PERCEmONS OF EDUCATORS TOWARDS TIlE ARTSIN SCHOOLCURRICULUM
By
DeborahA.Cantwell,a.Mus.,B.Mus,Ed.
A thesis
submittedto theSchool of GraduateStudies ir.partial fulfillment of therequirementsforthe degreeof
Master of Education
Faculty of Education
MemorialUniversity of Newfoundland January 1995
51.John's Newfoundland
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L'AtITEURA ACCORDEUNEUCENCE IRREVOCABLEET NONEXCWSIVE PERMElTANTALA BmLlOTHEQUE NATIONALE DUCANADA DE REPRO~UIRE,PRETER,D1STRlBUER OU VENDRE DESCOPIESDE SA lllESEDE QUELQUEMANIEREET SOUSQUELQUE FORMEQUECESOIT POURMEITRE DES EXEMPLAIRES DE CETIE
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A LA DISPOSITIONDES PERSONNEINTERESSEES.L'AtITEURCONSERVELAPROPRIETE DU DROITD'AtITEURQUI PROTEGE SA TIlESE.NI LATIlESENI DES EXTRAITS SUBSTANnaSDECELLE- CINEDOIVENI' ETRElMPRIMESOU AUTREMENT REPRODUITS SANSSON AUTORlSATlON.
Abstract
TheGovernment of Newfoundland and Labradorhasrecentlyoutlined and begunto implementitscomprehensivepla nfor revision andrestructurIng of the educational systeminthis province.The RoyalCommissionof Inquiry into the Deliveryof Programs and Services in Primary,Elementary,Seco ndary Education(1992),has placedthe school curriculumat theveryfocusof this process.Oneof the needsidentifiedbytheCommissionwas abalancedand relevantcurriculum.Insett ing directionforrevisionstothe present system, however,thiscomprehensiveand importantdocument,makesonlycursory re fe rence to the arts subjects. Of the two hundred and eleven recommendationsmadeby the Commission,nonemakementi on of the arts.
Thisstudyexaminedthe perceptionsof educatorstowards the arts in school curriculum.The intentionof Ihisresearch wastoset thestage, at thiscrucial time of changein our educationalsyste m,fora morecomprehensive understand ingof the role and placeof artssubjects in thetotaleducation of students.
The initialstageof theresea rchinvolved acriticalexa minationofthe most pertinenteducational documents andreview ofrelevant literature.The re searchertheninterviewed a cross-sectionofeducators from all levelsofthe
system inthis province.Thenine participantsdiscussed alist ofeight open- ended questio ns whichweredesignedto provideinformation about the percep tions ofthese educators towards theroleofartsin school curriculum.
Oneof the mostsignificantfindingsin the studywasthebroad agreem entthat the artssubjects have anessential role[0playin the overall educatio nof students. Further more.the participa ntsperceivedthe artstobe anessentialcomponentinprovidingqua lity education for studentsatall levels ofthe system.Itwouldappea r thatthe arts are perceived by educato rsas nurturingthevery characteristicsthat have beenidentifiedby the rec ent RoyalCommission,as wellasby othereducational report s, asessen tialto the future success of students.
Acknowledgments
Thisdocumentrepresentsthe culminat ion ofaperiodofstudy which has proven to beboth productive andrewarding.To Dr.Andrea Roseand Dr.Oar Doyle.Iextendwarm thanks and sincere appreciationfortheir advice,help and encouragement,
Thisresearch wouldnothave beenpossiblewithoutthe educatorswho participated. Despite busy schedules,these dedicated individua lsmadetime toshar e withme their ideas andperceptions.Tothese people,asourceof valuable insight aswellasinspiration,Iextendasincerethank-you.
ToPaula,mysister,whose assistanceintranscribingthe interviewdata invalu able, manythanks. ToRick, who's constant supply of encouragementandsupporthelped to make the completion ofthisresearch possible,mygratitude and love.
Finally,Iwould liketodedicatethisdocumenttomygrandparents, the lateJames B.CantwellandBride Cantwell.who greatly influencedmyearly involvementinmusicandthearts.
iii
Table ofContents
Abstract ... ... . ... . .. . . .. .... .. . . . .... . .•.. .•.... ..i
Acknowledgment s ...iii
CHAPTER1•INTRODUcnON.•.• .••. .•.. .. ..• ...1 Backgroundto theStudy ... .... ... .6 Purpose ofthe Study .•... . ..•... ....•...•... ...•.7 Significanceof the Study ... .. .... ... ... .... ... .. .. ...••8 Iden tifyingtheProblem •....•.. .•.•.• ..•.•.. ..••.••.•.•. . .••9 Statingthe Problem... . . . ...• •. •.•. . .. .... .. ...13 Summary.. •... • ... . ... .• •... ... •... .• .. ....•... •18
CHAPTER 2·REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 20
Aims ofEduca tion; PhilosophicalConsiderations.•... ... . • . .. •20 Aims of Education (or Newfoundland.••...•.... ... . .•....••..•22 Rationalesfor ArtsCurriculum •.. ..•...•....•..•••...••• ...•23 The Roleof Arts inEducation...• . . .. ...•..•... ... •25
EducationalReportsandArtsPrograms 30
Arts andCurriculumBalance 36
Arts and Cognition...• •. •.. . . •...•.... .••.. .. ....•... .. 40 Iv
Arts and Culture ....• ... . ••.• •... ... ...•. ..•.... .45 Artsin Education... ... ...•. . ... •.. ..•.. .., ...•. .... .48 Arts and Personal Development .. . ... . . .. .•...• •. ... .50 Summary.•... ... ... .. .•...•...•..•... . ...53
CHAPTER 3· METIIODOLOGY AND PRESENTATION
OFDATA . 55
Design ofthe Study••• .. ..•.. . .••...•.. .•.. . .. .. • ... . ...S6 The Participants.. . ..••. . ... . . .. ... . .... . . .. .. ...S9
InterviewQuestions . . 62
Responses .. •... ... ... ..• ...•.• •.•....•.. ... .63 Category A:Role of Arts in Education... ... .•..•. .• ••.•64 CategoryB:Definition of Quality Education ... ... .. .. • •.. .... ..69 CategoryC:CriterionforDecidingthe Valueof
School Subjects•.• ..••. .. • . .• • . ..•. ....• . . ..72 CategoryD:Implicationsfor ArtsinCurriculum ...•.••.•. ... 77
Summary...•.•.. . . ..83
CHAPTER 4·DATA ANALySIS.... . ... .•. .•.. •... •. 85 Defining Arts.• •.. . . ••...•... . . .•. .•• • •.•.... . .,•..86 CategoryA: Roleof Arts inEducation••...•.... .. .. 88 ThemeI:DevelopingtheWell-Ed uca tedIndividua l•. . •... . .. 89
Theme II:FosteringCreativity... .. . . .•. ..• .•.•. ..92
ThemeIII:Developing the Human Person 94 Theme IV;Enriching TotalSchool Curriculum•..•.• .•...96
Theme V: Culturaland Social Growth... ....•... ... .. . 99
Theme VI: The Notionof Curriculum Balance.•• .• .•... ..101
Theme VII:Developing Basic Skills ..•...•. .,...•...•102
Category B: Definition of Quality Education 104 ThemeI: Educating the Total Individual.•... •...•.•...lOj Theme II: SocialDevelopment... .. .... •.. ... ... .109
Theme III: Balanced Curriculum. . . ..• . . .•. •.. .•. . ..••.III Category C:Criterion for Deciding the Value of SchoolSubjects... . ....•. ....•.... . . ..•..113
ThemeI: Outcomes of Education..•.•....••...•.• •..114
Theme II: Parentsandthe Public 117 ThemeIII:Balance of Curriculum Subjects•.•.•• • ... •..119
Category0: ImplicationsforArts in Curriculum.••... . . .•.•.. ..120
ThemeI:The SchoolEnvironme nt.. ...•... ...121
ThemeII: Total Education•... . . .• •..•.... . . ....•.123
vi
ThemeIII: Teachingand Learning••,.• .•,., .,.,•.. ,, .. 126 ThemeIV:TheFuture ofArtsin Curriculum...•...127
Sununary.,...,.... ,,,,.•, ,...,...,... ...•. •.,130
CHAPTER 5 - CONCLUSIONSAND RECOMMENDATIONS •. . .132 Conclusionsand Recommendations •.•.•..•.. .,.,.••.•.... .. .132 Suggestionsfor FurtherStudy... ...• . .• . .•..•.•... .•...142
References.•.. . ... ... . ... ... ... .. .•..•.. . .•.. .... .US
Appendix Appendix
A. Interview Participants B. InterviewQuestions
vii
CHAPTERONE
INTRoDUcnoN
Educational SystemUndergoingMajorChanges
The educationalsystem of tbe provinceof NewfoundlandandLabrador ispresent lyundergoinga completerestructuring, the statedgoal ofwhichis thesubstantialimprovementof thequality of educat ionprovide dto ou r students.TheRoyal Commissio non Education,appointed in August1990by the Governmentof Newfoundla ndandLabrador,foundthat:
Despitethesignifican t gainsmadeineduca tionover thepast two decades... there remains throughout the provincea widespreadandwell-foundedconcernabout the quality and directionof schooling. Decliningenrolments,demands for access10governance...pressurestoincrease achievementlevels, and decreasingfinancialresourceshave createddemands for changewhich cannotbe ignored. (OUfChildrenOUfFuture:
Royal CommissionofInquiry intotheDelivery of Programsand Servicesin Primary,Elementary,SecondaryEducation,p.xv).
Furthermore, the Commission"rejected the proposition that fine-tuningthe existing systemcouldadequatelyaddresstheproblemsconfrontingit"(p.xvi).
One of the major focuses of proposed changeto thepresent system is school curriculum.The impactofthe government'splan forrestructuringis alreadybeing felt. Curriculumprogram offerings insome schools, particularly inthe ruralareas of the Province, havealreadybeen reduced. Effective September1994,reductions in the program offeringsof schools includesuch subject areasas music, home economicsand industr ialarts.
BayviewHeightsAcademyinGamba has had tocancelMusic, Home Economics andIndustrial Arts.•.andits primarygrades willhavemore thanthirty studen ts,upfrom approximately twenty studentsin1993-1994.Smallwood Academyhas had to cancel Music forallstude nts.BonneBay Academy in Woody Point hashadtoreduceitsthree Science programs...(while]
multi-gradeswilloccur in all grades from Kindergarten10Grade 6 and the rewill be increased class sizes. EveningTelegra m, May 21.1994.
Asthe Governmentpoints outin the opening statementsof its plan for therestructuring ofthe system, Adjusting the CourseII, studen tsareatthe very centre of anyeducationalplan.
There is little doub t thatall thoseresponsible forthe education of our studentssincerely wantthe systemtoprovide thebest possibleserviceto students. Wha teverthe specificareas of debate...educa tors. parents, and thepublic atlargecle arly want ourstude ntsto have thehighest qualityeducationpossible...
(p.6).
However,while Government'sprimarygoal istoelevate tbe achievement levelsof ourstudents,italso wants tosaveconsiderablemoney fromthe system.Thesetwo objectiveshavebeen describedas incompatible.In its analysis of the completetextof "AdjustingtheCourse II",theNewfoundla nd Teache rsAssociation makesthefollowingstatements:
The approachto achievingthegoals also raisesa couple of significantconcernswhich mustbeaddressed. There would appear tobea considerableincrease inthe emphasisplacedon
"core"subjects. Thiswill,no doubt,beaccompaniedby a growingde-emphasison thehuma nitiesandsubject areassuch as fine arts.physicaleducation,etc.(p.3).
Studentsin other partsof Canadadonot do better than those in Newfoundlandand Labradorbecausetheir curriculumhas concentratedon a few core areas.One ofthereasons they perform better isthat theyhaveaccess toa broad and diversified curriculum...(p.18).
itwouldseemreasonable to ask whetherthe goal of"quality"
education,or "quality"programs might bestbe served bysuch deletionsor reductionsto the curriculum. Furthermore,is thereany evidencethat educatorsinNewfoundlandand Labrador perceivesomeaspects df the school curriculum,namely musicand other artssubjects,as dispensableor non- essential to Quality education?
rr
so, on what groundscan this view be substa ntiated? What are the existingpe rceptions of the roleand value ofartsubjects such as music, art,and drama in the school curriculum? How do educato rsview the elimination and or reductionof music and othersubjects ashavingimpact onthe qualityof educationin this province?
The Government's Plan for"Adjustingthe Course"
Asalludedto earlier. in November 1993.the Government of Newfoundlandand Labrador issued the document entitledAdjustingthe Course. Outlinedin thisdocument isa comprehensiveplan forthe restructuringand streamliningof the total educationalsystemin the Province.
The proposedrestructuring includessubstantive changesdesigned to
.•.bringabouta substantialimprovementinthe qua lityof educationprovidedto students,andto increase ourcurrent low studen tachievement to alevel which ranks withthebest in Canada(p.t).
One ofthe highlightsofthe proposalforchangeto thepresentsystem includesarestructuring of schoolcurriculumbaseduponthedevelopmentof a provincial foundationcurriculum.This foundation curriculumwillconsist of:
•..primary core areas (language,mathematics.and science)to be taught to allstuden tsatalllevels,secondarycoreareas(second language ,socialstudies,music, finearts, and physicaleducation) to be taughtat specificareas ,andnon-core areas tobetaught atthediscretion ofthe school(p.t).
Thereforms proposedinAdjustingthe Coursefollowfrom thereport of the RoyalCommissiononEducation submittedtothe Governmentin1992.
TheRoyal Commission of Inquiryinto theDelivery ofPrograms andServices in Primary,Elementary,Secondary Education, Our Childre nOurFutur e, points to:
...profoundpolitical. social andeconomicchanges... promptin g educators everywhere toreassesstheeffectiveness and efficiency of their educationsystems[andto)..• a widely held and documen ted beliefthat educationalstandards aretoo low,and that too many graduates lack thebasic andrelevant skills req uired to function in our present society, let alone the modern,globalmarketplace...(p.xv).
Togethe r, thesereports areintende d to set the stageformajor changesin the curricu lumofschools,changes designed to promote thenotion of qualityin the tota leducationalsystem of the Province.
BACKGROUNDTO TIlE STUDY
In the contextof financialrestraint and the prevailingeconomic conditionswhich face the Province,streamliningandreassessment of programs are, as consequence,accompaniedby a demand for a more "baste"
curriculum.Thatis, a curriculumwhich can be described as onein which anyprogram considereda luxury rather thana necessityis subject 10 deletion orreduction; a curriculum in whichsubjects nadit;'Jnally considered"cote"
areas suchas mathematicsand science are given priorityoverothersubjects which may be deemedlesserinImportance. Thesekinds of decisionsmay have profound implications for the delivery system of educatio n in Newfoundlandand Labrador,for the futuredesign and implementationof curr iculum in schools,andfor the place and role of the artsin theeducation of students.One may wellask"How will suchdecisionsimpact the"quality"
ofeducation in thisProvince?"
In orderto gainan understand ingof theseissues,thisstudyexamines the perceptionsof a cross-sectionof educators inrel ationto theplace or role of the artsinschoolcurriculum.WhileC:iSeducationmay encompassmany areasincludingcreative writing and dance,for thepurposes of thisstudythe
focuswillbemainly uponthetraditional arts: music,drama and visualarts education.
PURPOS E OFTIlE STUDY
The notion of"quality" education isofteninvokedbythose who propose change ineducation. What"q uality" educationreally means is a troublesome question,but one whichhas often been posed.Arts subjectssuch asmusic and visual arthavelo ng been a component of curriculum in this Provincebased uponthe pre misethattheyhave something of value to contributeto the educationof children.Whatmay the arts contri bute tothe quality of education,to curriculumbalanceandto the educationofstude nts?
Doesthere exist among educatorsand curriculumpolicy-makersanybasic perceptionor conceptionor theroleth a t the arts mayor maynot play inthe totalcurriculumor schools?Ifso, whatarethese existingperce pt ions?This stut!y will attemptto providesome valuableinsightintothepe r ceptions of educatorswith regard to these issues.
SIGN IFICANCEOF TIlESllJDY
The Governmentof our Provincehasrecently outl ined, andbegunto implem e nt.its compreh ensiveplan10promotequalityeducation.This isa time of substanti al changeandreadjustmentin ourtotaleducationa lsystem.
Inthe wordsof therecentRoyaJConunission(1992):
••.there mustbe seriouseffortsto addressthequality and future of schoolingin the province.Wemustandcanworktogethe r10 buildan educationsystem whichour children and provinceneed anddese rve.No thingelsewill doforour children.ourfuture (Summary Report,p.22).
Havethe arts beenmeaningfullyaddressedin the Commission's Report?
Certainly,therecanbe foundonly scant me ntion ofthearts subje cts throughout theReport. Arcweto assumethatmusic,art,drama and other artsarenotto be consideredasvalidcomponents in providingandachieving -quality"education forourstudents?Is lhis theperspectiveofeducatorsin ourProvince?Arethe arts perceivedasrelevant bycurre nteduca torswit hi n our schools? These issues may prove relevanttothefuture designand directionofschool curriculumandprogramming.
Thestage hasbeen setfo r changes thatwillaffect thefuture direction ofeducationintheprovinceof Newfoundlandand Labrador.With quality educat ion asits majol-premise, theRoyal Commission hasmadesweep ing
recommendationsforchangeto thepresent system. One oftheneeds identifie dbythe Commissionis abala ncedand relevantcurriculum.The matterof whatconstitutessuch a curriculumis a complex issue, and a difficult one toresolve.
Thisstudy attemptsto explorea particular groupofsubjects in the present school curriculum,one which hasperhapsbeentreated more marginally thanothers in the Commission's reco mmendations forchange . The studywillgenerate anawa re ness and understandingof theperceptions of educatorsregarding the artsin schoolcurriculum.
Ifeducation in our Provinceisto reachthe highlevel of quality to which allparticipantsaspire - parents,governmentofficialsandeducat o rs ali~e,programleadershipin all areas of curriculumisessential.Ultimately, the studywillserve to inform and directthose who maybeinvolvedin curriculum decision-makingand educationalleade rship.
IDENTIFYINGTHE PROBLEM
Historical Overview
Throughou tthe decade ofthe 1980smucheffort was invested in improvi ng the content andqualityofartseduca tionprograms inthescho ols
10 ofthe provinceofNewfoundlandand Labrador.Adocumententitled Cornin' to OurSenses:TheRepo rt ofthe Newfou ndlandandLabradorTask Force ontheArtsinEducation(1980) representedthefir-acomprehensive attempt inthisprovincetodescribethe status ofthe arts inthe curriculumof our schools andtorecommen dacourseDCacti o n{or a morcprom isingfuture for thearts inschoolcurricu lu m.
The document.created undertheauspicesof the CanadienConference ofthe Am,NationalInquiryintoArts andEducation,Williaco ncerted attempt togatherinforma tion on thearts ineducationinNewfounc:lla nd and Labrador.ThefinalRep ortwastheprodu ctof a yearofinquiryun dertaken byeducatorsinall disciplinesandat alllevelsof thesystem. TheReport described the situationinartseducationandmaderecommendationsfor the futureofartsinschoolcurriculum.
TheReportoftheArtsTask ForceComin' To OurSensesrefe rredto the factthatartseducatio n hadbeenlistedbytheOrganizationfor Economic:
Co-operation and Devel opment (1976),as oneof the fivemosturgent problemsinCanadian ed ucationas awhole.Fu rt hermore,theOECDhad describedCanadi anpolicytowardsthe artsin educationasoneof"benig n neglect"(p.ll).TheReportpointedtoanumberofcircumstanceswhichmay have con tribute dto wha titalsodescribed asIIsituation of neglectof thearts
II in th eedu ca tionsystem inNewfou ndland and Labrador. In suggesting reasonswhythe artshad beengivenonlytoke nsuppo rtin schools,Comi n'to OUI'"Senses pointedto theeffects of massive reo rganizati onofschools
follow ingConfedera tion; poli cyand financial prioritieswhichcentredaround mor epressingissuessuch as schoolconstruction andstaffing; lackofteacher train ingandexperie nceinth e arts:limitedop portunityfor teacher inservicc;
andlimited opportunitiesandresourcesfor rural schools.
The ReportoftheArtsTask Forcewas atimely one. Itfoll owed clos e lyupon theheels ofthe work ofaTask ForceonEducationwhich, com missionedbytheNewfo undland Governm ent,wascomple tedin1979.Its task was to examine the educationalsyste min our Province inlightof dec lining schoolenrolments. TheFinalReport ofthe Task For ceon Education,entitled ImprovingtheQuality of Education: Challeng e and Opportunitywasformallysubmittedto theGovernmentofourProvincein Aprilof1979.
The ArtsTa skForceof1980,whilecommendingtheEducation Task Force for its sincere;effortto identify problem s within the schoolsyste mand recommend solutions,criticizedwhatitcharac terizedasinadeq uatetreatment of and lack of directionInthearts:
12 ...it is unfortunate,though notsurprising ,that therealmofarts educ a tionre ce ived acursorytreatment.Itis... evidenceofthe strongintelle ctual bias ofform al educatorstha t theTas kForce onEducationprovidesonlytok ensupp o rtfor"Aesthe ticStudies"
whichwereneither clearlydefinednorconsistentlysuppo rted...
The Task Foree as a wholeseems to leadtoa further entre nchmentof theartsinthefor mallystructuredschool enviro nment..•(p.9).
The ArtsTask Forcepointedoutthat in Ch allengeandOpportunitymuslc
wa sdescrib edas the mostestablishe d andaccepteddisciplin einthe system andrecommended that suchstudiesshould be'cere" from Kindergar ten10 grad enine. The Reportneglected . however.10addreeshow sucha core sho uld beimplemented.
TheArISTask Forceconclude dthat wh ilethe explicitlystatedfocusof the Education TaskForce was qualityand improvementofschoolprograms, arts programswereaffordedonlymar ginal treatmen t.TheRe port of the Arts Task Force voiced strongconcern forthe fut u reof artsin thecurricu lumand sta te demp hatically thatuntilsuch coursesreceivedrecogn itionfrom the ministerialleveldown, thereseemed little likeli hood thatthese subjectswould gain'respe c tability" in schoolcurriculum.
Insummary,whiletheArtsTask for ceof1980 foundmuch evidence ofa great de al of progressive revisionand changeinthefindingsof the Task Force on Education ,therewasnoevidenceof any major understand ingor concernwitharts ineducation(p.25).
13 In 1980, the autho rs
or
The Reportof the Ne wfoundl and and Labrad or TaskForce onthe ArtsinEducation, Hall andGoodridge.envisionedthe arts as holding"apro ud and influentialplace"inouredu cationsystem(p.5S).The Report calledfora seriouscommitmentbythe provincialgovernmentandby educationalpolicy-makersto give meaningfulexposure to the arts in school curriculum.Now, morethanadecade later,OUTChildren Our Future:Royal CommissionofInquiry intotheDeliveryofPrograms and Services in Primary, Elementary, SecondaryEducation(1992), prov ides thecornerston e for educationalcha nge. TheReport,a comprehe ns iveandin-depthstudy of educationin Newfoundland,makes only brief andcursory referencetothe arts.STATINGTIlE PROBLEM
WhatistheRole ofArtsin Curriculum'?
Questio nssuchas the following arise fromthepreceding discussion.
ln whatrespect,ifany, maythe arts be considere danintegralpart of school curriculum? Whatdothearts have10offe rto theeducation ofthe individual? Isqualityeducation possible without such componentsas music, art, dra ma, greatliterat ure,poetry? In orderto answer these questions
14 intelligently,one must formulatea concept of the arts and the role playedby
the arts in education.
Today'ssociety placesa highvalueonthe kindof knowledgeand skills that willpromise a successfulcareer. Fran Fearnley, Editor-in-Chiefof Today'sParentre centlyreferred to the escalating debate over thestaleof Canada's schools which she describedas... rife with fundamenta l disagreements oyerwhat constitutesa good educationand how to achieve it
.r.
The question"WhatcanIdo toensure thatmy childgets a good education?" is heavily loaded. Parentsknowthat their children'sfuturewell-being,health, happinessand educational successesareallinextricablyinterlinked.Thestakes couldn'tbe any higher. (Supplementto Maclean'sMagazine Aug.1993.
(p.3).
Feamleysuggeststhat at the coreofthe current dispute in educationarethe champions of child-centredor whole language learningina face-offwiththe back-to-basicsmovement.Thedecadeofthe 19805sawsweepingchangesin the classroom with the advance of child-centrededucation.Now,a decade later, Today's Parent EducationReport stalesthat parentsare reacting becausetheir children arehavingdifficultywith readingand writing.
Ata time wheneconomic andtechnologicalchange morethan evercreat es demandfor highly literateyoungpeople,toomany parents find theirchildren can'tspell or understand rules of grammar.Just whena generationof boome rsfocuseslikenever before ontheirchildren'sdevelopment, schoolscan'tseemto
15 deliveronth e irpromises....Beyondthe invective,acouple of clearlessonsemergeinthe complex la ndscapeoflearning. It is fareasier to change educationalphilosophies than tomanage the practical transitio nsthatmust followinclassro oms (p.4).
Clea r ly,the acquisition ofthese kinds ofbasic ski llsisthemandateof schools. Economic viability isand willcontinuetobea factorthatinfluencer, theproced ure andcontent ofschoolcurricul um.We haveevid ence of this kindofinfluence inourown Provinceinthe recentre commen dations ofthe
TaskForce onMa themat ics andScienceEducation(1989). Thereare, however,other vali d concernsexpressedbyeducators whichmaydeserveour consideratio n.
lust as childre n willgrowuptobecomeproductivemembers of society, they also mustlearn10live withothersinanorderedsociety. What co nsequence doesthis have forthe importanceorvalue ofthesocialsciences or formoral education in theschoolcurriculum?Childrenmust alsolearnto makeproductiveuseofthetimespentaway fromwork- leisuretime.How valu ablemaythearts curriculumbeinthis respect? Tolivetothefullestand best,childrenshouldenjoy physical and mentalhealt h.How mayschool curriculumbestservethese important aspectsoflife? Anappreciationofthe valueof personalrelationshipsisan important dime nsion to thechild'slife- bothinthe present and for the future. Howimportantis the kindof knowledge or"knowing"thatresults from familylifeandsexualeducationin
16 helpingstudentsroappreciateandbetterunderstandtheir uniqueplace in the world? Clearly,the question of"va lue"isubiquitousin the processof curri culum decision-making.
Curriculum -AnImportantTool
lust recently we havebeenalert edtothe directinfl".'nceofschool curriculum uponour children.TheReportof theRoyalCommission(1992) identifiesthe schoolcurriculum asthe component of education which "affe cts stud ents most directly" (p.29S). The reinforcement of socialvalues.
preparationforlifeinsociety,and criticalawarenessof heritage,traditions and environmentarestated asbeing advancedbyschoolcurriculum.
Itisthroughcurriculum thatsc hools impart the knowledgeandskills which are viewed as valuableandimportant. AccordingtoHirst (1965) knowledgecanbecategorized based on distinctkindsof meaningand validation procedures. Hirst describesthese categoriesand discu sses particular concepts which validateeach asauniqueandva luable areaof knowledge.Thesecategoriesinclude mathematics, sciences, history, the arts, ethics, andre ligion-all meritinga place in thecurriculumbecauseof the unique elements they possess.Hirst contends thatthro ugh a combination of allofthese , studentsfind their ownindividu alplacein the world. With
17 particular reference10the arts in curriculum, Hirstdescribes the uniqueness of the artsas ranging beyond the familiar, as giving the senses new ranges of application. Itmay be interesting to note thatHirst commentsupon the danger ofplacing toogreatan emphasis uponthe traditionalacademic components of curriculum.He suggeststhat to emphasizemathematicsand the sciencesto the exclusion of other subjectsnarrowsthe goals oflearnin~
and may well resultin theexclusion of important subject matter fromthe curriculum.
TheArts:UncertainFate?
In a column writtenin the TorontoGlobeand Mail January 1994, Bronwyn Drelnle discusses the fluctuatingfate of arts educationinCanada:
Whenitcomes to artseducation inIhis country, the mixed signalsareendlessly perplexing. Onthe one hand,the arts are putondisplayas oneof the majoraccomplishmentsof our schools...Onthe otherhand thingsareawfullygrim. On the positiveside... theMinistry of Education [Ontario) came out witha new CommonCurriculumforgrades 1 to 9 lastyear in whichfour"core areas"of studyare designated:Language, The Arts, SelfandSociety,and Math,Scienceand Technology.On thenegativeside,BritishColumbiapromotedtheartstothe same key positionin its educationsystem•••but onlyon paper.
Drainie pointsout that whilerecognitionis an enormousstep forwardforthe arts, itis but an emptygesturewithouttheresources andfundingto support
18
it. She also attempts to explain why the mixed signals are particularly frustrating:
... because internationalresearchinto arts educationcontinues to show thatit provides exactly the kind of stimulationand skills that schools in Canada say they want to give their students:
flexibility, problem-solving, creativity, learn-work and individuality.(Globeand Mail,January 22, 1994).
Summary
Aspreviously stated, the entire educationalsystem of Newfoundland and labrador is presently underrevision. The premiseof this complete restructuringis substantialimprovementof the qualityof education available to the students who attend ourschools. One of the majorfocuses of this restructuringwillbeschoolcurriculum. Currenteducationa l report s designed to initiateandguide this process of restructuring,however,haveleft many questionsunansweredas to the future roleof arts subjectsin the curriculum.
In viewof the issuesdiscussedinthischapter,certainquestionsarise.
Whatis the future of artsin education?Do the arts have arelevant roleto play in theeducation of students? Whatare the perceptions of present educatorsregarding the role played by the artsin our currentschool curriculum? This studywill'attempt to movetowardsa betterunderstanding of these issuesand to provide somepossibleanswerstothese questions.
19 The followingchapterwillexaminesome of the mostpertinent educationalreportsand currentliterature dealing with the role of arts in education.
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEWOF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter touches upon some of themost pertinent issues in documents andcurren tliterature dealingwith artsin educationgene rally,and the role of arts inschool curriculum.
Aims of Education: PhilosophicalConsiderations
The formulation of aims of educationhas long beenaubiquitous componentin theprocess ofschoo ling. Educators,from at least the lime of Plato'sRebublicto the presentday,have discussedandfor mulated desirable goals for educationsystems,goalswhich serve as a philosophicalbasisfor the education of students.In the4th CenturyB,C"Plato wroteof an educat iona l philosop hy whichespousedthe notionthateducation should prom ote the goodsociety, the good life, the good person.How werethese objectivesto be met? They were to beachieved throug hthevehicle ofschoolcurriculum.
In Canada,individua l provinceshave the authorityto determinegoa ls withintheirowneducationalsystems. In this province,as in any other,goals and prioritiesreflect and serve thesocie ty in whichWelive. Crocke rand
20
21 Riggs (1979) cite the principles of democracy and individual freedom as the foundation for the "self-evident"and fundamentalgoal of education;
The fundamental goal of education is to help each person to achieveto his fullest development both as an individual andas a member of society(p.25J.
Crocker and Riggs (1979) define"fullest development"as that which encompassesfour basic areas of human development;
...the function of educationcar.only beto ensure that the individual is sufficientlydeveloped intellectually, morally, physically, and socially to enable him to make choicesina reasoned manner, with due regard for tberightsof others (p.26).
More recently,The RoyalCommission(1992) points out that the aims of public educationfor Newfoundland statethat education is a process whose purpose is the"fullest and best development" or the student. Once again, the basic premise is clearly articulated, that the school must attend to the"full development of the whole child -cognnively,physically, morally,spiritually, socially and emotionally" (p.215).
22 The Aims of EducationforNewfoundland
The Aims of PublicEducationfor NewfoundlandandLabrador (1984) provides a philosophicalbasisforschool curriculumin our Province.The fundamentalpremiseoftheAimsin thedevelopmentof eachstudent'sfull potentialasathinking and actingindividual.Referringtostudents aspersons ofvalue andworth,thedocument clearly stalesthe mainobjective in pro viding for their education: ... the developmentof an individual,not the success of a job••. isthe primaryconcernof publiceducation(p.7).
The Aimsclearlyplacesthe developmentof the individual'sfullpotential asahumanpersonatthe centre of the educationalprocess.h is inte resting to notthat job success is secondary in importanceto the developmentof the student asan individualhuman perscn.Thisparticular notion comesinto question, however,in lightofthe final report of the Task Forceon Mathematicsand Science(1989)in whichjobsuccess is posited a.s priority.
Also, the notionof "balance"is invokedby the stated philosophyof The Aims.
The document points to the need for provisionf01' both the intellectualand emotional realmsin promotingthe developmentofan individual'sfullest potential. Itsuggeststhat "fullest" development encompasses a balance between the emotional and theintellectual. Clearly, then The Aimsof
23 EducationforNewfoundland,lead to the provision in schoolcurriculum for boththese perspectives of humanlea rning.
Rationa lesforArtsCurriculum
Am:A Surveyof ProvincialCurriculaattheElementaryand Secondary Levels(1983) identifies thecommonalitiesof the arts and provides justificationfor their inclusion in the curriculum ofour schools. The documentcharacterizes the arts as:
centralto thestudent's experience
afunctionof life itself[provid ing] insight10allother areasof learning
Instrumentalinteachingbasicskills as wellasin furthering individualintellectualdevelopment
a proven valuableaidinan increasedpositive awarenessof self...andsensitivity to others (pp.2·3)
TheProgram of Studies (or Newfoundlandand Labrador1993·1994 mak es the following statementwithregard tothe inclusionof Musicinthe primary curriculum:
provideschildrenwith enjoyablemusicalexperiences fostersalove andunderstandingofmusicandsensitivitytoit
2.
establishes afoundationforaesthetic development (OSiers children'sconfidencein theirabilityto perform and createmusic(p.29)
Artat the primarylevel:
fosters an appreciationofvisual art andthe visual environment stressesthe relation betweenseeingand feeling fostersstudentconfidence
establishes a foundation(or aestheticdevelopment(p.14)
Atthe elementary level,the Programof Studiesis closely inkeeping with those principlesalreadyoutlinedwitha more pronouncedemphasison growth in three majorareas of learning: "theaffective, the cognitive, and the psychomotor' (p.et):
develops cognitive skills through musical literacy and psychomotorskillsthroughmovementand performance(p.62) fostersan appreciationoftheuniquenessof everyhumanbeing (pAS).
25 TheRole ofArts in Education
Elliot Eisner (1992) believesthat prevailingconceptionsof the am are basedupon a massivemisunderstandingoftherole of the arts in human development and education. Thismisunderstanding,contendsEisner,is rooted in ancientconceptionsof mind.knowledge.and intelligence.He points toschoo l curriculumand thescheduling ofarts as indicative of thevaluingof schoolsubjects:
Make nomistake.the curriculumwe prescribefor schoolsand thetime weallocate to subjectsshow children what adults believeisimportant forthe m to learn...Thistime represents both va lue andopportunity:value becaus eit indica tes what is considered significan t; opportunitybecausethe school canbe thought of asacultureof opportunity.Schools...arecultures forgrowingminds,and the directionthis growth takesis influencedbythe opportunitiestheschoolprovides. These...
are the school'sprogram- its curriculum(Phi DeltaKappan, April1992,Article #4).
Eisner identifies severalwidelyheld but"fundamentally flawed"beliefs aboutmind,knowledgeandimelligencewhichinfluenceeducationalpriorities.
He challengesthe validity of the belief that human conceptual thinking requires theuse of language;thatsensory experienceis notessentialto intellectual development:thatintelligence requireslogic;that scientific methodis the bestand mostreliable wayto learnabout the world. To
26 summarize briefly,Eisner's argumentis that thesebeliefs create intellect ualclimatethat marginalizes the arts because "... whatthese beliefs celebrate seems tohavelittle todo withwhat the arts provide,"
Robinson (1991) wouldlend credenceto theargument posedby Eisner.Robinsondescribes whatis,inhis view,themostsignificant problem:
Thereal problemsfacingtheartsinschools areideological;
that lethey are problems of basic,unquestioned assumptions abouteducationin generalandthe arts inparticular.Where the roles of arts are properlyunderstoodresources canbe found,howeverscarce. The factthattoo few resourcesare available for the arts reflectsa priorproblemof attitudes.
(From keynote addressThe ArtsworkConference,Toronto 1991).
Isthe re evidence ofsuchanintellectualclimateasthatproposed by EisnerandRobinsoninthe schoolsof Newfoundlandand labrador? Does there existamong our educators a basic misunderstandingoftherolethat the ensmayor may notplay inthe total schoo lcurriculum?Arethere various issues that decision-make rs andpolicy-make rsneedtobeawareofin the ir deliberations regarding curriculumdesign and implementa tion?
One writer(Ross1984) argues that theartshavelong beenformally recognizedasplaying an importantroleinthedevelopment of children,but thatdespite thisrecognition, have been and continueto beviewedasa per ipheral or less importantcomponentofschoolcurriculum. One factor
27 relatingto the marginalizationofartssubjectssuggests Harris (1992)is administrat ors'attitudesconcerning thevalue ofarts.
Harris contendsthat the fundamentalproblem has to do with not the absolute importance of these subjects, buttheirrelative importance.The questioninevitablybecomesnot"Ismusicimportant?"butrather"How important ismusic in relation to allthe otherdemandsbeingmade upon the curriculumand upon theschool?"Inthis context.asubject areaisassigned a placeinthecurriculum baseduponitsperceived value. Harrispoints to the issueof whatcriteriawillserveas abasisforthesedecisionsas a crucial element.
Somestudies have shown that generalarts education,thatis arts educationforallstudents, has been viewedbystudents and by thepublic as alessimportant priorityof curriculum.Inone study(1988),studentsasked torate the relative importanceofart courses inschools ranked art coursesto be lowerin importance compared toother courses(Arts Education in Canada:AnExploratoryStudy,1988).MusicandArtranked 16thand 17th, belowReligionat15th in a list of18 courses in grades7-1~.Math,English, andComputerStudies were rankedasthetop three in perceivedimportance.
Suchviewsare,as reportedby a Gallop Survey cited in thisCanada Council Study, not limited tostudents. In a 1984poll whichasked membersof the
28 publicto rate a list of 11subjects,Artand Musicwere10thand 11thin terms of perceivedimportance ,while under 20%ofrespondents said thatstude nts should be required totakecoursesin MusicandA~(p.7).
Ross(1984)hasdocumented the peripheral status of the artsin education.He hasshown that:
...everymajoreducationalreportof the lastfiftyyears orsohas given the fullestmoralsupport to theroleof the arts in education and yet, despite such widespread official endorsement. theartshavecontinued(0bewidelyregardedand resourced asan educationalfrill(p.t).
Ross pointsto"strong materialist andpolitically reactionary forces"at work intheeducation.Hespeaksspecifically ofthe"back to basics" trend- the viewthat childrenshouldbe taught theso-called basicskillsnecessary togetting a joband contributingtoeconomicgrowth.Rosspointsout that while most schoolsacknowledge thesocial.personaland moral needs of children,thetraditional curriculumhas alwaysbeencommittedto teaching children 10be usefuland effective in theworld.Whatthis means.in Ross's view. is that the school's primetaskhas beentoensure thatchildrenwilllearn
• and also demonstrate that theyhave learned skillsand knowledgeof practicalvalue. Ross suggests thatbecausetheartsare perceivedasless practicalthere has beena lackofenthusiasmfor thearts of the policy-making
29 level, He further suggests that this perception is central to the debate on the balance and efficiency of the school curriculum.Ross proposes that the arts are viewedasM . . .at odds with the mundane.secular, pragmaticconcernsof everyday _."and consequently have been assigned peripheral status. He suggests thai the arts are perceived as
... odd.unsafe.frivolous.threatening. wasteful,disruptive:all those things that are at odds with the business of sensibly gettingonwithmakinga living... maintaining the status quo (p.7).
The issues articulated by Eisner,Harris and Ross give rise to certain questions which may prove significantto the problem under discussion.Are thearts,bythe very nature of their link with the creative, the expressive, the Imaginative, perceived as impracticalbyeducators and administratorsend students in this Province?Or, can the arts, because of their uniqueness and difference, promote a"way of knowing" in their own right, as Ross contends.
offering unique access 10 certain dimensions of human experience?
30 Educational Reports and ArtsPrograms
"Challen ge andOppo rtun ity"
The final Report of the 1979 Task Force on education in Newfou ndlandandlabrad or was entitled Improving theQualityof Education:
ChallengeandOppo rtu nity.Withdecliningschoolenrolments inview, The TaskForcehad clearly defined its mandateas"nothingless than a complete re-examinationof the educationalsystemof theProvince"(p.l).
The primary focusof thr:investigationsofThe 1979 Educa tion Task Force was school programs.ThisTask Force, targetingthestudy of school programmingas "themost significant aspectofour wor k"(p.98) gavethe followingrationale:
Although it may appearto be onestep removedfromthe visibleissuesofteacherjoblosses. revenuereductions.school closuresand thelike thatsurround decliningenrolments,it was felt thatthese issues werein themselvesperipheral to the centralquestionunderlyingeducationalquality, that of the nature of the school experienceto whichpupils are exposed (p.3).
According to the FinalReport ofthe Task ForceonEducation,many representations made tothe Task Forcespoke to the problemofthe limited programsofferedto studentsinmany of theProvince's schools. Inparticular,
31 the offeringof basicprograms wasdescribed as a "seriouslimitat ionof schools.Lack of music, artand otherprogramswerecitedasproble ms atthe eleme ntarylevel. Similarly,lackof programs for"non-academical lyinclined pupils" was a concernexpressedbyhigh schools(p.I9t).
h isinter esting tonotethatas a basis for its proposal for the design of programsin primaryandelementaryschools,theTask Force returned to the Aimsof Educationin recommendinggeneralobjectives. TheReport stressedtheneed for schools to acceptthe responsibility fordeveloping
"maximum potential ofallpersons"andtoplace a "broadinterpretationon the meaningofintellectual development" (p.IOS). Furthermore,thefindingsand recommendations ofChallengeand Opportunity createdimpetus for the creationofnewand improvedschool programs. In particular.music curriculumtookanew andinnovativedirectionwith the introductionin1983 ofa literacy-based program.This TaskForce espoused thenotion that if music andartare basicdisciplines.then the school has theresponsibility to makeprovisionfor these subjects. Recommendation 6.9 oftheFinal Report calle-t forthe development oftestsfor certainsubjectareas: "...in social studies,music, physical fitness, religionand otherareasnot currently assessed."
32
"Towa rdsan AchievingSociety"
InMay of 1989, theTaskForce on Mat hematicsand Science Education submitted tothe Governmentof Newfoundland and labrador u report entitled "Towards an Achieving Society", Thestatements and recommenda tions of thisreport targete d the content,imple me ntation and direction of schoolcurriculum.
One of themainthrustsofthisReportsuggested thatcertainsubjects in theschoolcurriculumare inherentlymorevaluable than others. The first stated principle ofthe Report dealswith thepriority ofcerta in school subjects. namelymathematics and science. These subjects areassigned a placeofhighimportanceincurriculumbased uponthe substantial demand for mathandscience relatedba ckgrounds intheworkplace.The Repor tfurther suggestedthatthe teachingof mathandscienceis a unique do mainof schooling,while someotherareascouldconceivably behand ledbyother institutionsof society:
Not allschoolsubjectsareofequal value. Schoolsshould assigntheir highestpriority to teaching thebasic academic subjectswhichtheyare best eq uipped tohandl e,and which are not partofthemandate ofotherinstitutionsof society.
Math ematics andscience must be includedamong the areasof highest prior ity(p.42).
33 Expressinghigh concern for what it describes as a"crisis of low expectations", theCrocker Report argued that theschool curriculum must em phasize mathematics and science in order 10 developstudents' analytical,linear thinkingskills.Furthermore, the Reportmarginalizedother programswhich itdescribedasrestrictingstudents' opportunitiesto develop these kinds of highpriorityskills:
Rather than keepingstudents in schoolthrough use of programs whichrestrict theiropportunities,the aimshould be to provide the means .•.for [success]inthe core academic areas(p.S),
Towardsan Achieving Societyproposeda curriculum withsharp focusupon intellectualprocess,and Ihedevelopmentof cognitiveskills.Its conclusions and recommendations pointedtoaschool curriculum witha majorfocusupon mathematics and science,with the exclusion ofother programsa considered option.
"Our ChildrenOur Future"
OurChildrenOur Future: RoyalCommission of Inquiry into the Delivery of Programs and Services in Primary,Elementary, Secondary Education(1992)points to the important principles of equity, quality, and freedomas guidingstandardsin educationaldecision-making.Equi.;'calls for
34
"every child'sfull participation andinvolvement"while"provid ing adequate choices that meet diverse learning needs and interest s"by"e nsuring thai the curriculumis current,relevant and meaningfuJ..,{p.205). Our ChildrenOur Future statesthat any model (or change in the educationalsystem mustbe founded on thereal needs of children andthatquality must permeate all levelsof the system. With thesefundamentalprinciplesof equalityand qualityfirmlyIn sightthe RoyalCommission(1992) concludesthat:
AU childrenareentitled to a curriculumrich andvaried.
challengingand inspiring,which enablesthemtoreach the highest possiblelevel of fulfilment...
Thearts ortheir rolein school curriculum isnot addressed in any of the two hundredand elevenrecommendationsmadeby the Commlsstcn.
Chapter14 ofOur ChildrenOur Future.dealingwithcurriculum. mentions such terms as ''highqualityacademiceducation","broad academiccurriculum"
and"academic" and"non-academic courses". Nowhereinthe Report, however,are thesesterms defined.Interestingly.the Reportsstates:
•..3 core curriculum must be establishedbased uponthe disciplinesof Language,Mathematics and Science...other coursesshould continueto be mandatory.Even in smallrural schoolsstudents should have anopportunity 10 experience a broad academiccurriculum.(OurChildrenOurFuture:Royal Commission ofInquiry intothe Deliveryof Programs and Servicesin Primary.Elementary,SecondaryEducation,p.300).
3S Wha tthen, is high qualilyacademic education ? Wha tisbroad acade mic curriculum? Whatconstitu tesan academic ornon-academic course? Wheredo the artsfitinscboolcurriculum? Whatis their role ? These importantquestions areleft unanswered in OurChildren Our Future.
"Buildinga Strong Fou ndatio n for the Future"
Inarecentreport, Building AStrongFoundationFor The Future:
Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Kindergarten (1m), the De pa rtment of Education presents a philoso phy inwhich three "key"
compo nents are highlighted: child-centr ed education,individua lization, and child participationin the learningprocess.TI--:Report states:
...the overall goalis to provideopport unities for childrento become Independentthinkersandproblemsolvers whofind joy andsatisfactionin thelearningprocess.To achieve thisgoal, the "whole child"mustbenurturedinachallenging, child- centredenvironment..•Ourchallenge,as educators.isto arrive at thisgoalbyhonouring itsunderlying philosophyinactionas wellasinword(p.5).
The Reportuseswhat is refers toasa "broader definition" of curriculum as a "referencepointforall deliberations"in its taskathand(p.7).Itisthe statedconclusionof theRepor tthat "a ll threeperspectives (process,content, and product)havea valuablecontribut ion tomake"andthat the child is
36 ulnmateiy the primeconsiderat ioninallcurriculumdecision-maki ng.Some
of thestatem en ts whichsumma rizethepropose d curricu lum fram ework inA View OfLearni ngare,interest ingly,re rninescentol thephilosophy expressed in theAimsofEducationforNewfoundland:
The childis at the centr eof learn ing Eachchild is anindivid u al
The childactivelyengagesinmanydifferent learningprocesses as s/heinteractswithme aningful content
The desiredou tcomeof learning(product )is personalgrowth anddevelopmentresultin g from the aquisitionof attitudesand dispositions, kno wledgeand understand ing,andskillsan d strategies.(p.8)
One oftherecommen dations madein Buildin g a Strong Foundation for the Futurewasthat theDivision ofProgram Development extend this holistic and child-centeredphilosophy to other primary levels 1-3. It was also recom mende d thatthisphilosophybe furtherextended to includ e the eleme ntarygr ades 4· 6 (p.l8, re comm en dation s 18 and20).
TheArts andCurricu lumBalance
The Arts inEducation:AConfe renceon Balan ced Curricululumand Stude nt Rete ntion(March1993) attemptedtoaddress whathas been
37 described as "erosionofarts curriculum in Newfoundlandschools",While stating agreementwith the educationalimp o rtance ofmat h ,scien ce, technologyandentrepreneurshipaspart of theeducntonal agendasetbythe recent RoyalCommission on Education (1992 ),the stated goal ofthis confere nce was"topromote anedu,ational systemtha tdevelo ps thefull varietyof children'sablljnes"(p.I).
Theorg anizers of theconference. aGanderSchoolBoard music consult ant, Peter Gamwell, andanartsconsulta ntat the Department of Educatio n,AlexHickey, expressa particular viewof the school curriculum.
They see thecurriculum from thevantagepoint of aholisticphilosophy, as encompassingaverybroadrange ofexpe riencesandprovidingfor allaspects oflearning.Such aholi sticapproachtohumanlearningisbyits very na tu re, a committme ntto whatmaybedescribed asa balanced curriculu m.
Muchhas been writteninthe lite rature ofeduca tion conc erningthe notionofcurriculum balance. Dearden (1984)considers themeri ts ofbalan ce andcoherence asfunda mentalcurricularprinciples.He discusses.the noti on of 'ba la nce',alertingus10itsproble matic and controversial nature. He arguesthatba lance is a matterofjudgem entasto howmuchofeach ele m e nt mustbe presen tin ord er for ba lanceto be achieved.He alsoasksapoign ant
38 question:How arewetorecognize wheth e ror notaproper balancehasbeen achieved?
Giventheinstructio nto create abala ncedcu rriculum,relates Dearden.
exactlythesameprovisioncouldbe viewedaseithe r balanced orunbalanced- dependin gupon whatisjudgedandwhois judging . Hearguestha t appea ls to bala nceare often close ly connectedwit hjustice,or inother wor ds,giving what is due,
Lawton(1987)points10curriculumbala nceasthe keyto effective schooling.Inhis interp retation, balancein cur riculum placesthe primary focus up onskilldevelo pmentand application,and givesprominenceto personal develo p ment. Withrespecrto th e questionof what is 'basic'.writes Lawton. all of thesecomponents arccons ideredbasic.
Eisnerre fers tothe prevailingclima te oftodeys schools inThe Art of Educati o nalEvalu ation (1985)as one which "placesa verygreat emphasis on measured forms of educational pe rforman ce, but tends10neglect attentionto theperforme rhimselfc,". In Eisner's view,schoolcurriculummakeslittle provision forthe developmentof"forms of tho ught thatlie outsideofa narrowview ofliteracy"(p.165). Eisnerrefersto what he callsa demiseof balance dcurriculumamidst dem andsfor areturntoa "back to basics"
39 approach.He contendsthat this approach isnot particularlyappropriatefor todayseducationalworld,
Eisne rcites oneofthemost importantvariables influencing what stude nts lea rn inschoolsis what studentsare giventheopportunity toleam.
He suggests thatwhat is includedinthe agenda of schools - thatis which subje ctsare to beta ught, arcofpara mount importance.Eisner points out that decision s aboutwhatisto beincludedandexclude d from school curricu lum haveprofound implications not only with respect to the opportunitiesafforded tostudents bUIalso influenceswha tstudentswill regardas importantorvalua ble in school.
One of theindicatorsofhowschoolcurriculum is valued,writes Eisner, isthe amountof instructionaltime devotedtoindividual subjectswithinthe curriculum.Forexample,subjectsconsideredto be "core"curriculumsuchas math, scienceand language artsconsume 60-700/0 ofscheduled timewhile artssubjectssuch asmusic or arttakeup4-5% ofthe scheduledtime(per week) atthe elementarylevel.Consequently,studentsactuallyspendmore time atrecess than is devotedtostudying subjects such as art or music. Takena step further,saysEisner. we mayconsiderthe significance ofthe placementofsubjectsin termsofthe schoolday.Those subjectsviewedas mostvaluableare often scheduled inthe morningatatime whenstudents are
40 consideredto bemore alert and'fre sh"-whe ntheymust"think" andareable to gain the mostfrom instru ction.Eisner po intstothe sign ificanceoftime and locatio n of timewith respectto children 'soppo rtunities tolear n:
Inthe simplestterms,it isnot possible tohaveanyse mblance of curriculumbalancewhatsoeverifthe conte ntareasneeded forsuchbalance are absentfrom thecurriculumor given so littl elimeth at their effective ness isne utralized .Ifoneofthe mos tsignifica nt(actorsinfluencing lear ningis theopportuni ty tole arn, thenthelack of opportunityto deal with particula r contentfields vitiatesthechild'sopport unitytolearnwhatthose field s haveto provide(p.123).
Arts andCognitio n
Eisne r(1985) argues thatthe arts arecognitiveactivities.guidedby humanintelligence that make uniqueformsof meaningpossible. He suggests thatthere presently exists withinschoolsa viewof the artsthat willentail
"disasterousconsequences"foreducation. He speaksof a perception olthe artsas a- rational,as"emotive formswhichprovide satisfactionbut not understand ing",Eisner contendsthatitis this part icularviewthathasled inevitablytothe present"dubiousstatushierarchy"of subjectswhichhas been cre atedinschoolsystems.
Cognitionhas beendefinedas"knowledge;to know;1) theprocessof knowing or perceiving"(Webster'sNewUn iversalUnabridged Dictionary).
41 Thus cognition is a "way of knowing",a matter of perception in which the functions of thesenses arecrucial. Blsner vgues thatno concepts can be formedwithout the input of the senses,that conce ptsare not linguistic but sensory. He explains:
Itis easy10seehowsuchconceptsas dog orchair, red orblue.
depend uponse nsory information. But what about such abstractconceptsas justice..•infinity?Jwouldargue thatthese conceptsare nothingmorethan meaninglessnoisesormarkson paper unless their referentscan be imagined.Unlesswe have a conce ptionofjustice. thewordis empty••• nothingmorethan a fewdecibels of soundmoving throughspace (p.203).
Eisnerinsists thatinorderforus to makemeaningwemust firstform images
•whetherthese arevisual, auditory,or relatedto someothersensory form, wordsare meaninglesswithoutthem.Furthermore,conceptsformedthrough sensory information can thenberecalled and manipulated through imagination. This aspect of thecognitive process, writesEisner, is private.
Theimagination,however,providesthe springboardforexpression.thatis, the'formof representation"which externalizesthoughtin ordertomake knownto self and otherswhat has been conceptualized.
Arnheim(1982) exploresa concept whic hherefers to as ''visual thinking".Heargues that all problem-solvingtakes placeinperceptual imagery, or in otherwords,visualimagery.Arnheimpointsoutthatfacts arc
42 meaningless as long as they are observed in isolation but thai"productive"
thinkinginvolves understanding structure or"relations".Truly perceiving, in Arnheim's view, means graspingrelations, how things relate\0 one another, in what ways they belong together, and in what manner they are unique and separate. He furtherargues that such questions arc the essence for understandingin anyfield of knowledge. and for any kindof problem-solving.
He insists thatthe artsarethe "trainingground par excellence" forimagery, for the learning of visualrelations.
Traditionally,the notionof"basic education" hasdenoted a systemthat focuseshighattention on the basic skillsof the thre eRs -reading, writing and mathematics, and upon the measured performanceof the student in these areas. Howe ve r, the re arethose who would seriouslyargue that basic education entails much more than what is suggested by thisdefinition.Adler (1982) writes in The PaideiaProposal:
[There]are threebasic areas ofsubject matter indispensibleto basic schooling •language.lite rature, andthe fine arts;
mathematics andthe naturalsciences; history,geography,and social studies. Why these three? They comprise the most fundamental branches of learning. No one can claim to be educated who is not reasonably well acquaintedwith all three.
Adler cites three educationalobjectives as essentialin theprocessof basic schooling: personal growth,citizenship,and earning a living. Adle r
43 insiststhat all of these apply to all students without exception. Furthermore.
he insiststhat tofa il to provide for these in school curriculumis a violation of basicdemocratic principles. Referring tosuch failure as"abo mi nable discrimination"(p.12)andcriticizinganysystem which would offerdifferent
goalsfor differentgroups of children, Adler calls for educationthat is both
"liberal and general"(p.19).
Broudy(as cited in Smithand Simpson,eds. 1991) refers 10 what he describesas the"ca valier attitude"of someeducationalphilosopherswhoview arts experiencesas a"desirable nonessential"ofcurriculum. Broudy provides justificationforarts inscho olcurriculumbyexploring the questionof howwe may considerthe artstobe basicto thecurriculum.Broudysuggeststhat arts educationis basicin a foundational sensein thatit influencesperceptionand understandingof life withits variousroles and rituals,withits infinite possibilities;thatthe arts, fundamental in the cultivationofthe imagination.
arean importantaspect of learning.
Elliot (as cited inSmithand Simpson,eds.1991) discussesthe notion of imaginationandcreativityasimportantcomponents oflearning.He speaks oftwoconceptsof creativitywhich he refers toasthe traditionalnnd the new.
He pointsout that whilenormalscience isno t regarded as creative.
revolutionaryscientistssuch asNewton, Darwin,and Einsteinareregardedas
"
creativeto an exceptionallyhighdegree. Thesescientists.throughgreat Insightandescepttonelcreativityre st ructuredtheworld.Elliotarguesthat the traditionalconceptofcreativityhasbeen10thinkof"creatio n",in connectionwiththework.fo r example,of actors, artis ts.film producers,and fashiondesignerswho produce objectsfor admirationrat herthan forpractical use. Traditionally.assertsElliol,the percep tionof creativityrests withthe concept of "artist"rather th a nschola r orscientist,
Anewconcep tofcreativity, inElliot's view,hascomeintoprom inence in thefirsttwodecadesafte rWorld WarII.Thiswasa limewhen spa ceand nuclearreseerehpro videdcountlesstheoreticalandtechnicalproblems which demandedcreative andimaginativesolutions.Elliotcitestwomain versions
ofthenewconceptwhichare closely relate d:ifaproblemis definedas a situationinwhichnoade quateresponse is availab lein te rmsofexisting knowledge. thencreativityisthemeansbywhichtheproblemis10besolved;
creativityis identifiedwith producing novel ideasand thesolutionswhichgrow OUIofthem.Thisconceptof creat ivity,suggests Elliot,embodiesthenotion thatallcr e ativityiscreativethinking(pp.61-66).
In expoundinga theoryof multiple Intellige nces,Gardner (1983), argues that theartsare aunique"way ofknowing". In his book,Framesof Mind,Gardnerprovidesanargumentfor theedstenceofwhatherefersto
45 as "multiple human intelligences",He proposes that thereexists a number of autonomousintellectual competencieswhich include namely: linguistic intelligence,musical intelligence,logical-ma thematical intelligence,spacial inte lligen ce. bodily-kinestheticintelligence, and two other formswhichfall intothe category of whathe callspersonalintelligence (p.126). Gardner portrays the arts as a matter of mind,as mentalactivitiesinvolving the use of symbo lsytems. He suggeststhat artisticper ception and produc tionaTCcentral to humancognition.
The Arts andCulture
According10Langer (1958) everyculturedevelopsart as surelyasit develops language.Imagination. inherview,is"the commonsourceofdream, reason.religion. and all true observation",Langercontends that art presents
"intangibleforms"to the imagination.
She posits thatlearning intheartsis a uniqueorder orexperience whichprovidessymbolsystemsthatare as crucial tothe child's development as those of theverbalorthe mathematical;that studentslearn. throughthe study of music andart, tounderstand. use andcreatenew symbol systems. Langerdescribesthe artsasexpressive of not actual,butvirtual space, time, movementandlife; as symbolicexpressionof feeliug;as educationof the
46 emotionsandpereepuors, Langer arguesthat theamarea unique "wayof knowing"about the world.She claimsthatsuch knowledgeisessent ial to the qualityofindividuals producedbysociety.
Rose (1990)writes that culture is the expressionof human consciousness. and thatnocultureisknowntohave existed withoutthe arts insome form.She pointsoutthat:
Culture is shapedand producedbypeople.(Ineffect],people are bothreceivers andmakers of culture.... The arts,asalived expression DCculture.keepusCOnsCIOUSofour culture and who wearc. They helpustolocale ourselveswithinacommon culturalherbage•.•encourageus tocelebrate our diversities...
{they are]ameans of_experiencinga common langu age and a commonexpression.
Rose depicts the arts asproviding opportunities Corsocialandcultural interaction.formationof cultural identity,and for theongoingproductionof culture.Oneof the goals of arts education,positsRose,istofoster panicipation in"artand culture in-the-making".
Reimer (1989),in his explanationofthe purposeformusiceducation intheschool.referstothefulfillmentof-societal needs".Hewrites.... allof us... aresocialcreatureswhoneedto celebrate theongoing ritualsthathelp to mold us intoa societyand many ofthose rituals are unthinkablewithout music",Reimer, on theother hand, makesthepointthat identificationwith functionsof a non-curricularnature maypartly account for theexistence of
47 a negativeview ofmusic programs- that they are not essential in termsof basiccurriculum.
Reimer (1970)argues,however, thatthe artsencompass a basic way of knowing about reality:
Whyshould everyperson be given the opportunity to unde rstandthe natureof mathematics? ,..the nature of language?...of physics.of chemistry.of geography,of history?
Because all of these arebasic ways forhuman beings to understandthe natureofthe real.... those concerned with the arts in educationcan ask the same questionand givethe same answer ...•the value of musiceducation[maybe considere das]
at thesame levelasthe value of all importanteducation...
(p.9)
Another aspect ofsocial growth is discussed byHarris (1986). She refers to the developmentof the student'ssense ofsocial responsibility throughmusiceducation. Whileshe speaks of choral and instrumental performanceas"establishedvenuesforsocialand musicalcooperation",Harris discussesthethen currentrevisionof the totalprimarycurriculumpointing 10 significantchangesin.for example.the expandedroleof movement,classroom performancesofsmall groups,andthe implementationof folkdance at all levelsincludingKindergarten.Harrispointsout that "The.newer methodsof teaching [music] demandconstant socialinteractionandthe corresponding developmentof socialresponsibility",Anothercontributionto socialgrowth
48 madeby the music program, notes Harris,isthe emphasisplacedon folk culture ,"... their own rich heritage of folksong andtraditionalmusic".
The Arts inEducation
Ken Robinson,a keyspeaker atTheArtsworkConference. an internationalconferenceon artseducation held inToronto in February 1991, as wellas at theConference on BalancedCurriculumandStudentRetentio n held in Ganderin March1993, provideda broad perspectiveof artsand education in the western world.Robinson positstheexistence ofthreemajor preoccupations in the public debate abouteducationin Britainover the past decade .
Firstly,Robinsonpoints to theeconomic recession which has created pressure to reduce spendingin educationas well as inotherareas,andthus a focus onwhatis considered to be the"esse ntials". Secondly,Robinso n discussesthe persistentpressureforschoolsto concentrate on what is perceivedas"basic" skills ineducation.inmathematicsandinliter acy.
Thirdly,hecontends thata persistentpublic emphasison science and techno logy"militatesagainst the effectiveimple mentationof a comprehensive arts program and isbasedonarestrictive view ofscience,technology andthe arts-(p.3).
49 Robinson points outthat thesethreeconcern sledto theintrod uction in1988 of theEducation ReformAct in EnglandandWales,and to the formulationof the firstNationalCurriculum forschools. The English National Curriculumis basedon10subjects:3 core suojects• English,math andscience;and7foundation subjectsvgeography, history,technology,a modern foreign language,physicaleducation,art and music. Robinson describes theaimsof theNatioi.~:Curriculum:
to promotethe spiritual,moral,cultural,mentaland physical developmentofpupils;
to preparepupilsforthe opportunities,responsibilitiesand experiencesof adultlife.
Robinsonargues that the artshave keyrolesto playinrealizingthese aims.
His argument,that thearts fulfillarangeof complex andrelated roles in education,canbe brieflysummarizedas havingfour main propositions . Firstly,he notes that educationsystemsnow face unprecedent edsocialand economic challengesand urgently neednew forms of curricula.Secondly,he points outthat theartshavea major role to playin meetingthesenew challenges. Thirdly,he posits that provision for the artsineducationis
"profoundlyinadequate".Lastly,Robinson contendsthat tolimit the roleof artsincurriculumis counterproduc tive,both in terms oftheam themselves andinterms of the qualityof educationprovided 10 students (pA).
50 In Robinson'sview,so me educators viewthe artsas lessimportantand hence more"dispensa ble" than otherareas ofschool curriculum.While he admits that some of the difficultiesin artseducation arise from lack of resources,he argues thatthis is notthe mostsignifican t issue.Hecontends thatinschool systemswhere therole ofartsis "properlyunderstood"
resourcescan be found and provision for thearts in curriculum is given genuine consideration. Robinson positsthat the most significantproblem facingtbe am inschoolsis'tdeologlai"•unquestionedassumptionsabout educationin generaland the arts in particular".
Artsand PersonalDevelopment
The notionthatthe arts playapositive role in guidingchildrentowards self-knowledgeand personalgrowthis articulatedby manywriters.
Dobbinrecentlydiscussedthe issueofpersonalgrowth....a"matter of curriculum"in Prism(Spring1994).Shearguesthateducation is aproces.s of becoming,a processwhichshe describesas"personal"inthat it affectsall of the individual's relationshipswith self,withothers andwiththe world. Dobbin depicts thearts as an essentialcomponentin the developmentofthe total human person.Shesuggeststhat school curriculummustpromotetotal growth, total wellness,notjust excellencein certainsubjects.
