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Learning about Groups:

The Self and Social Networks in the Emergence of Stereotypes

Thesis submitted by Julia Charlotte EBERLEN

in fulfilment of the requirements of the PhD Degree in Psychological and

Educational Science (“Docteure en Sciences Psychologiques et de

l’Education”)

Academic year 2019-2020

Supervisor: Professor Olivier KLEIN

Co-supervisor: Professor Matteo GAGLIOLO

Center for Social and Cultural Psychology

Thesis jury:

Dr. Arnaud DESTREBECQZ (Université libre de Bruxelles, Chair)

Dr. Claudia TOMA Université libre de Bruxelles , Secretary)

Dr. Douglas MARTIN (University of Aberdeen)

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

First Chapter: Theoretical Introduction ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.1 Introduction: Chapter Overview ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.2 What are Stereotypes? ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.2.1 Definition, Importance, and Function of Stereotypes ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.2.2 The Negative Consequences of Stereotyping ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.2.3 Categorization ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.2.3.1 Comparative Fit and Self-Categorization Theory ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.2.3.2 Stereotyping Social Categories ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.2.4 The Learning and Formation of Stereotypes ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.2.4.1 Contingency-Based Learning ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.2.4.2 Social Learning of Stereotypes ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.2.4.3 Illusory Correlations ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.2.4.4 The Cognitive-Ecological Learning Approach ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.2.4.5 Developmental Intergroup Theory - How Children Learn Stereotypes. ... Error! Bookmark not

defined.

1.2.5 The Content of Stereotypes ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.2.5.1 Stereotype Valence ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.2.5.2 Focus on the Warmth Dimension ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.3 The Social Context of Stereotype Learning ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.3.1 Cultural and Personal Stereotypes ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.3.1.1 The Formation of Cultural Stereotypes ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.3.2 The Architecture of the Social World ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.3.2.1 What is a Network: the Technical Terms ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.3.2.2 Networks as Social Architecture ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.3.3 Networks in social psychology ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.3.3.1 Dynamic Social Impact Theory ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.3.3.2 The Complexity of the Social Context ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.4 Stereotype Formation and the Self ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.4.1 What is the Self? ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.4.2 The Self and its Relation to the Social Environment ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.4.2.1 Self-Categorization Theory ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.4.2.2 Unified theory ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.4.2.3 Situated Social Cognition ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.4.2.4 The Integrative Model of Social Identification ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.4.2.5 The Connection to CELA ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

1.5 Thesis Rationale ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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Chapter 2: C(l)ueless Stereotype Learning: Extracting Categories and Stereotypes from

Covariations of Traits? ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.1 Introduction ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.2 Current Project ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.3 Experiment 1 ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.3.1 Method ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.3.1.1 Participants ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.3.1.2 Material and Procedure ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.3.2 Analysis and Results Experiment 1 ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.3.2.1 Analysis of Stereotype Learning ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.3.2.2 Analysis of Confidence in Stereotype Judgment ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.3.2.3 Exploratory Analysis of Visual Categorization ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.3.3 Discussion Experiment 1 ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.4 Experiment 2 ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.4.1 Method ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.4.1.1 Material and Procedure ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.4.1.2 Participants ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.4.2 Analysis and Results Experiment 1 ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.4.2.1 Analysis of stereotype learning ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.4.2.2 Analysis of Confidence in Warmth Evaluation ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.4.2.3 Exploratory Analysis of Visual Categorization ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.4.3 Discussion Experiment 2 ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.5 Experiment 3 ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.5.1 Method Experiment 3 ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.5.1.1 Participants ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.5.1.2 Material and Procedure ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.5.2 Analysis and Results Experiment 3 ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.5.2.1 Analysis of Stereotype Learning ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.5.2.2 Confidence Evaluation ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.5.2.3 Difference in Learning for the Novel C Group ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.5.2.4 Analysis of Correct Categorization ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.5.3 Discussion Experiment 3 ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.6 Discussion ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.7 Conclusion ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Chapter 3: Stars and Cliques: Learning Stereotypes in Structurally Differently Social

Environments ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.1 Introduction ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.1.1 What are Social Networks? ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.1.1.1 Fully connected networks. ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.1.1.2 Star network. ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.1.2 Social Influence in a Network Context ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.1.3 Networks in Social Psychology: Structuring the Social Group ... Error! Bookmark not

defined.

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3.1.5 The Present Research ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.1.5.1 The Practical and Larger Theoretical Context of the Present Study Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.1.6 Research Question ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.1.6.1 Hypothesis 1: Convergence ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.1.6.2 Hypotheses 2: Learning and Confidence ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.1.6.3 Hypothesis 3: Individual Stereotypes vs. Group Stereotypes ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.2 Method ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.2.1 Participants ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.2.2 Material ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.2.3 Procedure ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.2.4 Diagnostic ratio ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.3 Analysis and Results ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.3.1 Hypothesis 1: Reinforcement and Distinctiveness of Initial Stereotypes .. Error! Bookmark

not defined.

3.3.1.1 Diagnostic Ratio in Fully Connected vs. Star Networks ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.3.1.3 Robustness of Direction of Stereotypes over Time ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.3.1.4 Standard Deviation: Reduction of Response Variation? ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.3.2 Hypothesis 2 ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.3.2.1 Individual Learning ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.3.2.2 Confidence in Warmth Rating ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.3.3 Hypothesis 3: Group Stereotype vs. Belief About Individuals ... Error! Bookmark not

defined.

3.4 Discussion ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.4.1 Hypothesis 1: Convergence to a Stereotype Consensus ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.4.2 Hypotheses 2: Stereotype Learning and Confidence ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.4.3 Hypothesis 3: Stereotypicality of Groups vs. Individuals ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.5 Conclusion ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Chapter 4: Am I cold? Investigating Ingroup Stereotype-Learning from a Self-Concept

Perspective ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.1 Introduction ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.1.1 Stereotypes ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.1.2 The Self ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.1.3 Examining the interaction between stereotypes and the self .. Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.1.4 Positivity bias of the self and group perception ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.1.5 Associative learning in social cognition ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.1.6 Current project ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.2 Formal Model ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.2.1 Weight assumptions ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.2.2 Model dynamics ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.3 Pilot Study ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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4.3.1.1 Participants ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.3.1.2 Material ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.3.1.3 Procedure ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.3.2 Results ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.3.3 Discussion ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.4 Simulation and statistical power analysis ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.5 Experiment 1 ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.5.1 Methods ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.5.1.1 Participants and design ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.5.1.2 Material ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.5.1.3 Procedure ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.5.2 Results ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.5.3 Simulation and fit to human data ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.5.4 Discussion Experiment 1 ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.6 Experiment 2 ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.6.1 Methods ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.6.1.1 Participants and design ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.6.1.2 Material and Procedure ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.6.2 Results ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.6.3 Simulation and fit to human data ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.6.4 Discussion Experiment 2 ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.6 Discussion ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Chapter 5: General Discussion ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

5.1 Summary of Empirical Results ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.2 The Findings in Context ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.3 Limitations ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.4 Can a Theory be too General? ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.5 Extending Stereotype Research with Agent-Based Models ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.6 Concluding Remarks ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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