual photos.

2.1.4 Geographic Information Systems

A geographic information system, or GIS, is a combination of data, software, hardware, procedures and personnel, designed to input, manage, analyse, update and output geo-referenced information in a number of formats. These key components of a GIS are interdependent and interrelated. Therefore, the requirements for each component should be clearly understood and addressed during the implementation process in order to establish an effective information system.

In practical terms this means that GIS is a tool for layering different kinds of data in different combinations for a complex analysis of the interrelationships between different phenomenon. For example, a parcel of land may be considered suitable for agriculture if layers of favourable soil, rainfall, temperature and accessibility all converge over that parcel. Another layer showing tse-tse infestations may, however, invalidate the previous suitability determination but this information is vital for investors. In the area of information technologies, GIS can provide integrated information management capabilities required for the establishment of a Land Information System (LIS) with information pertaining to all aspects of the land and its resources. A GIS supplies the tools required for integrating spatial data, represented as digital maps or "coverages," with related data sets in a relational data base management system. Numerous installations have shown that the ability of GIS technology to integrate diverse spatial and attribute information in one automated information system is particularly well suited to land management and planning applications which require an interdisciplinary approach. GIS and remote sensing are complementary because remote sensing

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technology has the capacity to collect large amounts of data and GIS is the only practical system for converting these large amounts of data into useable information.

2.1.5 Weather Satellites

Within the past few years a great deal of attention has been focused on food security, early warning and desertification. Knowledge of these phenomena is vital if widespread suffering is to be prevented during years of drought. Weather satellite data, another form of remote sensing, is being analysed and used by more and more agencies concerned with these problems. Two weather satellite systems are presently in use. Meteosat is a geostationary meteorological satellite positioned over the Greenwich Meridian at zero degrees latitude. It provides intagery of the hemisphere in the visible part of the spectrum during daylight hours and infrared imagery throughout the day and night. Receiving stations receive Meteosat data in real time at ha1f·hour intervals. Meteosat cloud cover imagery makes a valuable contribution to the preparation of daily weather forecasts by providing meteorological information for the entire continent of Afiica. The other system is NOM which provides day and night cloud cover mapping, sea surface temperature mapping, data for calculating the NOIma1ized Differential Vegetation Indexes (NDVI) for monitoring regional vegetation changes, drought monitoring and geological applications. This satellite is in a near·polar orbit and data from its Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (A VHRR) are acquired during an average of three overflights a day.

3

THE REVIEW MISSION 3.1 Need for Study

When satellite imagery first became available to the world there was need to provide orientation and training in the use of the imagery to as many resource managers as possible and as as rapidly as possible. Pilot and demonstration projects were developed to test and demonstrate the utility of this technology for resource analysis and environmental monitoring. Demonstration materials were prepared and seminars held for the benefit of decision makers who would be responsible for

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approving funding for continuing activities after the short-term support by donors ended. National and regional centres were established around the world to provide training and technical assistance in the utilization of this new technology.

There was interest in providing training for African resource managers but differing opinions on how the training should be implemented. In the beginning it was envisaged that there should be a broad exposure to this new technology in the form of short courses and orientation seminars. There was an awareness of the need for extended training but, with reference to the United States and European models, it was felt that long-term professional training would be the responsibility of the universities. It was considered that remote sensing is a tool, like mathematics, and would be taught in universities as a supporting subject to biology, forestry, agriculture, etc. just as mathematics and physics are taught as supporting subjects to engineering. Given the training needs and the limited amount of money available to donor agencies supporting the use of this technology, regional centres were the only practical means of satisfying these needs.

Now, twenty years later, conditions have changed. There is a high level of awareness of the benefits of remote sensing and related technologies in virtually all African countries. This is largely due to the success of the early efforts of the regional centres in disseminating information about the technology as widely as possible. Also, the technology itseJfhas changed dramatically during the past twenty years. Digital image processing has been widely adopted and personal computers have taken over from photo labs as the means of processing data. High quality printers are now available which can convert digital data into thematic maps or photograph-like images. Digitizers, scanners, colour copiers and plotters are other accessories which are becoming readily available and, along with computers, are affordable to most organizations. Furthermore, the training needed to operate this equipment and the associated software is much more readily available than it was a few years ago.

Therefore, not only every country but every agency within each country that has a need for geographic data has potential for setting up its own processing and analysis facility with one or two computers plus software and accessories. Given these developments, the question arises as to whether regional centres are still necessary or whether we should concentrate on national centres or simply let the technology infiltrate by itself into offices that require geographic data. If regional

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centres are still desirable, what new functions should they perfonn and what old activities should be cut out? Also, should the centres be financed by continued contributions from member states and aid donors or should they become self supporting through reimbursable services.

There is also the question of how this technology is helping deVeloping countries promote sustainable development particularly in the area of renewable resources. This and the questions raised above illustrate the need for this study. Clearly the world of geographic information technology has changed and the challenge is now to develop an organizational structure that will support the continued utilization of the technology for development.

It is with these considerations in mind that the Economic Commission for Africa has decided to take a new look at the status of the African Remote Sensing Programme and make a determination as to whether it is meeting the needs of member states in light of the goals of Agenda 21.

3.2 Terms ofreference

"Ascertain the status of the Remote Sensing Programme in Africa, the results attained and particularly to what extent it has served the interests ofECA member states. Access current and future development needs in remote sensing and GIS ofthe member states and how the Regional Centres' plans and programmes are relevant to those needs.

Review the expertise, equipment and structure of the Regional Centres with a view of determining if the needs of member states can be met.

Assess the present relevance of the remote sensing Prugramme in Africa, and make recommendations to governments and donors with a view of reorienting and adjusting it in the light of the goals of Agenda 21 and the requirements of sustainable development."

3.3 Interpretation ofthe Terms of Reference

In order to achieve a clear understanding between the Consultant and ECA, the Tenns of Reference have been discussed in detail. Following is a review of the results of these discussions with ECA as related to specific items in the ToR:

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In order to ascertain the status and results of remote sensing in Africa, it was agreed that the Consultant would visit selected countries to make these determinations first hand. It was further agreed that within these countries the Consultant would visit appropriate international, regional and governmental organizations and project sites.

The Consultant's mission would be conducted in two phases. The first phase would cover the East and Southern African states of Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Botswana, South Africa, Swaziland and Zimbabwe. The second phase would cover the West African states of Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire, Senegal, Niger and Burkina Faso.

The selection or organizations to be visited would depend partly on recommendations of the primary contact organization in each country and the availability of key personnel during the short time the Consultant would be in each country. Annex B contains a list of organizations and projects of interest to this study. Actual organizations and projects to be visited would be drawn from this list. The Consultant would, of course, select organizations and projects which are known to be using, or having a use for, remote sensing and related technologies.

Existing regional centres being the focal points for remote senaing activity in the respective regions would be the primary organizations of interest for the Consultant's mission. Accordingly, the Consultant would spend proportionately more time at each centre than at the user organizations.

Because the regional centres are most closely linked with the survey departments or surveying and mapping agencies in each country, the survey departments were selected as the coordinating organizations for visits to, and communication with, user agencies in each country. Accordingly it is observations made during visits to the regional centres, the survey departments, the user agencies and related project activities that will contribute to an assessment of the status of remote sensing in Africa.

3.4 Selection of Indicators

In making an assessment of the contribution of remote sensing to sustainable development, it was necessary to select indicators that are a measure of how well the technology is being adapted and utilized in the resource and environmental fields for which the technology was developed. Following

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is a review of the Tenns of Reference with an explanation of what indicators were used to make the necessary assessments .

.. Access [or assess] current and future development needs in remote sensing and GIS of the member states and how the Regional Centres' plans and programmes are relevant to those needs,"

Remote sensing, GIS, GPS, photogrammetric mapping and aerial photography for resource evaluation are all technologies which have been accepted by the World's scientific community as those which are essential for the observation, measurement, assessment, evaluation and monitoring of resources and environment. The extent to which these technologies are being utilized effectively by the organizations visited will serve as an indicator of how the current and future development needs in remote sensing are being met. Because of the rapidly changing nature of these technologies, it will also be necessary to look at the future plan and programmes of the centres as projected in their development plans. These development plans will serve as indicators of the extent to which the centres will satisfy future development needs.

"Review the expertise, equipment and structure of the Regional Centres with a view of determining if the needs of member states can be met,"

Within the community of technologies listed in preceding paragraphs, there are certain standards of equipment and expertise that have been accepted by scientists throughout the world. For example, Thematic Mapper (TM) satellite imagery has greater spectral and spatial resolution than the Multispectral Scanner (MSS) imagery which was the primary imagery available from earlier satellites.

Accordingly 1M imagery is now preferred for most applications and will be used by any organization that is keeping current with the technology. Also, digital analysis and digital classification of data is the accepted standard for many applications. This technology should be available at every centre.

With the successful placement of the Navstar Constellation of global positioning satellites, the Global Positioning System (GPS) is now the accepted standard for establishing gendetic and gengraphic positions on the surface of the earth. GPS receivers of varying positioning capabilities along with supporting software are now in common use and their availability at a regional centre

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would be an indicator of the extent to which that centre is keeping current. The p(eviously used doppler system is now considered obsolete.

During the past several years, many kinds of geographic information system (GIS) software have been developed. While some of the lesser known brands are still being used for some special advantage they posses, the field of GIS software has narrowed to only three or four leaders which are universally accepted. Accordingly, personnel at a centre teaching GIS should be conversant with at least one of the leading brands.

Photogrnmmetric mapping has also evolved into the digital and analytic plotter realm with analog plotters being replaced or converted. Forward motion compensation cameras are also an accepted standard and should be available for any high precision photogrammetric mapping. However, it must be remembered that these cameras are expensive and unnecessary fur many kinds of resource photography. A centre that is competent in both conventional photogrammetric mapping and resource analysis would use small format cameras, video cameras andlor aerial scarmers on small aircraft for many kinds of resource photography.

The training and experience of the centres' staff members is one indicator of their expertise. The quality of maps, reports and other documents they produce is another. As noted above the Consultant has agreed to visit several user agencies in each country. Most of these agencies have had contact with the centres and their experience with the quality of the centres' work will be a very important indicator of the expertise of their respective centre.

The structure of each centre will be an important indication of how they are meeting the needs of member states. It should be noted that the three centres to be visited were developed independently , of each other and at different times. Therefore, some differences in structuring are to be expected but these differences will not necessarily mean that one centre is structured better than another.

What is important is whether a given centre is structured to satisfy the needs for which it was developed. Again, comments of user agencies will be important indicators. Also, centres are expected to operate like efficient businesses. Shortages of technical personnel in important application areas will be noted as well as excesses of administrative and support personnel.

Imbalances in these areas will indicate a need for restructuring.

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Finally, it is known that all three centres are having financial difficulties. Donor assistance that was available in the 1970s and 1980s has all but stopped. At the same time, many of the member states have fallen behind on their payments to the Centres. Therefore, if it becomes apparent that one or more of the centres do not have sufficient income to carry out an effective programme, this will be an indicator that the centres are not meeting the needs of member states.

"Assess the present relevance of the Remote Sensing Programme in Africa. and make recommendations to governments and donors with a view of reorienting and adjusting it in the light of the goals of Agenda 21 and the requirements of sustainable development."

Agenda 21, The United Nations Programme of Action for Sustainable Development from the "Rio Declaration on Environment and Development" is a very comprehensive set of guidelines, recommendations, objectives and goals for achieving environmental stability and sustainable development. Sustainable development in the utilization of renewable resources depends on several factors including assessment and monitoring of physical resources, marketing, combating poverty, education and many others. Agenda 21 lists and describes several areas where resource oriented technologies can play a significant role in providing the information needed to make intelligent decisions about resource management.

Following are some key items from Agenda 21 for achieving sustainable development which were used as indicators. The extent to which countries are involved in these programmes and using remote sensing and related technologies to carry out these programmes indicates to what extent the technology is supporting sustainable development.

Promoting sustainable human settlement development. Among the requirements for promoting sustainable human settlement development is the need for sustainable land use planning and management. "The objective is to provide for the land requirements of human settlement development through environmentally sound physical planning and land use so as to ensure access to land to all households and where appropriate the encouragement of communally and collectively owned and managed land" (Section 7.28, page 56).

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Integrated approach to the planning and management of land resources. According to Agenda 21, "Land is a finite resource," "By examining all uses ofland in an integrated manner, it makes it possible to minimize conflicts, to make the most efficient trade-offs and to link social and economic development with environmental protection and enhancement, thus helping to achieve the objectives of sustainable development." (Section 10.1, page 84). Among the activities required to achieve the above stated objective is to "Adopt improved systems for the interpretation and integrated analysis of data on land use and land resources" (Section I 0.8a, page 86).

Combating deforestation. Among the stated objectives for combating deforestation are "To strengthen forest-related national institutions, ... " (Section I L2a, page 88), "To strengthen and improve human, technical and professional skills .... " (Section I L2b) and "Establishing andior strengthening capacities for the planning, assessment and systematic observation of forests ... "

(Section 11.28D, page 95).

Manawni fraWle ecosystems; Combating desertification and drought Among the objectives of this programme are: "To promote the establishment andior strengthening of national environmental information coordination centres that will act as focal points within Governments ... " (Section 12.6a, page 99), "To strengthen regional and global systematic observation networks linked to the development of national systems for the observation of land degradation and desertification ... "

(Section 12.6b, page 99) and "To establish a permanent system at both national and international levels for monitoring desertification and land degradation ... " (Section 12.6c, page 99).

Promoting sustainable agricuhure and rural development, According to Agenda 21, "By the year 2025, 83 per cent of the expected global population of 8.5 billion will be living in developing countries." "Agriculture has to meet this challenge, mainly by increasing production on land already in use and by avoiding further encroachment on land that is only marginally suitable for cultivation."

(Section 14.1, page 114). Here the objectives and needs are obvious. Only advanced technology can provide the large amounts of land use and land suitability that are required to provide decision makers with the information to distinguish between suitable and marginally suitable land.

3.5 Description and Scope of the Study

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This study, commissioned by the Natural Resources Division of the United Nations Economic Commission for Afiica, conunenced on 25 April 1995 with visits to various international and national donor organizations in the United States and Europe. During the period 4 to 13 May the details of the Consultant's mission were worked out between ECA and the Consultant. The Terms of Reference were discussed in detail and a list of thirteen countries to be visited was selected. The mission was conducted in two phases as described above. The phased visit plan was carried out as described with the first phase covering the Eastern and Southern Afiican countries of Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Botswana, Republic of South Afiica, Swaziland and Zimbabwe and the second phase covering the Western African countries of Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire, Senegal, Niger and Burkina Faso.

Annex B contains a list of organizations from which the Consultant, with the help of contacts in each country, selected organizations to visit. It was not intended that all of the organizations listed in Annex A be visited. Annex B is simply a list of known organizations of the type that ECA and the Consultant felt would be useful for inclusion in the study. However, a sampling of organizations from each of the levels in Annex B was visited. The international organizations visited were selected by the Consultant in consultation with ECA. The national organizations in each country were selected by the principal contact in each country which, in most cases, were the survey departments andlor the regional centers.

By advance scheduling and with the cooperation of these contact organizations in participating countries, the Consultant was able to visit five to seven organizations during the two to three days spent in each country. Annex C contains the name, address and brief summary of each of the approximately eighty organizations visited.

This list of organizations visited includes some of the major international organizations that have played a part in supporting the development of remote sensing and resource analysis capabilities in Afiica as well as important bilateral donor agencies which have supported the development of remote sensing capabilities.

At the sub-regional level are to be found the three primary regional remote sensing centres, RCSSMRS, RECTAS and CRTO. These are the main focal points of the study because they are

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considered to be the main coordinating bodies for the countries within their respective regions. In addition there are a number of specialized organizations at the sub-regional level which were developed to address particular problems such as drought monitoring and food security.

Within each country there is a diverse group of organizations, mostly within government ministries, which carry out the actual work of monitoring resources and the environment. These are the front-line organizations which use the technology to help address the real problems of food security, water and soil conservation, fuelwood and biomass monitoring, land utilization, agricultural production and many other areas critical to sustainable development In addition to these user organizations, there are in each country organizations traditionally designed to be the developers and keepers of a data base of geographic infurmation. These are the survey departments or surveying and mapping agencies which were initially oriented toward traditional photogrammetric mapping but which also utilize satellite remote sensing technology.

Finally, there are a number of donor-sponsored projects. Most cover a small area, a river basin or irrigation scheme, but some cover large regions or the entire continent as in the case of the F AO- sponsored Afiicover project A selected sample of donor-sponsored projects were included among the visitations ofthis mission. Because of the 6mited time available for each visit, it was not the intent of the Consultant to do a detailed evaluation of the competence or effectiveness of the organizations visited. Neither was it the intent to provide a complete inventory of projects and facilities of these organizations. Rather, the intent was to gain a broad-based overview of remote sensing utilization in the region in order to determine if the recommendations for sustainable development as detailed in Agenda 21 were being met To accomplish this the Consultant attempted to ascertain the extent to which each organization was using the technology to support resource and environmental decision making. Views were also solicited from members of these organizations on whether or not the ECA- sponsored regional centres were meeting the needs of member slates. The conclusions and recommendations in the following sections have been derived from this overview.

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4

THE PRESENT REMOTE SENSING NETWORK IN AFRICA 4.1 Overview

The remote sensing programme in Africa is a complex network of interrelated organizations having different roles, different functions and different objectives. These organizations are international, regional, sub-regional and national in geographic scope. Their roles include development assistance, coordination, financing of development projects, donor provided technical assistance, resource management, environmental monitoring, mapping, and others which use, produce and analyse resource data.

Even those organizations which are involved in financing general development projects are important to this study because their activities impact on the utilization of the teclmology in many different ways. The donor and development assistance organizations often provide direct financial support to the development of teclmclogy transrer efforts. Some of the major regional organizations such as SADC and CILSS have broad development and food security mandates and thereby of necessity support technical activities in mapping and remote sensing. Lending organizations such as the World Bank and the African Development Bank support general development projects, many of which depend on remotely sensed data in their planning and execution. Involvement in international development projects is a major opportunity for African remote sensing organizations.

4.2 The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa

As the coordinating agency fur all United Nations activities in Africa, ECA is a major player in the development and utilization of remote sensing for resource and environmental monitoring in support of sustainable development. ECA's major effort in remote sensing has been the sponsorship of three regional remote sensing training and technical assistance centres. These are the Regional Centre for Services in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing (RCSSMRS) in Nairobi, Kenya, the Regional Centre for Training in Aerospace Surveys (RECTAS) in lie-Ire, Nigeria and the Centre Regional de Teledetection (CRTO) in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. These centres, which are the principal focus of this study and which are discussed in more detail in following sections, were

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established to provide training and technical services in the related fields of surveying, mapping, remote sensing and later the newer related technologies of GIS and GPS. ECA also sponsors other regional centres, such as the Afiican Centre of Meteorological Applications for Development and the Regional Mineral Resources Research Centre, which use remote sensing data.

While ECA is a coordinating rather than a funding agency, it continues to play an active role in the operation of the centres. The Executive Secretary of ECA or his appointed representative regularly chairs the governing council meetings of the centres. ECA staff also participate in other special events. The Cartography and Remote Sensing Unit of the Natural Resources Division maintains current files of all documents of the centres such as governing council meeting reports, future development plans, evaluation reports, financial reports and others.

ECA also helps the centres and member states keep up-to-date on the latest developments in remote sensing and related technologies through the organization of seminars and workshops. One example is the Regional Workshop for Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems for Afiican Decision Makers held in Nairobi in August 1991. ECA also supports and collaborates with other international organizations in the support of projects for African development such as Africover.

The Cartography and Remote Sensing Unit supports the dissemination of information on latest technological developments in cartography, remote sensing, GIS and related technologies through the regular publication of its "Bulletin." CRS encourages scientists from the African region to contribute articles and reports for the "Bulletin" that help colleagues keep current on new developments. CRS has also developed its own GIS through the recent acquisition of ARCIINFO software. CRS plans to use this new capability initially to develop a digital Atlas of African map and air photo coverage. Data for this Atlas were collected over a several year period making this a very valuable collection of information whose usefulness will be greatly enhanced by its inclusion in a digital data base. This data base will supplement the file of hard copy maps that ECA has also developed and maintained since the inception ofCRS.

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4.3 Regional Development and Food Security Organizations

Three existing sub-regional organizations in Africa deserve special mention because of their involvement in remote sensing and related activities, These organizations are the Comite Permanent Inter-Etats de Lulie contre la Secheresse dans Ie Sahel (CILSS) in Western Africa, the Inter- Governmental Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD) in the Hom of Africa region and the Southern African Development Community (SADC),

4.3, I Centre Permanent InterEtats de Lutte conlre in Secheresse dans Ie Sahel (CU,SS)

CILSS operates predominantly in the Sahelean region of West Africa and its membership consists ofnine countries in that region although other countries can participate in CILSS activities, CILSS receives its funding from the contributions of its nine member states and from a group of donors known as the Club du Sahel which is headquartered in Paris, CILSS has branches in three different countries which cover different aspects of its operation. The office in Ouagadougou is primarily political dealing with elementary security and the management of natural resources, The centre in Bamako deals with general development, population and agricultural research, CILSS' major contribution, as far as this study is concerned, is its support to the Agrhymet Centre in Niamey, Agrhymet is a large modem facility that was estahlished, to provide early warning through the dissemination of agre-meteorological and hydrological information, to help CILSS countries increase food production by providing relevant information to government agencies, donors and other user groups working with farmers and to create a natural resource and socioeconomic data management system to monitor degradation and environmental change, To achieve these goals Agrhymet collects, analyses and distributes NOAA and Meteosat data on a regular basis, Agrhymet also conducts remote sensing training and research in areas that affect agricultural development, Within the CILSS region but having a broader geographic mandate for interagency coordination and data distribution is another drought monitoring centre known as the African Centre of Meteorological Applications (ACMAD),

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